n chip need not be removed irorn the circuit board However, because the information is stored as thange

The
ot erasing or programming. Als A is possible to on a capacitor, the dynamic RAM requires refresh once
fo
the stored
program (oad) even a single location. ROM is random every few milli seconds inorder to retain

access. informaton

1Cs are :
RAM Ine kead/Write memory is known as RAM tSome DHAM
is Random Access Memory. It has the facility to read Toshiba 41256Equivalent to Hitachi 50256
the contents of any memory location as well as to write
Toshiba 511000
fresh data in any memory location. But RAM is volatile
in nature, which means that the contenis are changed
once the power supply is switched off. There are MICROWAVES

basically two types of RAMS. waves.

"microwaves" means very short
The word
1. Static RAM (SRAM) Microwave region is the shortest wave length region
the EM
which is a part of
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) of the radio spectrum,
has been set arbiBarily
spectrum Microwave region
lis lower
1 SRAM
between 300 mega Hz and 300,000 mega Hz.
region,
edge actually, overlaps the infrared
information is stored in flip- important
In Stafic RAM, binary Microwaves are becoming more and more

bit for each flip-flop. A large number of | in many other

lops, one
n communicafions, radar, television and
have the following two distinct
matric
in the form of a
llip-1lops are arranged fields, because they
One
of rows and columns). signals.
(comprising of number advantages overthe low frequency
has a capacity of 1KH
of the earlier versions of SRAM is the increased band width.
to A) and four data pins. (i) The first advantage
It has 10 Address lines (A Consider the microwave region
extending from
from 30,000 MHz to
,to D =lcm to l=10cm i.e.
has a
3,000 MHz. (1MHz=10H2). This region
Some SRAM 1C's are
this region is used
band width of 27,000 MH2. H
MHz for each
6264 for communication and it we allot 6
6116
|A0 O, station in TV) we can have 4,500 different
(as
8Kx8 Since sound
2Kx8
A VO- microwave broad castings stations.
A /0 band width of only 4KHz,
CE OËWE transmission reqires a
CE OE WE a large number of
channels
each station can use

for sound transmission

61
microwave is their ability
(i) The second advantage of
2. DRAM EM wave
much smaller cell than static
to use high gain directive antennas. Any
A dynamic RAM chip has a can be focused in a specified direction by making
RAM. One bit of information is stored as change on a
wide.
the radiating antennas several wave lengths

capacitor. A dynamic RAM can store about four times microwaves is in the
Since the wave length of
stalic RAM in the same area
make high
order of centimeter, it is possible to
as much information as a

This leads to lower cost

due to smaller cell structure.
gain directive antennas
. per bit for dynamic RAMS.
TRB-PG-PHYSICS

Wase. Lewa wal C

antenAA
dirucbie
h i a w e
hug gaih
 ,
Dath to reach the anode. H the magnetic lield stro.
Generationof Microwavs
is gradually increased the curvature of the elo.
stren
i) The Magnetron scillator beam decreases. At
electro
itical value of thernagnetic field,
The Magnetron Oscillator was the first high power the electrons would describe arcs which would just (gtaze
microwave oscillator. It is sirnply a vacuum tube with the anode block and bend back to the cathode. At a
two elements, a cathode and an anode.
still higher value of the magnetic field the electro
ne Anode is a hollow cylindrical block, The caihcde wOuld spiral in the interaction space. In the rnagnetron

S d rOa heated along the axis of the anode. The snaco oscillator the magnetic field 15 maintained at a value
between the anode_and the cathode is called the slightly greater than the citical tield.

"interaction space". The anode has several cavities that| Working

open into the interaction space of cut away view of
the magnetron oscillation is shown in the When the HT is switched on oscillation of transient
figure.
nature are induced in thecavities. Now these oscillations
Reasonant are maintained in the cavities by re entrant feedback
Cavity which resuts in the production of microwaves. Re

Interaction
entrant feedback take place as a
result of interaction
space of electrons with the electric field ofthe RE ascillations
Output existing in the cavities
coupling
Dueto the oscillations in the cavities, the plates of the
condenser become alternately positive and negalive.
Cathode
Hence the directions of the electric field across the slot
Anode are always at opposite_polaily. As an electron moves
out from the Cathode it gathers energy. At aný instant,
if that part of the anode close to the spirall1ng electrons
Each cavity in the anode acts as an inductor having goes positive. the electron gets retarded. This is
only one turn. The slot connecting the cavity and the because the electron has to move in the RF field,
interaction space acts as a capacitor. There two| existing close to the slot, from positive side to negative
elements togethr form a parallel resonant cicuit and its side of the slot. In this process the electron loses energy
resonant frequency depends on the vakie of L of the | and transfers an equal amount of energy to the RF
cavity and the C of the slot. Thefrequency of the | field which retards the spiralling electron. Now the
microwave, generated by the magnetron oscillator electron returns toa smaller orbit momentanly but the
depends on the frequency of the RF oscillations anode puls it bauk to thepreviuus orbit. On its returr
existing in the resonant cavitieis. to the previous orbit the electron may reach the
adjacent sections or aSection father away and transfex
Ahigh DC potentialcan be applied betweenthe anode !energy to the RF field if that part of the anode çoes
andthe cathode. Also a high magnetic field can be
positive at that instant. These give rise to different
applied externally so that its flux lines pass parallelto
modes of operation of the magnetron and these modes
the axis of thecylindrical anode. In the absence of the
magnetic field the electrons leave the cathode and Corresponds to the generation of different microwave

proceed radiallyto theanode. However if the magnetic irequencies. The output power is withdrawn by means
field is also applied, the electron describe a circularo a couping Ioop

TRR-PG-PHYSICSS
 Mer u Ire
Klustron andit the second
is negative with espect t
is
essentialiy a
vacuum fube with the_Lir
qun at one end and electron the an are electrons slowed down. If the electrons iàre
an anode
the other end. The electron collector at speeded up they continue to iravel with the sain e
or

electron gun is an assemly of

heater, velocity
in the drift
caihode and space. Hence they may overteae
the
focusing electrodes. The iransit time the slower ones. Thus bunches of electrons are fomed
elect0n (i.e. the time taken
of
t sone
by the elecron to point At coOC
bunching reetu Doint this bunching reaches a maximun anei
the space between travel
the electrodes) is used to is said to be conplete. Now the electron bearn consists
velocity modulation on produce ofinches
bunches of electrons
stream of a
electrons electrons separated
separated by regions in which
by Teg
obtain a
transfer of energy from the and tothere there are few electrons.
elecirons. This is called velocity
are
electron stream to an RF field. This modulated modulation of the
electron beam.
results in the
anpicaion the RF signal. By supplying externalA second
of
eed back t can be used as an pair of closely spaced grids called catcher
is a of
osciilator. Thus Klystron grids is placed at the point of complete buncning. f s
type velocity modulated tube. these buncher of electrons pass through the catcher
Velocity Modulation (CFrodue y oo grids, a voltage appears acros the grids, which is

eua) proportional to the number of electron_ in the bunch

ne method of producing using velocity
and But the number of electrons in-
modulation
the velocity modulate d
can be explained using the figure. stream varies at the RF rate and hence the voltage
induced at the catcher grids also varies at the same RF
Anode
catcher grid is placed exactly at the place
rate. Since the
of complete bunching, the RF voltage induced at the
catcher grids is nearly 1000 times the RF voltage at
the buncher grids. Thus the amplification is of theorder
Catcher grids of 1000. This amplifier can be used as an oscillator by
Drift space supplying external feedback. However this device
-Buncher grids can
produce only low frequency. To generate microwave
frequencies the buncher and the catcher grids are made
part of the resonant cavities,
- Focusing plate
The Traveling-Wave Tube
Cathode
The travelling wave tube is an amplifier that makes
heater
use of a distributed interaction between anelectron
beam and
a travelling wave. It is
particularly suitable
The electron beam from the electron gun travels
towarcds the anode. Two pairs foramplification of very high frequencies such as 3000
o! closely Spaced grias MC and higher.
called the "buncher" and
"catcher" are placed
on the

path of the electron beam as shown in the figure. As The electron gun produces a pencil like beam of
the grids are closely spaceé, the transit time of the electrons. This beam is shot through a long loosely
electr on between the buncher grids, then those wound helix, and is collected by an electrode at ancde
elecir ons caught between the grids are either | potential as shown

acceleraled or retarded depending on the

polarity of Input Output
the RP feld at that instant. lf the second
grid in positive
Ith respect to the first the electrons are
speeded up, Colector
Heater Axde Cathode Alternator

d d tVeft en Specdud u
85 TRB-PG-PHYSICS
 Electric (or) TE modes
The signal to be amplified is applied to one end of the | Transverse (al
helix adjacent to the clectron gun under appropriate s01netimes called H modes)
operating conditions an amplfied signal then appears In the othertype the magnetic field being everywhere
e
at the other end of the helix. Simple coaxial
input and transverse to the guide axis while af some places tho

output couplings are provided to the tube. electric field has components in the axial direction
Modes of this type are temed as transverse magnetic
Working9
The applied signal propagates around the turns ofthe or TM modes (also sometimes called E modes) waves

travelling alonga guide have a phase velocity and are

heix and produces an electric field atthe centreofthe | attenuated. When a wave reaches ther end of a guide
helix that is directed along the helix axis when the
velocity of the electrons traveling through the helix it is reflected unless the ioad impedance is carefully
approximates the rate of advance of the axial field, an adjusted to absorb the wave, also an irregularity_in a

interaction takes place between this moving axial waveguide produces reilection_ just as does an
electricfield andthe moving electrons,which isofsuch irregularity in transmission line, When both inciden
a

a character that on the average the electrons deliver and reflected waves are simultaneously present
in a
energy to the wave on the helix, This cause the signal
become larger the output ernd Waveguide, the result is a standing-wave pattern that
wave on the helix to as
can be characterized by defining a standingwave ratio.
of the helix is approched i.e. amplification is then
obtained. Analysis shows that the amplitude of the Rectangular wave guides
resultant wave traveling down the helix increases
type used of wave guide has a
Thetofalinterchange of energybetween The most frequently
Cxponentially.
sectioi:. In such a guide the prefeTed
the electrons and the helix wave is such ihat large. rectangular cross
amounts of power ap1plitication can be achieved, mode of operation is the dominant mode.
typically trom 20 to 40 db in a single tube. Non conductng unteIior

Top K9 2
Wave Guides
Conduding
A conducting tube used to transmit
hollow wall

electromagnetic waves is iermed a waveguide.

Atultra- Side View

high and microwave irequencies, yuides provide

wave

transmission lines for the

a practical alternalive to Electric lheld

fransmissionof eiectrical energy. Magnetic held

and
of a wave guide are perfect conductors
<-
The walls
of electricfield at
End viaw

therefore no tangenlial component

- can be
Many different field configurations Dominant mode in a
the walls. Each such
Field configuration of the
requirements.
found that meet these Rectangular wave guide
mode.
configuration is termed a
cut off value the electric
At wavelengths less than the
of the various modes thal can
the dominant mode
A critical examination and magnetic fields representing
to
exist in a waveguide
reveals that they a belong wave guide have the character
in a rectangular
of two fundamental types. electric field is
one or the other illustrated in the figure. Here the
between the
axis and extends
transverse transverse to the quide
Inone type, theelectic 1ield is everywhere closest together, i.e.
between the
and has no component two walls that are

to the axis of the guide, the intensity of this electric

field is
the guide axis, The
anywhere in the direction of
and bottom.
top os
howéver have a of the guide and drops
associated magnetic field does, the center
at maximum

axis. Modes ofthis intensity at the edges.

The magnetic
Component in the direction of the sinusoidally to
zero

type are termed. TRB-PG-PHYSICS

.
 i s in the form of loops which lie in
planes that ere Guide wavelength
af right angies O ne electric ield i.e. planes paralle! to The axial length Ag coresponding to one
the top and bottom ot the guide. The
magnetic field is variation of the field configuration in the axial direction
the same in all of these planes
irrespective of the is termed as the guide wave S ag).
1position of the plane along the y axis.
(2)
wave Ength 1g
=
Gude
The field configuration travels along the wave guide
(in the Z direction in figure). As it travels a distance
axis
down the guide, the
amplitude will be reduced by a - free space wave length
the factor e as a result of energy losses in the walls of
Ac - cut off wave length
the guide and the wave will drop back in phase pl
radians where a and
termed the attenuation
ß are Phase constant
also represents the distance
constant and phase constant respectively. The guide w a v e length Ag
the guide when undergoing
that a w a v e travels down
constant
shift of 21 radians. B is the phase
The equations giving the fields at frequencies above
a phase travelled by
cut off for the dominant mode in a rectangular wave shift per unit distance
representing phase
guide filled with air are as follows. the wave.

E, E, =

B, - 0

wa
E, = Asinsin(wt -Bz)

TIX (3)
B, = -Acoscos(wt -B2) or - y

B,-E, W
where c is the velocity of light.
the wave travels in
The quantity v,=f2, is the distance
Where E electric field intensity volts/cm the dimensions of
(i.e. one second) and has.
f cycles
= Magnetic frield intensity it is related to the
B velocity. Termed the phase velocity,
w2 frequency velocity of light C by the equation.
time
arbitrary constant amplitude phasevelocity - .. 4)
A velocity of light

Cut off wavelength

in rectangular wave guide the It is seen from eqn. (4) that the velocity of phase
For the dominant mode
exactly twice the width a of the exceeds the velocity of light. In
cut off wavelength is propagation always
is lowered so that it
guide. particular as the frequency
approaches the cut off value, the phase velocity
Cut off wave length based on free space conditions
at cut off.
= Ac = 2a increases and becomes infinite

Circular guides
length is greater than Ac then |
wave
tthe free space wave

with distance down the | It might be though that wave guides with circular cross
the waves repidly
attenuate
sections would be preferred to guides with rectangular
guide, instead of propagating freely.

TRB-P6-PHYSICS
 where r is the guide radius and m is a constaant
commonly used
pipes are
mode. The TE. i
Cross seciion,

for carrying water

just as circular

and fluids in preference

to | depends on the order of the
cut Of! wave
TECircula
length, and
have mode has the longest is
However, circular w a v e guides
rectangular pipes. the dominar.t
circular node. The next
accordingly
a very narrow range
disadvantages that there is only circular mode is the IM,
mode for which thoe
the anode higher
between the cut off wave length of
the dominant the
wave length is
0.76 times that of
of
dominant
mode. cut
and the cut off wave length of the next higher
over which pure mode mode.
Thus the frequency range
imited. Circular wave in a circular guide is greater
operation is assured relatively The guide wavelengih Ag
circumstances, for in free space just as the in t
guides are used only under special than the wave length A
introduce rotating of phase propagatio.
rectangular guide. The velocity
a
example where it is necessary to
joint into a wave guide system.
is times the velocity of light in all cases.

down a circular guide is allenualed

A wave travelling
as a result of power dissipated in the walls by the

exactly as in the case of a

induced wall currents,

rectangular guide
Impedance Relations in wave guides

There are several diiferent ways in which a

Characteristic impedance' can be delined for a wave

atl each of these definition gives a different
.2
guide,
numerical result. The wave guide impedance for a
C
IINIIIITTIIIIIIIIIIIITIIL given guide will be a function of frequency iTespective
of how defined
.OOO;:
o OOo o The impedance associated with a wave guide is defined
O0 as the ratio of the transverse conponents of the electric
to magnetic field strength. This is termed the wave
LINITLIIIITITTTZIIIITTTTL impedance, for a guide with air dielectric it is given by
D TEII wave
the formulas.
As with rectangular guides, these modes may be
For TM waves
classified as transverse electric (TE) or transverse
Wave impedance = 377ohms
to whether it is the eiectric (6)
magnetic (TM) according
o r magnetic lines of iorce that lie in planes For TM waves

perpendicular to the axis of the guide.

Wave impedance 377=
ohms (7)
The wave length corresponding to cut oif tor a

particular mode in à
circuler guide is proportional to lere and , are the iree-space and guide wave

fhe dianeter of the wave guide, with the exact | lengths, respectively.
relationship being given by the equation. Impedance Matching in wave guides

2nr Reflected waves are generally to be avoided in wave

cut off wave length hc= . (5) this result in
guides one method of achieving a wave

TRB- PG-PHYSICS
 O
guide s
dtange matters So that the load
impedance The phase of the field at distence d is (1eternCa
that is used will completely absorb the
t
o
incident fields he phase of the current I in the doublet retarded by
exactuy as they armve, so ihat there is nothing left cover the titne it takes the wave to each p when ravenng

to be reflected. seconds due

with the velocity of light. This lag of d/c
to relardaiion can be expressed
Antennas
d
ine system of conductors elevated into space which | Phase lag in radians (9)
ZT
matches the transrnitter or the receiver to
space is called
radio w a v e
antenna or aerial. The intensity B of the magnetic field of the
e of the
is everywhere proportional to the strength
Characteristics uf Aniennas is
electric field. The relation between the two
When a wire eievated into open space carries high & = 300B (10)
irequency cuments Em waves are radiated into space.|
is in volts
Here B is lines per square centimeter and
e
The simplest radiator or antenna iselectric dipole.
an

t consists of a linear conductor whose length dl is per centimeter.

short compared to the wave ilength a of the wave. wire
The distribution of the radiation about a resonant
This dipole has large capacitance and so the curent depends upon the length of the wire. The relafive field

throughout its length is assumed to have the same

function of direction for a number of
strength as a

value I. Tepresentative cases figure. These patterns

shown in
can be regarded as cross sections of figures
of revolution
Slort dipole radiation field
about an axis coinciding the wire. The directional
The strength r of the field radiated from such an characteristic is seen to consist of a number of lobes,
elementary antenna in volts per unit length by a curent the lergest of which is the one making the snallest angle
I cos(wt+90) is given by the fornula. with respect to the wire axis.

-60T1l cose coswt- .(8)

= /2 I= 3/2
where d is the distance from thedoubled to a distant

observing point P and 0 is the direction of p

with
of the
respect to a plane perpendicular to the axis
doublet while c is the velocity of light.
X
The strength of the radiated field is distributed in space
A/2 I = 32

accordancewith the doughnut pattern with a figure

of eight cross section. Polar diagram showing strength of field radiated in
various directions from antenna consisting of resonant
P wires remote from ground.

Directive Gain of Antennas

An antenna concentrates its radiated energy tr s reater
Dipole Cross section or lesser extent in certain poreferred directions. The
Directional pettern
extent of such concentration relative to that of sorme
 1adiated trom an antenna
gain is defined
The total power syslem C
imagining that the
the directive anten-
temned enna at tbe
standard antenna determined by
| be
that must be
radiated
guantiatively as the ratio of power
center of a vey large
hich energ
sphere. The rate at which
strength in the diiection of to
antenna maximum particularfield |
develop radiation to the passes t.irough each square ineter ot surface of siucl
a
netera
by the cornpaiison such
density per cubic meto
is the average energy
directional antenna sphere
power that must
be radiated by the the surtace of the sphere multiplied by
hi.
of volume at
system to obtain the samestrength in the s a m e
field w a v e is travelling, i.e. the
with which the
comparison the velocity
direction. Unless otherwise specified the As a conseqerice the power passing
antenna is an isotropic radiator.
velocity of light.
meter of such as spherical surface
through each square
of
also be defined as the ratio in root mean
The directive gain can
is90 watts, where & is theield strength
The power intensity that is radiated in the preferred
meter.
the radialon power intensity averaged over square volts per
direction to

all directions. From eqn. (8)

The directive gain can be expressed either as a power

atio or interms of the equivalent number of decibels. r cos 6 cosu

Radiation Resistance
cube is
The capacitance of 1-m
radiated from a
The relation between the total energy
the current flowing in the c-nO
and
C-0.9)x10-10 uf
transmiting antenna

be conveniently expressed in terms of

a
ontenna can

radiation resistance. This is the resistance that when The average energy stored in C by the electrostatic

inserted in series with the antenna,

will c o n s u m e the and this is half of the total
field of the wave is C
as is actually radiated.
The transverses an area
same amounl of power' energy. The rale at which energy
resislance depends upon
magnitude of the radiation of 1 sq.m. is hence
the antenna configuration and upon the
point in the
resistance is considered
system at which the
antenna

as being inserted. Unless specifically

resistance
slaled to the (110-103x10°E
0.9x4
ox3x 1207 10°e =
... (11)

to refer the radiaBion

contrary it is customary
then
in ihe case of an ungrounded The total power radiated fÍrom the antenna is
to, a cuent maxinum
antenna, and to the current
the base of the àntenna
at found by summation over the portion of the spherical
when the antenna is grounded. surface that is above ground. The effect of the carth is
taken into account through the contribution to the field
Calculaton of Radiated power
and Radiation
made by an appropriate illage antenna. The radiaticn
Resistance divided by
resistance is then this total radiated power
in e
the square of the antenna curent at the point
antenna to which the resistance is referred.

do details involved in canying out a deternination

.The
which is celled the
of radiated power in this way,
understood by
vector nethod, can be
DOUBLET poynting
from
the case of a doublet antenna remote
analysing
figure and
involved is shown in
ground. The geometry
 thefield strengthtadiated is given by cqn. (8)
Itwil
will
Stem be assumed
diection) The
that of axIS

area
of
dA of
the doublet iIs vertical ( Total
radiated power07
any ring the spherical
in
suface of elevation and with
dq formed by revolving
ebout the verticàl axis 2 is (14)

A2nrcosexrcd0 Dividing by I gives the radiation 1esistance, whiCh is

(12)
where t 15 radius of the
sphere (i.e. distance io the Radiation resistance or
antenna. Ihe rafe at which 281 . (15)
enerqy is tadiated through doublet antenna
this area is ihen fron
equation (8). The radiation resistance of other types of antennas is
obtained by following exactly the same procedure as
Power dA
1207 employed for the doublet antenna; the only difference
is in the mathematical expression that is substituted in
60(81IY cos 2Tr cos erdo
2

120 eqn. 120 dA for the field strength e. However in most

cases, the integration over the spherical surface is quite

607|61cos' Ode
difficult mathematically, and numerical or graphical
Power .(13)
integration must often be resorted to.

The totai power over the enfire spherical surface is | For half wave antenna remote from earth the radiation
resistance is found to be 73.13 ohm.
hence,
A a tioncu Antehnet
I h o E-N
ra m e n e Cnver b eetrikal we
mtter m e s l e n ta
fyans

anpeelan a n b e o r t c a f eng
Revina Conert M
Arenna
rmpedanu.
Mat k Reever fmpedanm w} tspoca

phenom ena arna an a

aabmtHinp is well as
eCopFon
Khosn a cenna e Cpro , Awitcn

e oTho Durposv Cll-ec) oluplener

n e h na
wmda vdder
"inetel Tod wha ejtt
LoLallec O e t z or) Holf rare and-ehrq
w, atdrce Spa