Zoology and Ecology

ISSN: 2165-8005 (Print) 2165-8013 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tzec20

Frequency of abnormalities in wildlife species: is

there a relation with their ecology?

Christos Sokos, Nikos Kollaris, Konstantinos G. Papaspyropoulos,

Konstantinos Poirazidis & Periklis Birtsas

To cite this article: Christos Sokos, Nikos Kollaris, Konstantinos G. Papaspyropoulos,

Konstantinos Poirazidis & Periklis Birtsas (2018): Frequency of abnormalities in wildlife species: is
there a relation with their ecology?, Zoology and Ecology, DOI: 10.1080/21658005.2018.1537905

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/21658005.2018.1537905

Published online: 29 Oct 2018.

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 ZOOLOGY AND ECOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/21658005.2018.1537905

Frequency of abnormalities in wildlife species: is there a relation with their

ecology?
Christos Sokosa, Nikos Kollarisb, Konstantinos G. Papaspyropoulosb, Konstantinos Poirazidisc
and Periklis Birtsasb,d
a
Department of Wildlife and Hunting Management, Ministry of Environment and Energy, Athens, Greece; bResearch Division, Hunting
Federation of Macedonia and Thrace, Thessaloniki, Greece; cLaboratory of Environmental Management and Ecology, Department of
Environmental Technology, Technological Education Institute of Ionian Islands, Zakinthos, Greece; dWildlife Laboratory, Department of
Forestry and Management of Natural Environment, Technological Education Institute of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

One phenomenon that could generate interest of the public and puzzle scientists is mor- Received 17 May 2018
phological abnormalities appearing in wildlife species. Morphological abnormalities in wild Accepted 16 October 2018
animals have been recorded in Hellas (Greece) and Cyprus over the last 83 years. A total of 61 KEYWORDS
cases were recorded, 47 of which (77%) are color abnormalities and 14 (23%) represent other Albinism; leucism; melanism;
abnormalities. Among hunted species, abnormalities are more frequently observed in reared malformation; deformity;
and released wild galliforms, in species that live in small and isolated populations, and species gigantism
that live in low-sunlight conditions. The frequency of abnormalities identified in wildlife could
be a key factor in detecting mutations and thus contribute to the monitoring of environ-
mental impacts induced by pollution and other factors.

Introduction throughout the body yielding a pale color, which is

not entirely white. Xanthic animals, which produce
Occurrence frequency of various abnormalities in phe-
only a yellow pigment, can be included in this cate-
notypes of organisms is low (Sage 1963; Steen and
gory (Hiller 1983). 2) Partial leucism, wherein melanin
Sonerud 2012; Abreu et al. 2013). Such abnormalities
is absent from certain sections thereby creating white
include unnatural coloration and other morphological
patches (Jehl 1985; Berdeen and Otis 2011). Leucism is
anomalies. In this article, the term ‘color abnormal-
characterized by the maintenance of the eyes and feet
ities’ is referred to albinism, leucism, melanism and
color (Forrest and Naveen 2000).
other types of color anomalies (Sage 1963; Van Grouw
Melanism is the opposite of albinism and is caused
2006). Albinism is defined as a peculiarity of animal
by the excessive presence of melanin pigment. It is
color due to the total lack of melanin pigment in the
rarer than albinism, with individuals characterized by
skin, hair and feathers as a result of the inherited
dark color (Petersen and Williamson 1949; Sage 1963;
absence of tyrosinase (Hiller 1983; Van Grouw 2006).
Nedyalkov et al. 2014). Also, there is partial melanism,
The main distinctive feature of albino animals is pink
which is sometimes caused not genetically but by
eyes because without melanin in the body, it is the
such factors as disease, malnutrition or lack of expo-
only color that comes from blood vessels behind the
sure to sunlight (Van Grouw 2006). If the influence of
eyes (Sandoval-Castillo, Mariano-Melendez, and
these factors is stopped, normal color reappears (Sage
Villavicencio-Garayzar 2006; Rosenberg et al. 2013).
1963; Caro 2005; Van Grouw 2006).
Leucism (or partial albinism or piebaldism) is con-
Apart from color abnormalities, animals may exhi-
fused with albinism but it differs from it. Leucism is
bit various morphological anomalies such as skeletal,
caused by a recessive allele, which usually affects all
dental and abnormal bills (Pourlis 2007, 2011). An
colors, not only melanin (Owen and Shimmings 1992),
epizootic disease, referred to as an avian keratin dis-
while albinism is caused by several genes (Summers
order, has been documented in Black-capped
2009). In leucistic birds, the enzyme tyrosinase exists
Chickadees (Poecile atricapillus). On average, this dis-
and the production of melanin is normal. However,
ease affects 6.5% of the adult population every year,
the deposition of melanin in some feathers does not
causing bill elongation (Hemert and Handel 2010).
occur due to the inherited disturbance disorder. As a
Besides various diseases, causes of animal abnorm-
result, plumage turns more or less white (Van Grouw
alities include many other environmental factors.
2006). Leucism occurs in two major forms: 1) Pale
Animals living in caves or in areas usually covered
leucism, wherein melanin is uniformly reduced
with snow, often exhibit color abnormalities. Light is

CONTACT Christos Sokos chrsokos@gmail.com Department of Wildlife and Hunting Management, Ministry of Environment and Energy, Terma
Alkmanos, Ilisia, Athens 11528, Greece
© 2018 Nature Research Centre

Published online 29 Oct 2018

2 C. SOKOS ET AL.
necessary for the creation and activity of coloring
(Bensch et al. 2000). Black individuals of the jaguar
(Panthera onca) are more abundant in dark tropical
forests (Caro 2005). A low protein diet has also been
associated with whitened plumage in the Blackbird
Turdus merula (Rollin 1959). A specimen with leucism
more often occurs in small and isolated populations
(Holyoak 1978; Bensch et al. 2000; Łopucki and Mróz
2010). That may be anticipated, because in such con-
ditions the loss of genetic variability and homozygos-
ity are more likely and thus the appearance of
recessive alleles that cause abnormalities is favored
(Łopucki and Mróz 2010).
Ecologists consider albinism as a disadvantage for
wild animals for various reasons, the most obvious of
which is their higher visibility to predators (Simpson
1994; Ellegren et al. 1997; Sandoval-Castillo, Mariano-
Melendez, and Villavicencio-Garayzar 2006; Acevedo,
Aguayo-Lobo, and Torres 2009). However, in the opi-
nion of other researchers, survival of albinos does not
differ from that of non-albinos of cryptic or nocturnal
species and of those that have few predators (Abreu
et al. 2013). Buckley (1982) states that leucism may be
responsible for the white colors seen in polymorphic
species and also may be the reason for the creation of
white monomorphic species such as egrets.
Another disadvantage of wild animals with albin-
ism is their poor vision. The lack of pigment in the
eyes affects vision, making it difficult for animals to
find food or avoid danger (Miller 2005). Vision pro-
blems differ depending on wild animal species. Vision
is a sense of primary importance for raptors for
detecting and capturing prey; however, adult raptors
with albinism have been detected in the wild
(Harmata and Montopoli 1998; Tinajero and
Rodriguez-Estrella 2010), which leads to the conclu-
sion that birds or perhaps only raptors, may not suffer
from vision problems as other species with albinism
do. Finally, specimens with albinism are not so attrac-
tive for breeding or are treated as foreigners by their
conspecifics (Sage 1962; Van Grouw 2006).
Morphological deformities in wildlife are reported
rarely. According to Fertl et al. (2004), researchers
should be encouraged to report abnormalities in wild-
life in order to better understand this phenomenon
and its insights into the ecological factors behind this
condition. Bensch et al. (2000) suggests that monitor-
ing of abnormalities in large-scale geographic studies
may contribute to the identification of the popula-
tions exposed to stress or inbreeding. Therefore, in
order to better understand abnormalities in birds and
mammals, it is essential to know the kind and fre-
quency of these phenomena and the most suscepti-
ble species. Their systematic recording can be
extended to historical data, can be a reference for
future comparison and allow the identification of pro-
blems or phenomena causing an increasing frequency
of abnormalities. Thus the aims of this study are: 1) to
record abnormalities in wild animals, 2) to report
some anomalies for the first time in literature, 3) to
compare the frequency of abnormalities among the
hunted species taking into account the relative har-
vest, and 4) to identify the plausible reasons of a
higher frequency among these species in relation to
their ecology and management.
Materials and methods
Collection and registration of abnormality cases in
wild mammals and birds was carried out employing
the content analysis methodology (Riffe, Lacy, and
Fico 2008). Thus, hunting magazines in Hellas and
Cyprus, where the Hellenic language is used, were
investigated. Content analysis is a detailed scientific
method that allows the analyst to encode communi-
cation symbols of the test material and reach conclu-
sions about it (Riffe, Lacy, and Fico 2008). This method
has been used in particular for the investigation of
characteristics associated with the physical environ-
ment (Hovardas and Korfiatis 2008).
The method was applied as follows: Firstly, the data-
base of certain parameters making it possible to record
abnormality cases and their features was created. In addi-
tion, hunting magazines (‘Kynigetika Nea’, ‘Kynigesia and
Kynofilia’ and the newspaper ‘Kynigetikes Eidiseis’) issued
since the beginning of the last century and thus repre-
senting the oldest source of reports of animal abnormal-
ities in Hellas and Cyprus, were examined. The study
period covered a total of 83 years, from February 1932
to August 2015. A total of 1371 issues were reviewed.
Moreover, based on relevant keywords, internet searches
were conducted. The basic information to be entered in
the database included:
a) type of abnormality (albinism, leucism or other
type), b) relevant species, c) date and location of the
observation.
Furthermore, in some cases we communicated
with editors of the magazines and hunters for more
information about the observation.
Secondly, the incidence of abnormalities among
hunted species was examined, which was possible
due to hunters’ reports about the abnormalities they
have observed among their harvested quarries. Thus
the relative number of abnormalities in each quarry
species could be estimated. Consequently, this pro-
vided a unique chance to compare albinism among
species, which is not an easy task (Sage 1963). Thus,
firstly the percentage of harvested specimens per
species was estimated based on the harvest surveys
(Thomaides et al. 2011) and opinion of two experts
(first and fourth authors). Over the last decades, the
hunting legislation and, by analogy, the harvest rate
among animal species have not changed significantly,
so it was possible to compare the rate of specimens
 ZOOLOGY AND ECOLOGY 3

with abnormalities for each hunted species. Statistics number of reported abnormality cases has signifi-
were extracted using the IBM SPSS 22.0 software (Gray cantly increased. Moreover, after the study area divi-
and Kinnear 2012). sion into three almost equal parts (Figure 2(b)), the
majority of cases were reported from Central Hellas.

Results
A total of 61 specific cases were recorded (i.e. the
same case was not recorded in two different informa-
tion sources), nine of which were detected on the
Internet and 52 in journals. One or more photos are
available for 81% of cases. Table 1 shows abnormality
types and prevalence, while Figure 1 contains photos
of some abnormality cases.
As is seen in Table 1, 47 cases (77%) of the reported
abnormalities belong to color abnormalities and 14
cases (23%) to other abnormalities. Forty specimens
of color abnormalities represent albinism and leucism
(mainly leucism), 6 melanism, one specimen of color
abnormality being represented by a woodcock with
reddish plumage. About 44.2% of color abnormality
cases were recorded in the woodcock, the main
abnormalities being leucism and a short bill.
In the second stage of the study, we analyzed the
incidence of abnormalities. Proportionally, the great-
est number of color abnormalities was recorded in the
woodcock (50.94%), followed by that in the thrush,
turtle dove, hare and the chukar partridge. The most
harvested species was the thrush (50.43%), followed
by the quail and woodcock (Table 2). Taking into
account the reported abnormalities and harvest, the
higher abnormality rate was established in the phea-
sant, wild rabbit and the chukar partridge.
Figure 2(a) shows the historical distribution of
cases. Cases of abnormality are usually recorded in
the press immediately, with a relatively short delay.
The only exception is the case of the leucistic wood-
cock, which was found in Central Hellas in May 1890
and was reported in March issue of the magazine
Kynigetika Nea in 1933. Figure 2 includes only the
cases with the known year of abnormality detection
(50 cases). After 2000 and especially since 2005, the
Discussion
The majority of abnormalities that have been sur-
veyed in the present study refer to the cases that
were observed by hunters and other amateurs who
are not scientists, so it is likely that small deviations
from the normal phenotype were not recorded.
However, hunters tend to refer to abnormalities and,
in most cases, photos are available. Consequently,
hunters are an important source of information on
wildlife abnormalities, and they should be encour-
aged and informed about where to report these cases.
The majority of abnormalities were recorded in the
woodcock. Leucism and less frequently melanism in
the woodcock had been already reported by other
authors (Cramp, Simmons, and Perrins 1977–1994).
Low frequency of these abnormalities was recorded
in the study of Jasso (2006), which may be explained
by the fact that his information was obtained not
from hunters, but from museums. The case of one
woodcock with more reddish plumage may be a var-
iation in the tone of color and polymorphism in plu-
mage (Cramp, Simmons, and Perrins 1977–1994).
Moreover, woodcocks with short bills had been
already reported too (Cramp, Simmons, and Perrins
1977–1994). Similarly, there are reports on abnormal-
ities in other species such as partridges, thrushes and
hares (MacNamara 1940; Sage 1962, 1963; Jasso 2006;
Mihalache et al. 2014).
However, some abnormalities, as is evident from
the review of literature, are recorded for the first time.
Examples of such cases include the woodcock with a
2 cm crest on the head, which was recorded in central
Hellas in January 1970, and the melanistic turtle dove
(Figure 1(h)) found in September 2013 in north Hellas.
Moreover, a juvenile turtle dove with an abnormally

Table 1. Recorded abnormalities in wild birds and mammals (1932–2015) in Hellas and Cyprus.
Albinism and leucism Other abnormalities
Species Number Species Number
Woodcock Scolopax rusticola 12 Woodcock with short bill 12
Chukar partridge Alectoris chukar 5 Crested woodcock 1
Grey partridge Perdix perdix 3 Reddish woodcock 1
Rock partridge Alectoris graeca 3 Melanistic woodcock 1
Song thrush Turdus philomelos 3 Melanistic Cretan wild goat Capra aegagrus 1
Blackbird Turdus merula 3 Melanistic European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus 1
Turtle dove Streptopelia turtur 3 Melanistic European hare 2
Pheasant Phasianus colchicus 1 Melanistic Turtle dove Streptopelia turtur 1
Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos 1 Turtle dove twice the natural size 1
Barn swallow Hirundo rustica 1
European hare Lepus europaeus 3
Wolf Canis lupus 1
Wildboar Sus scrofa* 1
Total 40 Total 21
Note: * Possible genetic introgression of hybridization with domestic pigs (Šprem, Salajpal, and Safner 2014).
4 C. SOKOS ET AL.

Figure 2. Time (a) and geographical (b) distribution of

recorded abnormalities in Ηellas and Cyprus.

Figure 3. A juvenille turtle dove on the left with an abnor-

Figure 1. Cases of abnormalities in Ηellas and Cyprus. (a), (b)
Hare with albinism, (c) Hare with melanism, (d) woodcock
with a short bill, (e) rock partridge with leucism, (f) woodcock
with leucism, (g) golden eagle with leucism and (h) turtle
dove with melanism (photos from the journals Kynigetikes
Eidiseis and Kynigetika Nea).
big body size, which can be characterized as gigantic,
was recorded in north Hellas (Figure 3).
It is remarkable that in the most abundantly har-
vested species such as the European quail,
mally big body size. Turtle doves with a normal body size are
on the left (https://www.ihunt.gr/).
woodpigeon, and waterbirds, abnormalities were not
detected at all. However, except for the European
quail, specimens of these species have been found
with abnormalities (Sage 1962; Jasso 2006). Such spe-
cies as moorhens (Gallinula chloropus) and coots
(Fulica atra), skylarks, foxes, starlings, corvids are not
popular quarry species among Hellenic hunters, and

Table 2. Incidence of abnormality between the main wildlife species that were hunted in Hellas and Cyprus, taking into account
the percentage distribution of abnormalities and harvested individuals. Wild boar is not included due to the intensive
hybridization.
Species % individuals with abnormalities (1) % harvested individuals (2) incidence of abnormality (1)/(2)
Thrushes Turdus spp. 11.32 50.43 0.22
Quail Coturnix coturnix 0 17.75 0
Woodcock Scolopax rusticola 50.94 10.53 4.84
Turtle dove Streptopelia turtur 9.43 6.55 1.44
Woodpigeon Columba palumbus 0 5.94 0
Hare Lepus europaeus 9.43 2.11 4.46
Rock Partridge Alectoris graeca 5.66 1.98 2.86
Waterfowls-waterbirds 0 1.81 0
Chukar Partridge Alectoris chukar 9.43 1.75 5.39
European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus 1.88 0.25 7.52
Eurasian Skylark Alauda arvensis 0 0.25 0
Fox Vulpes vulpes 0 0.21 0
Rock dove Columba livia 0 0.2 0
Pheasant hybrids Phasianus colchicus 1.88 0.12 15.67
Starling Sturnus vulgaris 0 0.1 0
Corvids 0 0.02 0
Total 100 100

they are probably not interested in reporting their
‘strange quarry’.
On the other hand, pheasant hybrids, the European
rabbit and the chukar partridge exhibit a higher inci-
dence of abnormalities. Pheasant hybrids are mainly
reared in captivity and are released to wild areas for
hunting purposes; this seems to be the reason why
high incidence of abnormalities has been observed in
pheasants, which had been also observed in Britain by
Sage (1963). Similarly, the chukar partridge is reared
and released in Hellas and Cyprus. The incidence of
abnormalities found in the reared chukar partridge
was higher than in the rock partridge that is not
reared. These findings indicate that intensive rearing
of galliforms may cause genetic degradation and
abnormalities (Sokos, Birtsas, and Tsachalidis 2008).
The European rabbit is a species which in some
cases maintains small and isolated populations on
Mediterranean islands, which in combination with
inbreeding is probably the reason for a higher inci-
dence of abnormality in this species (Łopucki and
Mróz 2010).
Besides the above-mentioned species, a higher
incidence of color abnormalities can be observed in
species that live in low sunlight conditions, and this
may also be an adaptation to lower predation
(Greenberg and Droege 1990; Caro 2005). The wood-
cock and hare stay many hours in the shadow of
vegetation and are mainly nocturnal. However, it is
not known if low sunlight causes a stronger trend
towards color abnormality (Bensch et al. 2000) or if
the absence or low sunlight conditions maintain
abnormalities through the higher survival of abnormal
specimens due to the lower detection by predators
(Caro 2005; Abreu et al. 2013). Migratory species, in
general, exhibit a lower incidence of color abnormal-
ities (Sage 1963). However, the woodcock was an
exception indicating a higher frequency of mutations
and maybe a higher genetic diversity and property of
the species for adaptation and evolution (Mayr 2001).
In the case of the hare, the main abnormality is albin-
ism, and specifically in a certain region of Macedonia
(North Hellas), the percentage of albinos among har-
vested hares is about 1–3%, which is a relatively high
percentage. This phenomenon has been observed in
the region for at least the last 100 years (Sokos 2007),
indicating that predation or other factors have not
eliminated this abnormality.
The increasing incidence of abnormalities recorded
in recent years is not easily attributable to a real
increase or to the increased interest of hunters or to
a more intense media interest in hunting. In recent
years a great variety of information has become uni-
versally available to all interested people (through
mobile phones with the ability to take photos, inter-
net, etc.). On the other hand, abnormality causes such
as mutations may have increased in number. In Spain
ZOOLOGY AND ECOLOGY 5
it is estimated that mobile phone masts have
increased the incidence of albinism in the species
nesting in close proximity to them (Balmori 2009).
Also, the increase of partial albinism in the Barn swal-
low has been attributed to the release of radioactivity
after the Chernobyl accident in 1986 (Møller and
Mousseau 2006).
In conclusion, abnormalities are more frequently
observed in reared and released wild galliforms, in
species that live in small and isolated populations,
and species that live in low sunlight conditions.
Future records and studies of abnormalities should
be combined with biotic and abiotic parameters on
a systematic basis.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the
authors.
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