MODULE Study and Thinking Skills

CHAPTER 2: Reading Techniques

Objectives:

a.) Analyze literary text using the reading techniques presented.

b.) Create sentences with figures of speech.
c.) Use idioms in creating an essay.

Comprehension: The Goal of Reading

Comprehension, or extracting
meaning from what you read, is the
ultimate goal of reading.
Experienced readers take this for
granted and may not appreciate the
reading comprehension skills
required. The process of
comprehension is both interactive
and strategic. Rather than passively
reading text, readers must analyze
it, internalize it and make it their
own.

In order to read with comprehension, developing readers must be able to read with
some proficiency and then receive explicit instruction in reading comprehension
strategies (Tierney, 1982).

General Strategies for Reading Comprehension

The process of comprehending text begins before children can read, when someone
reads a picture book to them. They listen to the words, see the pictures in the book, and
may start to associate the words on the page with the words they are hearing and the
ideas they represent.

In order to learn comprehension strategies, students need modeling, practice, and

feedback. The key comprehension strategies are described below.

Using Prior Knowledge/Previewing

When students preview text, they tap into what they already know that will help them to
understand the text they are about to read. This provides a framework for any new
information they read.

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Predicting
When students make predictions about the text
they are about to read, it sets up expectations
based on their prior knowledge about similar topics.
As they read, they may mentally revise their
prediction as they gain more information.

Identifying the Main Idea and Summarization

Identifying the main idea and summarizing requires that students determine what is
important and then put it in their own words. Implicit in this process is trying to
understand the author’s purpose in writing the text.

Questioning
Asking and answering questions about text is another strategy that helps students focus
on the meaning of text. Teachers can help by modeling both the process of asking good
questions and strategies for finding the answers in the text.

Making Inferences
In order to make inferences about something that is not explicitly stated in the text,
students must learn to draw on prior knowledge and recognize clues in the text itself.

Visualizing
Studies have shown that students who visualize while reading have better recall than
those who do not (Pressley, 1977). Readers can take advantage of illustrations that are
embedded in the text or create their own mental images or drawings when reading text
without illustrations.

Strategies for Reading Comprehension: Narrative Text

Narrative text tells a story, either a true story or a fictional story. There are a number of
strategies that will help students understand narrative text.

Story Maps
Teachers can have students diagram the story grammar of the text to raise their
awareness of the elements the author uses to construct the story. Story grammar
includes:

 Setting: When and where the story takes place (which can change over the
course of the story).

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 Characters: The people or animals in the story, including the protagonist (main
character), whose motivations and actions drive the story.
 Plot: The story line, which typically includes one or more problems or conflicts
that the protagonist must address and ultimately resolve.
 Theme: The overriding lesson or main idea that the author wants readers to
glean from the story. It could be explicitly stated as in Aesop’s Fables or inferred by
the reader (more common).

Retelling
Asking students to retell a story in their own words forces them to
analyze the content to determine what is important. Teachers can
encourage students to go beyond literally recounting the story to
drawing their own conclusions about it.

Prediction
Teachers can ask readers to make a prediction about a story
based on the title and any other clues that are available, such as
illustrations. Teachers can later ask students to find text that
supports or contradicts their predictions.

Answering Comprehension Questions

Asking students different types of questions requires that they find the answers in
different ways, for example, by finding literal answers in the text itself or by drawing on
prior knowledge and then inferring answers based on clues in the text.

Strategies for Reading Comprehension: Expository Text

Expository text explains facts and concepts in order to inform, persuade, or explain.

The Structure of Expository Text

Expository text is typically structured with visual cues such as headings and
subheadings that provide clear cues as to the structure of the information. The first
sentence in a paragraph is also typically a topic sentence that clearly states what the
paragraph is about.

Expository text also often uses one of five common text structures as an organizing
principle:

 Cause and effect

 Problem and solution
 Compare and contrast
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 Description
 Time order (sequence of events, actions, or steps)

Teaching these structures can help students recognize relationships between ideas and
the overall intent of the text.

Main Idea/Summarization
A summary briefly captures the main idea of the text and the key details that support the
main idea. Students must understand the text in order to write a good summary that is
more than a repetition of the text itself.

K-W-L
There are three steps in the K-W-L process (Ogle, 1986):

1. What I Know: Before students read the text, ask them as a group to identify what
they already know about the topic. Students write this list in the ―K‖ column of their K-
W-L forms.
2. What I Want to Know: Ask students to write questions about what they want to
learn from reading the text in the ―W‖ column of their K-W-L forms. For example,
students may wonder if some of the ―facts‖ offered in the ―K‖ column are true.
3. What I Learned: As they read the text, students should look for answers to the
questions listed in the ―W‖ column and write their answers in the ―L‖ column along
with anything else they learn.

After all of the students have read the text, the teacher leads a discussion of the
questions and answers.

SKIMMING & SCANNING

Skimming and scanning are reading techniques that use rapid eye movement and
keywords to move quickly through text for slightly different purposes. Skimming is
reading rapidly in order to get a general overview of the material. Scanning is reading
rapidly in order to find specific facts. While skimming tells you what general information
is within a section, scanning helps you locate a particular fact. Skimming is like
snorkeling, and scanning is more like pearl diving.

Use skimming in previewing (reading before you read), reviewing (reading after you
read), determining the main idea from a long selection you don't wish to read, or when
trying to find source material for a research paper.

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Use scanning in research to find particular facts, to study fact-heavy topics, and to
answer questions requiring factual support.

Skimming to Save Time

Skimming can save you hours of

laborious reading. However, it is not
always the most appropriate way to
read. It is very useful as a preview to a
more detailed reading or when
reviewing a selection heavy in content.
But when you skim, you may miss
important points or overlook the finer
shadings of meaning, for which rapid
reading or perhaps even study reading
may be necessary.

Use skimming to overview your textbook chapters or to review for a test. Use skimming
to decide if you need to read something at all, for example during the preliminary
research for a paper. Skimming can tell you enough about the general idea and tone of
the material, as well as its gross similarity or difference from other sources, to know if
you need to read it at all.

To skim, prepare yourself to move rapidly through the pages. You will not read every
word; you will pay special attention to typographical cues-headings, boldface and italic
type, indenting, bulleted and numbered lists. You will be alert for key words and
phrases, the names of people and places, dates, nouns, and unfamiliar words. In
general follow these steps:

1. Read the table of contents or chapter overview to learn the main divisions of
ideas.
2. Glance through the main headings in each chapter just to see a word or two.
Read the headings of charts and tables.
3. Read the entire introductory paragraph and then the first and last sentence only
of each following paragraph. For each paragraph, read only the first few words of
each sentence or to locate the main idea.

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4. Stop and quickly read the sentences containing keywords indicated in boldface
or italics.
5. When you think you have found something significant, stop to read the entire
sentence to make sure. Then go on the same way. Resist the temptation to stop
to read details you don't need.
6. Read chapter summaries when provided.

If you cannot complete all the steps above, compromise: read only the chapter
overviews and summaries, for example, or the summaries and all the boldfaced
keywords. When you skim, you take a calculated risk that you may miss something. For
instance, the main ideas of paragraphs are not always found in the first or last
sentences (although in many textbooks they are). Ideas you miss you may pick up in a
chapter overview or summary.

Good skimmers do not skim everything at the same rate or give equal attention to
everything. While skimming is always faster than your normal reading speed, you
should slow down in the following situations:

 When you skim introductory and concluding paragraphs

 When you skim topic sentences
 When you find an unfamiliar word
 When the material is very complicated

Scanning for research and study

Scanning, too, uses keywords and organizational
cues. But while the goal of skimming is a bird's-
eye view of the material, the goal of scanning is
to locate and swoop down on particular facts.

Facts may be buried within long text passages

that have relatively little else to do with your topic
or claim. Skim this material first to decide if it is
likely to contain the facts you need. Don't forget to scan tables of contents, summaries,
indexes, headings, and typographical cues. To make sense of lists and tables, skim
them first to understand how they are organized: alphabetical, chronological, or most-to-

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least, for example. If after skimming you decide the material will be useful, go ahead
and scan:

1. Know what you're looking for. Decide on a few key words or phrases–search
terms, if you will. You will be a flesh-and-blood search engine.
2. Look for only one keyword at a time. If you use multiple keywords, do multiple
scans.
3. Let your eyes float rapidly down the page until you find the word or phrase you
want.
4. When your eye catches one of your keywords, read the surrounding material
carefully.

Scanning to answer questions

If you are scanning for facts to answer a specific question, one step is already done for
you: the question itself supplies the keywords. Follow these steps:

1. Read each question completely before starting to scan. Choose your keywords
from the question itself.
2. Look for answers to only one question at a time. Scan separately for each
question.
3. When you locate a keyword, read the surrounding text carefully to see if it is
relevant.
4. Re-read the question to determine if the answer you found answers this question.

Scanning is a technique that requires concentration and can be surprisingly tiring. You
may have to practice at not allowing your attention to wander. Choose a time and place
that you know works for you and dive in.

Critical Reading
Learning how to read critically involves becoming actively
engaged in what you read by first developing a clear
understanding of the author’s ideas, then questioning and
evaluating the arguments and evidence provided to
support those arguments, and finally by forming your own
opinions. Reading this way requires that you develop skills
that aren’t necessary for more passive forms of taking in
information. However, it also allows you to get more from

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what you read.

Steps in critical reading:

 Before you read

Scan the piece to get an idea of what it is about and what the main argument is.
This may include reading an introduction, if there is one, or the subheadings.
 While you read
Keep a running dialogue with the author through annotation by recording your
thoughts, ideas, and questions. Underline, highlight, or circle important parts and
points, and write comments in the margins.
 After you have read
Look over your annotations to get an overall idea of the text. You may also
choose to write a summary to solidify your understanding.
 Responding to the text
After you have developed a clear sense of the author’s argument and line of
reasoning, you are able to analyze the author’s argument and methods. Then,
you can develop your own ideas—perhaps into an essay of your own.

Making Inferences

Making inferences is a comprehension strategy used

by proficient readers to ―read between the lines,‖
makes connections, and draw conclusions about the
text’s meaning and purpose.

You already make inferences all of the time. For

example, imagine you go over to a friend’s house and
they point at the sofa and say, ―Don’t sit there, Cindy
came over with her baby again.‖ What could you
logically conclude?

First, you know there must be a reason not to sit

where your friend is pointing. Next, the reason not to
sit there is related to the fact that Cindy just visited with her baby. You don’t know what
exactly happened, but you can make an inference and don’t need to ask any more
questions to know that you do not want to sit there.

Practice Making Inferences

Imagine you witness the following unrelated situations—what can you infer about each
one?

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1. You see a woman pushing a baby stroller down the street.

2. You are at a corner and see two parked cars at an intersection, and the driver in
back starts honking his horn.
3. You are walking down the street, and suddenly a dog comes running out of an
opened door with its tail between its legs.

For the first, you probably came up with something simple, such as there was a baby in
the stroller.

For the second, you might have inferred that the first car should have started moving, or
was waiting too long at the corner and holding up the second car.

For the third, you could reasonably guess that the dog had done something wrong and
was afraid to get punished.

You do not know for 100% certainty that these inferences are true. If you checked 100
strollers, 99 times you would find a baby, but maybe one time you would find something
else, like groceries.

Making Inferences as You Read

To make inferences from reading, take two or more details from the reading and see if
you can draw a conclusion. Remember, making an inference is not just making a wild
guess. You need to make a judgment that can be supported, just as you could
reasonably infer there is a baby in a stroller, but not reasonably infer that there are
groceries, even though both would technically be a ―guess.‖

When you are asked an inference question, go back over the reading and look for hints
within the text, such as words that are directly related to the question you may be asked
(such as for a multiple choice test) or words that indicate opinion.

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FIGURES OF SPEECH

A figure of speech is a rhetorical device that

achieves a special effect by using words in a
distinctive way. Though there are hundreds of
figures of speech, here we'll focus on 20 top
examples.

For example, common expressions such as

"falling in love," "racking our brains," and
"climbing the ladder of success" are
all metaphors—the most pervasive figure of all.
Likewise, we rely on similes when making explicit comparisons ("light as a feather")
and hyperbole to emphasize a point ("I'm starving!").

Using original figures of speech in our writing is a way to convey meanings in fresh,
unexpected ways. They can help our readers understand and stay interested in what we
have to say.

Alliteration

The repetition of an initial consonant sound.

Example: She sells seashells by the seashore.

Anaphora

The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or
verses.

Example: Unfortunately, I was in the wrong place at the wrong time on the wrong day.

Antithesis

The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases.

Example: As Abraham Lincoln said, "Folks who have no vices have very few virtues."

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Apostrophe

Directly addressing a nonexistent person or an inanimate object as though it were a

living being.

Example: "Oh, you stupid car, you never work when I need you to," Bert sighed.

Assonance

Identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neighboring words.

Example: How now, brown cow?

Chiasmus

A verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced against the first
but with the parts reversed.

Example: The famous chef said people should live to eat, not eat to live.

Euphemism

The substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered offensively explicit.

Example: "We're teaching our toddler how to go potty," Bob said.

Hyperbole

An extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or
heightened effect.

Example: I have a ton of things to do when I get home.

Irony

The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. Also, a statement or
situation where the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the
idea.

Example: "Oh, I love spending big bucks," said my dad, a notorious penny pincher.

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Litotes

A figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed

by negating its opposite.

Example: A million dollars is no small chunk of change.

Metaphor

An implied comparison between two dissimilar things that have something in common.

Example: "All the world's a stage."

Metonymy

A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is
closely associated; also, the rhetorical strategy of describing something indirectly by
referring to things around it.

Example: "That stuffed suit with the briefcase is a poor excuse for a salesman," the
manager said angrily.

Onomatopoeia

The use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they
refer to.

Example: The clap of thunder went bang and scared my poor dog.

Oxymoron

A figure of speech in which incongruous or contradictory terms appear side by side.

Example: "He popped the jumbo shrimp in his mouth."

Paradox

A statement that appears to contradict itself.

Example: "This is the beginning of the end," said Eeyore, always the pessimist.

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Personification

A figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is endowed with human

qualities or abilities.

Example: That kitchen knife will take a bite out of your hand if you don't handle it safely.

Pun

A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on
the similar sense or sound of different words.

Example: Jessie looked up from her breakfast and said, "A boiled egg every morning is
hard to beat."

Simile

A stated comparison (usually formed with "like" or "as") between two fundamentally
dissimilar things that have certain qualities in common.

Example: Roberto was white as a sheet after he walked out of the horror movie.

Synecdoche

A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole.

Example: Tina is learning her ABC's in preschool.

Understatement

A figure of speech in which a writer or speaker deliberately makes a situation seem less
important or serious than it is.

Example: "You could say Babe Ruth was a decent ballplayer," the reporter said with a
wink.

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IDIOMS

English idioms, proverbs, and expressions are an

important part of everyday English. They come up
all the time in both written and spoken English.
Because idioms don't always make sense literally,
you'll need to familiarize yourself with the meaning
and usage of each idiom. That may seem like a lot
of work, but learning idioms is fun, especially when
you compare English idioms to the idioms in your
own language.

The most common English idioms

These English idioms are extremely common in everyday conversation in the United
States. You will hear them in movies and TV shows and can use them to make your
English sound more like that of a native speaker.

Idiom Meaning Usage

A blessing in disguise a good thing that seemed bad at first as part of a

sentence

A dime a dozen Something common as part of a

sentence

Beat around the bush Avoid saying what you mean, usually as part of a
because it is uncomfortable sentence

Better late than never Better to arrive late than not to come at by itself
all

Bite the bullet To get something over with because it is as part of a

inevitable sentence

Break a leg Good luck by itself

Call it a day Stop working on something as part of a

sentence

Cut somebody some slack Don't be so critical as part of a

sentence

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Idiom Meaning Usage

Cutting corners Doing something poorly in order to save as part of a

time or money sentence

Easy does it Slow down by itself

Get out of hand Get out of control as part of a

sentence

Get something out of your Do the thing you've been wanting to do as part of a
system so you can move on sentence

Get your act together Work better or leave by itself

Give someone the benefit Trust what someone says as part of a

of the doubt sentence

Go back to the drawing Start over as part of a

board sentence

Hang in there Don't give up by itself

Hit the sack Go to sleep as part of a

sentence

It's not rocket science It's not complicated by itself

Let someone off the hook To not hold someone responsible for as part of a
something sentence

Make a long story short Tell something briefly as part of a

sentence

Miss the boat It's too late as part of a

sentence

No pain, no gain You have to work for what you want by itself

On the ball Doing a good job as part of a

sentence

Pull someone's leg To joke with someone as part of a

sentence

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Idiom Meaning Usage

Pull yourself together Calm down by itself

So far so good Things are going well so far by itself

Speak of the devil The person we were just talking about by itself
showed up!

That's the last straw My patience has run out by itself

The best of both worlds An ideal situation as part of a

sentence

Time flies when you're You don't notice how long something by itself
having fun lasts when it's fun

To get bent out of shape To get upset as part of a

sentence

To make matters worse Make a problem worse as part of a

sentence

Under the weather Sick as part of a

sentence

We'll cross that bridge Let's not talk about that problem right by itself
when we come to it now

Wrap your head around Understand something complicated as part of a

something sentence

You can say that again That's true, I agree by itself

Your guess is as good as I have no idea by itself

mine

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For More Knowledge: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t3F8pQLtY_Q

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5h_GEwJQlXY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XvsopmnMfg8

Reference:
https://www.google.com/search?q=Reading+techniques&sxsrf=ALeKk03TSrH_g6cy
zWGnltaLqhdhO5tyLw%3A1629523179555&ei=64wgYZKfIY7U0gSa-
amIBQ&oq=Reading+techniques&gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAMyBQgAEMsBMgUIABD
LATIFCAAQywEyBQgAEMsBMgUIABDLATIFCAAQywEyBQgAEMsBMgUIABDLATIFCAA
QywEyBQgAEMsBOg4ILhCABBCxAxCDARCTAjoLCAAQgAQQsQMQgwE6CAgAEIAEEL
EDOhEILhCABBCxAxCDARDHARDRAzoFCAAQgAQ6BAgAEENKBAhBGABQ3zVYiFFgml
doAHACeACAAZICiAHiFZIBBjAuMTYuM5gBAKABAcABAQ&sclient=gws

http://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/readingstrategies/skimming_sca
nning.html

https://www.esc.edu/online-writing-center/resources/critical-reading
writing/general-reading/critical-reading/

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/developmentalreading/chapter/making-
inferences/

https://www.thoughtco.com/top-figures-of-speech-1691818

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