Chapter 4: Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms

Chapter 4.1: The Development of a New Atomic Model

1) Light has qualities of particle and waves like electromagnetic radiation: A form of energy that has wavelike behavior
as it travels. The different ER can be placed on the Electromagnetic Spectrum: A spectrum of all forms of ER
a. All forms of ER move at a constant speed of c=3.00 x 108 m/s through a vacuum (Roughly the speed of light
through air) though it is slightly slower through light
b. Since the wave motion is repetitive, wavelength and frequency can be measured
i. Wavelength (λ)—The distance as a unit between corresponding points on adjacent waves in m.
ii. Frequency (v)—The number of waves that pass a given point in a specific time. Measured in
waves/second; 1 wave/second = 1 Hz (Hertz); or s -1
iii. Speed of light is c; c=λv
2) Photoelectric Effect—When certain frequencies of light strike a metal, electrons are emitted from the metal
a. However, the effect was not explained by the wave theory of light which predicted light of any frequency had
enough energy to eject an electron. Instead, the light had to be of a minimum frequency (threshold) for the effect
to occur
i. Max Planck said energy is quantized an object does not continuously release ER but releases them in
small amounts called a quanta
b. Quantum of Energy—The minimum quantity of energy that can be lost/gained by an atom
i. E=hv where E is the energy in joules of a quantum of ER and h=6.626 x 10-34 J⋅s (Planck’s constant)
c. Einstein expanded that ER has a dual-wave particle nature compared to the thought that it used to be a stream of
particles
i. Photons—A particle of ER with 0 mass and a quantum of energy
1. Proposed that an electron is ejected when struck by a single photon with the min
energy/frequency required
2. Different metals have a different energy required
3) Electrons exist only in specific energy states for each element and as an excited atom returns to a lower energy state the
delta in gained energy is emitted as a photon of ER
a. Hydrogen Emission-Line Spectrum—Electrical current was passed through a vacuum tube with low pressure
hydrogen gas causing the emission of a pinkish glow. This was then passed through a prism and seperated into 4
bands of ER on the visible light spectrum
i. More bands were found in the UV and IR regions
b. Continuous Spectrum—The emission of a continuous range of frequencies of ER which was previously
expected from the Hydrogen Emission-Line Spectrum (instead gave specific frequencies)
i. The emission of specific frequencies of ER suggested the energy differences between energy states were
fixed and electrons only exist at specific frequencies in a hydrogen atom
4) Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom explained electron transition series unlike Rutherford’s
a. Bohr proposed a hydrogen-atom model that linked the atom’s electron to photon emission. The model’s
electrons can only circle the nucleus in paths (orbits) for the atom to have a definite/fixed energy
b. Lowest Energy State = When the electron is in the orbit closest to the nucleus.
c. Higher Energy States = When the electron is in orbits that are successively further than the nucleus
i. Led to the belief of different electron orbits or atomic energy levels
d. Absorption—An electron in an orbit can move to a higher energy orbit by gaining an amount of energy equal to
the difference between the higher and lower energy orbits
e. Emission—When the electron falls to a lower energy state, a photon is emitted
5) Atomic Spectra is the result of an atom’s ER emission of
photons being passed through a prism
a. Higher frequency emissions correspond with
more energy being released and each line
corresponds to 1 exact frequency and specific
amount of energy being emitted
b. Each element has a different spectrum

Chapter 4.2: The Quantum Model of the Atom

1) Electrons acts like waves and particles
a. De Broglie suggested electrons act like waves at specific frequencies of Bohr orbitals at the rate of E = hv since
a wave confined to a space can only have certain frequencies
b. The electrons could be diffracted like ER waves and electron beams can have interference where the waves
either combine or work against each other to make bigger/smaller waves
 2) Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle—The electron’s velocity and position cannot be measured simultaneously
a. Heisenberg found electrons must hit a photon to find its location. However, photons and electrons have similar
energy so a hit cause both to go off course.
b. Schrodinger treated an atom’s electrons like waves. Math suggests only certain energies/frequencies of the
electron can exist in the atom
3) Quantum Theory—Wave theory and properties of small particles
a. Wave functions (solutions to Schrodinger wave equations) give the probability of finding an electron in an area
around the nucleus, not a ring. This indicated orbitals.
b. Orbital—3D region around the nucleus where the electron probably is
i. Schrodinger equation suggests the electrons in atomic orbitals also have quantized energy, but the
electron’s energy level is not the only characteristic of an orbital
4) Quantum Numbers—Specify properties of atomic orbitals and electrons in orbitals
a. Principle Quantum Number (n)—Indicates the main energy level occupied by an electron. Positive integers
only. n=1 means lowest energy level
i. As n increases, the electron’s energy level and average distance from the nucleus increases
ii. Electrons with the same n value are in the same shell
b. Angular Quantum Number (l = n — 1)—Indicates the shape of the orbital the electron is found in
i. Orbitals of different shapes exist at different values of n
except at the 1st energy level
ii. Number of orbital shapes possible for a specific energy
level = n. Thus, n = 2 has 2 shapes (l = 0, l = 1)
iii. Designated by principle quantum number and sublevel
letter (Ex. 4d)
c. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)—Indicates orientation of orbital around the nucleus. It can equal 0 and
i. – l < ml < l
ii. 1 orientation (S) means m = 0. P has an x, y, and z axis so m = -1, 0, 1. D is m = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
d. Spin Quantum Number (ms)—Electrons exist in 2 possible spin states in an orbital that creates a magnetic
field. Spin quantum accounts for the magnetic properties. Only 2 possible values (1/2, -1/2)
i. A single orbit can hold a maximum of 2 electrons. Each must have an opposite spin.

Chapter 4.3 Electron Configurations

1) Unlike Bohr’s model, the quantum model describes electron configuration
a. Electron Configuration—The arrangements of electrons in a specific atom (unique for each element)
i. Assume arrangements with the lowest possible energy (ground-state electron configuration)
2) Electrons fill in lowest energy orbitals first
a. Electrons are added to orbitals, individually, according to 3 basic rules:
i. Aufbau Principle—An electron occupies the lowest energy orbital that can receive it
1. Sublevels overlap: 4s occupied before 3d then 5s before 4d
2. Levels are: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d10, 4p6, 5s2, 4d10, 5p6, 6s2, 4f14, 5d10, 6p6, etc.
3. Exceptions are: Chromium which is 4s1, 3d5; Scandium and Copper are similar to Chromium;
Elements strive for the lowest possible energy so there are numerous occasional deviations
ii. Pauli Exclusion Principle—There are 2 electrons per orbital and no 2 electrons in the same atom can
have the same set of 4 quantum numbers
1. This, the angular momentum, and magnetic quantum numbers specify the energy, shape, and
orientation of an orbital. The 2 electrons in an orbital have opposite spin states.
iii. Hund’s Rule—Electrons will fill equal energy states before crowding together. All electrons in singly
occupied orbitals must have the same spin state
3) There are two ways to indicate electron configuration
a. Orbital Notation—Unoccupied orbitals are written with a line/box and the orbital’s name
is surrounding the line
b. Electron Configuration Notation—Number of electrons is shown by a superscript to the sublevel
i. Ex. Hydrogen is 1s1; Helium is 1s2; Nitrogen is 1s2, 2s2, 2p3
4) No electrons can occupy a higher-energy sublevel until the sublevel below is filled
a. According to Aufbau Principle, the noble gases have their sublevels of their highest occupied level filled with
the maximum number of electrons (hence why they are used for notation)