379 - Educ 30083 Assessment in Learning 1 - Rebusquillo

Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Department of Business Teacher Education
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN
EDUC 30083
ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING 1
Compiled by:
Dr. Lizyl R. Rebusquillo, LPT

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT 3
What is Assessment? 3
Why Assess Learning? (The Roles of Assessment) 3
How to Assess Learning? (The Principles of Assessment) 4
LESSON 2: TYPES OF ASSESSMENT 6

Assessment for Learning (AfL) 6
Assessment of Learning (AoL) 8
Assessment as Learning (AaL) 9
Diagnostic Assessment, Formative Assessment, and Summative 9
Assessment
LESSON 3: ALIGNMENT OF ASSESSMENT WITH LEARNING OUTCOMES 12

AND LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning Outcomes and Learning Objectives as Bases for Assessment 12
Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning as a Framework in Setting the 13
Learning Objectives and Outcomes
LESSON 4: ASSESSMENT TOOLS AND STRATEGIES 17

Test Assessment 17
Authentic Assessment 21
LESSON 5: TESTS, TEST CONSTRUCTION, AND TEST IMPROVEMENT 25

Types of Test 25
Principles of a Good Test 27
Test Construction 27
Item Analysis as Basis for Test Improvement 29
LESSON 6: RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF TESTS 34

Reliability: Definition, Characteristics, Factors, and Types 34
Validity of Tests: Definition, Characteristics, Factors, and Types 35
LESSON 7: QUANTIFYING TEST RESULTS 38

Presentation of Data in a Frequency Distribution Table 38
Measures of Central Tendency – Mean, Median, and Mode 39
Measures of Variability – Range and Standard Deviation 43
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INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC 30083: ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING 1 / L. R. REBUSQUILLO / 2021
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LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT

OVERVIEW:
This lesson gives an overview of assessment and its role in the teaching and learning
process. Furthermore, it presents principles underlying in the use of effective assessment of the
maximized learning potential of learners.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. explain the importance of assessment and the use of its principles in an effective
teaching and learning process; and
2. show the role of assessment for teachers and learners in the teaching and learning
process.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. What is Assessment? Assessment Defined
How would you know if learning took place? What will you do to determine if students have
obtained the required knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) at a certain period, say at the
end of a class session, or at the end of the school year? How will you know if your learner is
on the right track, progressing and leading to accomplish the learning objectives?
You may have different answers which may include but are not limited to giving of tests,
asking questions through recitations, and requiring the performance of some tasks. These are
all true but to sum it up, it is through ASSESSMENT.
Walvoord (in Gravells, 2013) defined assessment as a systematic collection of

information about student learning, using the time, knowledge, expertise, and
resources available to inform decisions that affect student learning.
The Glossary of Education Reform (2014) has a similar definition of the

term assessment which refers to the wide variety of methods or tools that educators use
to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning progress, skill
acquisition, or educational needs of students.
2. Why Assess Learning? The Roles of Assessment

Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning. Hence, it has a specific set of
roles for learners and teachers. Below is a table showing how both parties may benefit from the
use of assessment in education.
LEARNER TEACHER
• To clarify what is expected or • To make teaching, learning, and assessment
required of them activities aligned among each other
• To help them discuss with the • To determine how the learner’s progress and
teacher their learning milestones milestones
and concerns • To help learners in developing self-
• To evaluate their learning assessment skills
progress • To identify the support needs of the learners
• To help them plan and achieve • To empower learners to take control of their
the learning objectives learning
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• To know what they have • To improve learner motivation and self-

achieved esteem
• To know what they have to do • To make decisions and give feedback
• To learn from their mistakes
3. How to Assess Learning? The Principles of Assessment
With the following principles, teachers can practice assessment in a way that will best
complement to teaching and learning.
Two important principles are known as VARCS and SMART.

Following VARCS will help ensure assessment is conducted and assessed correctly.
Valid – the work is relevant to what has been assessed and is at the right level.
Authentic – the work has been produced solely by the learner.
Reliable – the work is consistent over time.
Current – the work is still relevant at the time of assessment.
Sufficient – the work covers all of the requirements at the time.
Planning SMART assessment activities will ensure all the assessment requirements will
be met by learners:
Specific – the activity relates only to what is being assessed and is clearly stated.
Measurable – the activity can be measured against the assessment requirements, allowing
any gaps to be identified.
Achievable – the activity can be achieved at the right level.
Relevant – the activity is suitable and realistic, relates to what is being assessed, and will
give consistent results.
Time-bound – target dates and times are agreed upon.
Other principles that teachers should abide when assessing are the following:
1. Communication – must take regularly with the learners by providing feedback and how
learning is progressing.
2. Equality and Diversity – ensuring all assessment activities embrace equality, inclusivity,
and diversity. Types of diversity that may exist among the students include Socio-
Economic Status, access to devices, access to and the stability of Internet connection, the
stability of electricity supply, and racial, ethnic, and cultural differences.
3. Ethics – ensuring the assessment process is honest and moral and takes into account
confidentiality and integrity. The learner’s welfare, health, safety, and security are not
compromised.
4. Fairness – ensuring the assessment activities are fit for purpose, and planning, decisions,
and feedback justifiable. All learners should have an equal chance of an accurate
assessment decision.
5. Health and Safety – ensuring these are considered throughout the full assessment
process, carrying out risk assessments as necessary
6. Motivation – encouraging and supporting your learners to reach their maximum potential
at an appropriate level
7. Quality Assurance – ensuring assessment activities and decisions meet the required
standards
8. Record-Keeping – ensuring accurate records are maintained throughout the assessment
process
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9. Responsibility – making objective decisions, following all organizational guidelines,

keeping records, and producing required reports
REFERENCES
• Gravells, A. (2016) Principles and Practices of Assessment: A Guide for Assessors in the
FE and Skills Sector, 3 rd Edition, Sage Publications, UK. pp. 6, 22-23.
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=G3M0CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_toc_r&
cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false
• Glossary of Education Reform (2014). Assessment.
https://www.edglossary.org/assessment/
ASSESSMENT:
Output 1
Make a concept map of ASSESSMENT. Show in your map how you understand assessment in
learning. Be creative! Write an explanation of your concept map. Document yourself as you do
the concept map. Later in this semester, your concept map and the documentation while doing
Output 1 will be part of your e-portfolio /portfolio.
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LESSON 2: TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
OVERVIEW:
This lesson presents the three types of assessment according to purpose: 1.) Assessment
for Learning (AfL), 2.) Assessment of Learning (AoL), and 3.) Assessment as Learning (AaL).
Also, it could be categorized as Diagnostic Assessment, Formative Assessment, and Summative
Assessment, all are intertwined with any of the earlier types. Assessment can be better
understood and used appropriately to maximize student learning if it will be viewed according to
its types of purpose. By understanding these different types of assessments, we can view it as a
continuous process and not something that happens only at the end of instruction. Moreover, we
will also understand that assessment is not the sole responsibility of the teacher but rather a
collaborative effort among the teacher, the learners, and other stakeholders such as parents.
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. explain how Assessment for Learning, Assessment of Learning, and Assessment as
Learning are distinctively applied in the teaching and learning process;
2. generalize how each type of assessment are practically used by teachers; and
3. reflect how each type of assessment can be used practically by teachers in maximizing
student learning.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Assessment FOR Learning (AfL)
Assessment for learning occurs throughout the learning process. It is designed to make
each student’s understanding visible so that teachers can decide what they can do to help
students progress. In the assessment for learning, teachers use assessment as an investigative
tool to find out as much as they can about what their students know and can do, and what
confusions, preconceptions, or gaps they might have.
Assessment FOR learning is also called FORmative assessment. It occurs throughout the
learning process. It is interactive, with teachers
• aligning instruction with the targeted outcomes;
• identifying the particular learning needs of students or groups;
• selecting and adapting materials and resources;
• creating differentiated teaching strategies and learning opportunities for helping individual
students move forward in their learning;
• providing immediate feedback and direction to students;
• enhancing student motivation and commitment to learning; and
• ensuring quality through record-keeping to track formative learning.
Two things to consider in AfL are recordkeeping and giving descriptive feedback.
Record-keeping is important to provide each learner individualized descriptive feedback that will
tell if the work is on track or not. In that way, the teacher can raise questions about the instruction
and how it could be adjusted to maximize the student’s learning potential. Record-keeping in
assessment for learning involves documenting individual student learning by taking note of the
learner’s milestones in reference to the target learning outcome. On the other hand, a teacher
should provide specific, detailed feedback and direction to each student as a guide in the
attainment of the learning outcome. Feedback for learning is the vital link between the teacher’s
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assessment of a student’s learning and the action that needs to be taken following that
assessment.
AfL is conducted during day-to-day classroom practice and takes place during learning.
The following assessment activities have been traditionally practiced to strengthen AfL:
• Quizzes
• Recitations
• Seatwork
• Board work
However, there are innovative ways to do AfL or formative assessment as proposed by

wabisabilearning.com:
• Analyzing Student Work – When teachers take the time to analyze student work such as
homework, tests, and quizzes, they (the teachers) gain information leading to their
understanding of the learner’s current KSAs about the subject matter, the learner’s strengths,
weaknesses, and learning styles, and the learner’s need for further or special support or
assistance This approach lets teachers modify their instruction to be more effective in the
future.
• Round Robin Charts - This strategy involves passing charts among groups to assess
understanding. Each group of 4 or 5 students begins with a chart and some markers.
The group records an answer to an open-ended question. They can also share the
knowledge they have on a topic covered in class. Once the students finish the chart, they
pass it on to the next group. Once every group has worked on every chart, responses are
discussed as a class.
• Strategic Questioning - Questioning strategies may be used with individuals, small groups,
or the entire class. Effective formative assessment strategies involve asking students to
answer higher-order questions such as “why” and “how.” Higher-order questions require
more in-depth thinking from the students. They can help the teacher discern the level and
extent of the students’ understanding.
• 3-Way Summaries- This can be done in groups or individually. A student or a group of
students will give a response to a question or topic inquiry by writing three different
summaries: 10–15 words long, 30–50 words long, and 75–100 words long.
• Think-Pair-Share - This is one of the many formative assessment strategies that is simple
for teachers to use. The instructor asks a question, and students write down their answers.
Students are then placed in pairs to discuss their responses. Teachers can move around the
classroom and listen to various discussions. It lets teachers gain valuable insight into
student’s levels of understanding.
• 3–2–1 Countdown - Have students end the day by using what they have learned from the
lesson. Give them cards to write on, or they can respond orally. They are required to respond
to three separate statements:
3 things you didn't know before
2 things that surprised you about this topic
1 thing you want to start doing with what you've learned
• Classroom Polls - Polls allow students to give quick responses. This may also be a good
strategy for those who are shy speaking up in the class. Polls may also be conducted using
mobile technology and social media.
• Exit/Admit Tickets –Students are asked to submit an exit ticket by writing down in a small
piece of paper an interpretation of the main idea and some details about the lesson discussed
in the class. This piece of paper is deposited by the students as they leave the classroom. The
following day, at the beginning of the class, they provide more details about the topic by
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submitting an admit ticket. They may respond to a question about the lesson discussed in
the previous class session.
• One-Minute Papers – At the end of the day, students can work individually or in groups by
answering a brief question in writing. Common questions that may be posed focused on the
following:
 Main point
 Most surprising concept
 Questions not answered
 Most confusing area of a topic
 Question from the topic that might appear on the next test
• Creative Extension Projects - Students can create projects that are not big and complicated
to demonstrate comprehension by taking a day, or a half-day, or an hour in doing outputs or
tasks such as but not limited to:
 A recorded skit or podcast discussing the topics covered
 A diorama about the subject and create a narrative behind it
 A set of flashcards designed to test each other with
 A keynote presentation on the topic
 A poster or collage illustrating the subject matter
2. Assessment OF Learning (AoL)

While AfL is formative in nature, the purpose of Assessment of Learning (AoL) is
summative. In classrooms, it is typically done at the end of a unit, a course, a grading period, a
semester, a program) and takes the form of tests or exams that include questions drawn from the
material studied during that time. In AoL, the results are expressed symbolically, generally as
marks across several content areas to report to parents.
According to Earl and Katz (2006), AoL refers to strategies designed to confirm what
students know, demonstrate whether or not they have met curriculum outcomes or the goals of
their individualized programs, or to certify proficiency and make decisions about students’ future
programs or placements. It is designed to provide evidence of achievement to parents, other
educators, the students themselves, and sometimes to outside groups (e.g., employers, other
educational institutions). With the help of their teachers, students can look forward to the
assessment of learning tasks as occasions to show their competence, as well as the depth and
breadth of their learning since AoL is summative in nature.
The authors also presented that AoL methods include not only tests and
examinations, but also a rich variety of products and demonstrations of learning such as
portfolios, exhibitions, performances, presentations, simulations, multimedia projects,
and a variety of other written, oral, and visual methods.
3. Assessment AS Learning (AaL)

Assessment as learning (AaL) focuses on students and emphasizes assessment as a
process of metacognition (knowledge of one’s thought processes) for students. It emerges from
the idea that learning is not just a matter of transferring ideas from someone knowledgeable to
someone who is not. Rather it is an active process of cognitive restructuring where students are
the critical connectors between assessment and learning. For students to be actively engaged in
creating their own understanding, they must learn to be critical assessors who make sense of
information, relate it to prior knowledge, and use it for new learning. This is the regulatory process
in metacognition; that is, students become adept at personally monitoring what they are learning,
and use what they discover from the monitoring to make adjustments, adaptations, and even
major changes in their thinking (Earl and Kantz, 2006).
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The following are the teacher’s role in promoting the development of independent learners
through assessment as learning:
• model and teach the skills of self-assessment;
• guide students in setting goals, and monitoring their progress toward them;
• provide exemplars and models of good practice and quality work that reflect curriculum
outcomes;
• work with students to develop clear criteria of good practice;
• guide students in developing internal feedback or self-monitoring mechanisms to validate
and question their own thinking, and to become comfortable with the ambiguity and
uncertainty that is inevitable in learning anything new;
• provide regular and challenging opportunities to practice, so that students can become
confident, competent self-assessors;
• monitor students’ metacognitive processes as well as their learning, and provide
descriptive feedback; and,
• create an environment where it is safe for students to take chances and where support is
readily available.
4. Diagnostic Assessment, Formative Assessment, and Summative Assessment

Tomlinson, et. al (2015) and Orlando (2011) presented three categories of assessments
that, if used correctly, are integral to supporting robust learning in contemporary classrooms and
even in online learning: diagnostic or pre-assessments, formative or on-going assessments, and
summative assessments. To better understand, the table below explains the purpose and nature
of each of the three categories and how they are connected to assessment of, for, and as
learning.
Connection to
Category of
Purpose and Nature Assessment of, for,
Assessment
and as Learning
Pre- • used to gather information about students’ prior Pre-assessments and
assessment / knowledge and to identify misconceptions; formative assessments
Diagnostic • designed to determine student proximity to the are often described as
Assessment learning objectives and outcomes and to assessments for
evaluate important pre-requisite knowledge; learning because they
• meant to give the teacher a sense of the range help the teacher plan for
of needs in the class relative to target learning better focused or more
objectives and outcomes as instruction begins; targeted instruction.
• given before instruction begins
• pretests and student surveys are two examples
of diagnostic assessments that can be easily
administered at the onset of an online course;
and
• is not graded.
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Formative • gather information in an ongoing manner Pre-assessments and

Assessments / throughout a course that is then used to guide formative assessments
On-going teaching and to improve learning and are often described as
Assessment performance. assessments for
• feedback to students is a key component of learning because they
formative assessment, whether the help the teacher plan for
assessment is formal — a graded quiz or better focused or more
written assignment — or informal, such as targeted instruction.
feedback on student participation in a
discussion forum; Formative assessments
• administered often throughout a unit are also opportunities to
• tightly aligned with learning objectives and use assessment as
outcomes; learning, particularly
• uses a variety of formats such as exit cards, when students are active
journal entries, systematic teacher participants in analyzing
conversations with individual students, assessment results to
problems to solve, think-a-louds, etc.; create a basis for
• rarely graded, but can provide clear, planning and supporting
important feedback that helps a student their own learning
determine the next steps in learning. development.
Summative • used at end of key segments of a unit and the Summative assessment
Assessment end of a unit is generally described as
• tightly aligned with learning objectives and an assessment of
outcomes; learning since it asks
• meant to determine the level of mastery each how well the learner has
student has achieved; achieved mastery based
• examples include a culminating project, final on the learning objectives
exam, performance task, or test; and learning outcomes.
• typically graded; should also include clear,
actionable feedback to help students
understand how to continue learning.
REFERENCES:
• Earl, L. and Katz, S. (2006), Rethinking Classroom Assessment with Purpose in
Mind: Assessment for Learning, Assessment as Learning, Assessment of Learning.
Minister of Education, Citizenship and Youth., School Programs Division, 1970 Ness
Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3J
0Y9. https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/assess/wncp/full_doc.pdf
• Orlando, J. (2011), How to Effectively Assess Online Learning. Magna Publications,
Inc. http://www.suagm.edu/uagmcv/docs/academia/assessment/assess-online-
learning.pdf
• Tomlinson, C., Moon, T. ad Imbeau M.B. (2015) Assessment and Student Success in a
Differentiated Classroom
http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/siteASCD/publications/assessment-and-di-
whitepaper.pdf
• 10 Innovative Formative Assessment Examples for Teachers to Know
https://wabisabilearning.com/blogs/assessment/formative-assessment-examples
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ASSESSMENT:
Output 2
Interview three teachers using the question guide provided in the matrix. After getting
information from them, write your generalization as to how they use the three types of
assessment.
Question Guide Teacher Teacher Teacher My
Respondent 1: Respondent 2: Respondent 3: Generalization
(AfL)
What assessment
practices do you use
to help learners
achieve the intended
learning outcomes?
How do you monitor
their learning
progress?
(AoL)
What types of
assessments do you
use to determine the
summative learning of
the learners?
(AaL) How involved
are your learners in
the assessment of
their own learning
progress? What
practices do you
apply to encourage
student involvement
in regulating their own
learning?
Based on the lessons learned from this material and the results of your interview, write a
reflection of how will you be an effective teacher when it comes to the assessment of your
students’ learning.
Reminder: Document yourself as you do the interviews. Later this semester, the
documentation of the activity for Output 2 will be part of your e-portfolio.
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LESSON 3: ALIGNMENT OF ASSESSMENT WITH LEARNING OUTCOMES AND

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
OVERVIEW:
This lesson presents the difference and connection between learning outcomes and
learning objectives. Moreover, this lesson emphasizes that learning outcomes and learning
objectives are bases for instruction and assessment, hence, alignment is the key to an effective
teaching and learning process. As a practice, Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Learning is used as
a framework for setting measurable learning outcomes and objectives.
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. determine the difference and connection between learning outcomes and learning objectives,
and
2. align assessment methods based on learning outcomes and objectives.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Learning Outcomes and Learning Objectives as Bases for Assessment

Teachers on many occasions used learning outcomes and learning objectives
interchangeably. While they are different in terms of perspectives, both are directional and serve
as guides and indicators that teachers and students must achieve knowledge, skills, and attitudes
(KSA) as evidence of a successful teaching-learning process.
Learning Outcomes…
• describe the measurable skills, abilities, knowledge, or values that students should be able
to demonstrate as a result of completing a course. They are student-centered rather than
teacher-centered, in that they describe what the students will do, not what the instructor
will teach. - South Carolina Center for Teaching Excellence
• are statements that describe the knowledge or skills students should acquire by the end
of a particular assignment, class, course, or program, and help students understand why
that knowledge and those skills will be useful to them. They focus on the context and
potential applications of knowledge and skills, help students connect learning in various
contexts, and help guide assessment and evaluation. - University of Toronto, Centre for
Teaching Support and Innovation
• describe as ‘personal changes or benefits that follow as a result of learning’, noting that
these changes or benefits ‘can be measured in terms of abilities or achievements’ (Nusche
in Popenici and Millar, 2015).
Learning Objectives…
• tell what the learners should be able to do when they have completed a segment of
instruction. – Behavioral Health Training and Education Network, 2018
Learning Objectives vs. Learning Outcomes: How they are different?

Popenici and Millar (2015) gave a clear description of the two which shows how they are
different and in a way related to each other.
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Learning objectives Learning outcomes

• refer to teachers’ intentions for • are statements of what a student will
learners, such as what students will be be able to do or demonstrate at the
taught during the course or program. It completion of a certain sequence of
is important to note that learning learning (course, program).
objectives reflect what teachers do. • are mainly concerned with the
achievements of the learner and less
with the intentions of the teacher.
• inform students of what is expected of
them in terms of performance, to
achieve desired grades and credits.
How they are related and similar to one another?
• The learning objectives are used to organize specific topics or individual learning
activities to achieve the overall learning outcome.
• Both learning objectives and learning outcomes must match with appropriate
modes of assessment.
2. Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning as a Framework in Setting Learning

Objectives and Outcomes
As practiced, teachers use Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives as a framework

for setting learning objectives and learning outcomes. There are six (6) classifications of learning
both from the old and revised Bloom’s framework. While the original was proposed by Bloom, the
revised one was proposed by Anderson and Krathwohl. The frameworks also show that
classifications of learning are divided into Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS) and Higher Order
Thinking Skills (HOTS).
While it is important to include LOTS in determining learning objectives because of their

foundational in nature, HOTS should be emphasized more because it promotes higher cognitive
skills.
Figure 1: Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Figure 2: Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Learning

Source: Churches, 2007, https://www.pdst.ie/sites/default/files/BloomDigitalTaxonomy-AndrewChurches.pdf
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There is a set of verbs associated with each level or taxonomy of learning which indicates
the complexity of the knowledge or skills that students should be asked to demonstrate.
Figure 3 is a table of verbs in Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy that is proposed by Andersen

and Krathwohl (2001). The verbs can be used in setting learning objectives, hence, serve as basis
when we assess student learning.
Figure 3: Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Action Verbs
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Figure 4 is a Mind Map developed by Churches (2007) showing the verbs in Bloom’s
Revised Taxonomy that can be used in setting learning objectives inclusive of digital technologies
and digital cognitive objectives.
Figure 4 Mind Map of Bloom’s Revised Digital Taxonomy by Churches (2007)
REFERENCES:
• Behavioral Health Training and Education Network, 2018. Learning Outcomes and
Objectives. https://www.bhten.com/instructional-design/learning-outomes-and-objectives
• Churches (2007). Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy.
https://www.pdst.ie/sites/default/files/BloomDigitalTaxonomy-AndrewChurches.pdf
• Popenici, S. and Millar, V. (2015) Writing Learning Outcomes: A Practical Guide for
Academics. Melbourne Centre for the Study of Higher Education The University of
Melbourne https://melbourne-
cshe.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/2296861/MCSHE-Learning-Outcomes-
Guide-web-Nov2015.pdf
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• Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Action Words.

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwj_
xcGeqojrAhWjL6YKHZn0AvMQFjARegQIAhAB&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.apu.edu%2
Flive_data%2Ffiles%2F333%2Fblooms_taxonomy_action_verbs.pdf&usg=AOvVaw2iqZ-
XV5jJWBkm76SGYcd1
• South Carolina Center for Teaching Excellence.
https://sc.edu/about/offices_and_divisions/cte/teaching_resources/coursedevelopment/le
arning_outcomes/index.php
• UCLA Health. Course Planning Tip Sheet.
https://www.uclahealth.org/nursing/workfiles/Education%20Courses/ContinuingEducatio
n/ce-LearningOutcome-v-LearningObjective-052016.pdf
• University of Toronto - Centre for Teaching Support and Innovation. What are Learning
Outcomes? https://teaching.utoronto.ca/teaching-support/course-design/developing-
learning-outcomes/what-are-learning-outcomes/
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ASSESSMENT:
Output 3
Interview three teachers using the question guide provided in the matrix. After getting information from them, write your
generalization as to how they use the three types of assessment.
Question Guide Teacher Respondent 1: Teacher Respondent 2: Teacher Respondent 3: My Generalization
What kind of ___________________ ___________________ ___________________

assessment methods do
you use if you want your Subject Handled: Subject Handled: Subject Handled:
learners to do or ____________________ ____________________ ____________________
perform the ff:
(Remembering)
a. recall of concepts,
people, events, etc.
(Understanding)
b. explain concepts and
ideas
(Applying)
c. apply the concepts
learned
(Analyzing)
d. compare and contrast
concepts and ideas
(Evaluating)
e. make judgment in a
real-life situation or
problem using the
concepts learned
(Creating)
f. develop a project
related to the subject
Based on the lessons learned from this material and the results of your interviews, write a reflection of how will you be an
effective teacher when it comes to assessing your students’ learning.
Reminder: Document yourself as you do the interviews. Later this semester, the documentation of the activity for Output 3
will be part of your e-portfolio.
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LESSON 4: ASSESSMENT TOOLS AND STRATEGIES

OVERVIEW:
There are basically two categories of assessment strategies that provide data to determine
the learning milestones and learning outcomes of the student: test assessment and authentic
assessment.
As a recall, the selection of assessment strategies to be used depends on the learning

objectives. Hence, whichever that practically measures the intended learning outcomes (ILO) and
describes the learning milestones and achievements of the learners should be considered by the
teacher.
1. determine when and how to use test assessment and authentic assessment;
2. construct sample test assessments that are applicable to your specialization; and
3. document sample authentic assessments that are applicable to your specialization.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Test Assessment
Test assessment strategies that may be used by teachers include diagnostic, formative,
or summative. The test is a common type of assessment used in the classroom through pen-and-
paper type. In the digital world, a test is delivered online in many ways such as through email,
google forms, Learning Management System (LMS), and varied education applications like
Google Classroom and Edmodo.
There are different kinds of tests that teachers commonly used such as multiple-choice
questions, true-or-false, matching type, completion or fill-in-the-blanks, and essay.
a. Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQ)
An MCQ is composed of a stem and a set of response alternatives. The stem is the
question or problem while the response alternatives are the choices in which the best answer is
selected by the students. For Example,
Item Stem: It is a fact that very young children have a very short attention span. Which of
the following strategies is best suited to them?
Response Alternatives:
a. Let them do the things they like to do.
b. Ask them to do a long activity but with intervals.
c. Group them according to their needs and interests.
d. Prepare interesting and different activities but for short periods.
MCQ is the most versatile type of test item because it can be used to test both LOTS and
HOTS. However, MCQ items are difficult and time-consuming to construct especially if you are
developing questions that resemble miniature “cases” or situations where students may apply
learned concepts, analyze the problem, and synthesize information into a new concept.
The following guidelines must be considered by a teacher when preparing an MCQ type
of test:
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• Use at least four (4) choices for each item to lower the chance of guessing the correct
answer.
• Have approximately the same proportion of alternatives A, B, C, and D as the correct
response and distribute in random, avoiding patterns.
• Avoid irrelevant clues that might give chance to guess the correct answer. Check the
grammatical structure, well-known verbal associations, or connections between stem and
answer.
• Consider if possible the presentation of alternatives in some logical order be it
chronological, most to least, or alphabetical.
• Rarely use the alternatives none of the above and all of the above. When used, such
alternatives should be used seldom as the correct response.
• Hardly use negatively stated stems. When used, underline or capitalize the negative word
(e.g. Which does NOT belong to the group?)
• Keep all alternatives in a similar or consistent format (i.e., all phrases, all sentences, etc.)
• As much as possible, make the alternatives for an item approximately of the same length
to avoid having the student assume that the correct answer is usually the longer one.
b. True-or-False Test
There are only two possible responses for each item and the student chooses between
them, whether the statement is true or false. True-false questions are well suited for testing
student recall or comprehension.
The following guidelines must be considered by a teacher when preparing True-False

items:
• Keep the language as simple and as clear as possible.
• The number of true and false items should be approximately equal.
• The arrangement of true and false items should be in random.
• Use popular misconceptions/belief as false statements
• Avoid the use of extreme modifiers (e.g., all, always, only, none, never, everyone,
absolutely, certainly, etc. ) or qualifiers (usually, often, some, many, sometimes,
frequently, etc.)
• Avoid lifting statements from the text, lecture, or other materials so that memory alone will
not permit a correct answer.
• Avoid using negatively stated item statements.
• Avoid the use of unfamiliar vocabulary.
c. Matching Type Test
Matching questions provide the most efficient way to test knowledge in courses in which
events, dates, names, and places are important. It is also appropriate for sciences in which
numerous experiments, experimenters, results, and special terms and definitions have to be
remembered. Simple matching of items consists of two columns: one column of stems or
problems to be answered, and another column of responses from which the answers are to be
chosen. Traditionally, the column of stems is placed on the left and the column of responses is
placed on the right. One way to reduce the possibility of guessing correct answers is to list a
larger number of responses than stems.
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Directions: One the line next to each psychological theory in Column A,

write the letter of the name of the proponent in Column B. Each name of
the proponent can be used only once.
Column A Column B
___ 1. Psychosocial Theory A. Abraham Maslow
___ 2. Psychoanalytical Theory B. Erik Erikson
___ 3. Cognitive Theory C. Jean Piaget
___ 4. Moral Development Theory D. Lawrence Kohlberg
___ 5. Ecological System Theory E. Sigmund Freud
F. Urie Bronfenbrenner
F.
The following guidelines must be considered by a teacher when preparing matching type
test items:
• Include directions that clearly state the basis for matching the stems with the responses.
• Keep matching items brief, limiting to the list of stimuli to 10-15.
• Avoid grammatical or other clues to the correct response.
• The column of stimuli on the left should set the question clearly.
• Avoid breaking a set of items (stems and responses) over two pages.
• Make sure there are no multiple correct responses for one stem.
• Arrange the list of responses in some systematic order if possible (chronological,
alphabetical)
d. Completion or Fill-in-the-Blanks Test

Completion items are especially useful in assessing mastery of factual information when
a specific word or phrase is important to know. A completion item requires the student to answer
a question or to finish an incomplete statement by filling in a blank with the correct word or phrase.
For example:
According to Freud, personality is made up of three major systems, the
_________, the ________ and the __________.
Completion items are good for assessing knowledge level which involves who, what,
where, and when content. It minimizes guessing. However, it is difficult to assess higher levels of
learning because it overemphasizes the memorization of facts.
The following guidelines must be considered by a teacher when preparing completion

items:
• Omit only significant words from the statement.
• Do not omit so many words from the statement that the intended meaning is lost.
• Avoid obvious clues to the correct response.
• Be sure that there is only one correct response.
• Avoid grammatical clues to the correct response.
• If possible, put the blank at the end of the statement rather than at the beginning.
• To facilitate scoring, have the students write their responses on lines arranged in a column
to the left of the items.
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e. Essay Tests
Essay tests present a realistic task for the student. Essays are good for assessing higher-
order thinking skills because it allows students to demonstrate the ability to organize knowledge,
express opinions, and show originality. Moreover, students are less likely to guess. Take note
that essays favor students who possess good writing skills and neatness.
While it is easy and less time consuming to construct an essay test, it is subjective which
is potential for an unreliable scoring that is why there must be a scoring model to guide the
teacher.
The following guidelines must be considered by a teacher when preparing essay test
items:
• Formulate the question so that the task is clearly defined for the student. Use words that
aim the student to the approach you want them to take.
• Avoid the use of optional questions. When students answer different questions, they are
actually taking different tests, hence, it makes it difficult to discriminate between the
student who could respond to all essay questions. If we are going to compare students for
scoring purposes, then all students should perform the same tasks so as not to affect the
reliability of the scoring.
• Write essay items at different levels of learning. Items should represent situations that test
the student’s ability to use knowledge to analyze, justify, explain, contrast, evaluate, and
so on.
• Use a scoring model. There are two approaches to score essay items:
o Analytic or point method. Before scoring, prepare an ideal answer in which the
major components are defined and assigned point values. Read and compare the
student’s answer with the model answer. Credit is given based on the elements
included in the answer.
o Holistic or rating method. This method involves considering the student’s answer
as a whole and judging the total quality of the answer relative to other student
responses or the total quality of the answer based on certain criteria that you
develop.
• Write comments on the student’s answers. Teacher’s comments make essay tests a good
learning experience for the students.
2. Authentic Assessment
An authentic assessment is related to tasks relevant to professional practice or real-life

(Crisp, 2011). Teachers use authentic assessment to demonstrate the skills and concepts that
they have learned. Clay (2001) claimed that authentic assessment aims to evaluate students’
abilities in a real-world context where they can learn how to apply their skills to authentic tasks
and projects. It goes beyond learning and passive test-taking. Instead, it focuses on student’s
analytical skills, ability to integrate what they learn, creativity, ability to work collaboratively, and
written and oral expression skills.
There are different kinds of authentic assessment and tools which teachers may use.
Again, be reminded that the selection of assessment strategies to be used depends on the
learning objectives. Hence, whichever that practically measures the intended learning outcomes
(ILO) and describes the learning milestones and achievements of the learners should be
considered by the teacher. Using combinations of any of the samples of authentic assessment
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(together with test assessments) is also a good practice as long as the use will justify the
alignment to the learning objectives.
a. Rubrics
A rubric is an assessment tool that comes along when portfolios, projects, performances, and
other student authentic tasks are evaluated. It is a tool to measure certain students’
knowledge and abilities which are not measurable by standardized testing systems (Price,
et. al, 2011).
b. Performance-based Assessments (PBA)

In PBA, students are asked to perform an authentic task that simulates a real-life experience
and imitates real-world challenges. Hence, PBA encourages students to synthesize their
knowledge and apply their skills to circumstances that are likely to occur in the real-world that
is beyond the four walls of a classroom setting. Some examples of PBA include designing
and constructing a model, developing, conducting, and reporting on a survey, carrying out a
science experiment, creating and testing a computer program, and outlining, researching,
and writing an in-depth report (Price, et. al, 2011). PBA is more student-centered and is
better to assess HOTS. Scoring rubrics are used to measure a PBA.
c. Portfolio Assessment
Portfolios highlight student effort, development, and achievement over a certain period
because it requires students to document a collection of their works gathered over time,
hence, it is primarily used as a summative evaluation method. It measures a student’s ability
to apply knowledge and is considered both student-centered and authentic assessments of
learning.
Through technology, space limitations normally associated with paper portfolios are
eliminated through e-portfolio. E-portfolio gives ease of storage, creativity of presentation,
and facilitation of collaboration. Like PBA, portfolios or e-portfolios are measured using
scoring rubrics.
d. Self-assessment
Self-assessment is generally viewed as a formative strategy that promotes self-regulation
and helps students to judge their work, to reflect on their progress, and to determine revisions
and improvements on a task to meet specific criteria (Price, et. al, 2011). For self- assessment
to be truly effective, four (4) conditions must be in placed (Ross, in Price, et. al 2011):
• students and teacher agree on the self-assessment criteria to be used by the former;
• students are taught how to apply the self-assessment criteria;
• teachers provide feedback on the students’ own assessments; and,
• teachers help students use assessment data to enhance greater learning and to meet
the learning objectives.
e. Peer Assessment
Peer assessments can be used with different authentic tasks such as papers,
presentations, performances, projects, among others. In peer assessment, learners assess the
work of other learners and the feedback obtained provides information about the quality of their
work or output. While peer assessment is a good teaching strategy, it can also be considered a
part of the grading system. For example, peer editing may be done on a draft report but the
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teacher evaluates the final draft or peers may provide part of the score on a student’s performance
but the rest of the score comes from the teachers’ assessment. (Prince, et. al, 2011).
f. Student Response Systems

Student response system (SRS), also known as classroom response system (CRS),
audience response system (ARS) or colloquially as “clickers,” is a general term that refers to a
variety of technology-based formative assessment tools that can be used to gather student-level
data instantly in the classroom. Through the combination of hardware (handheld clickers, receiver,
PC, internet connection, projector, and screen) and software, teachers can ask students a wide
range of questions (both closed and open-ended), students can respond quickly and
anonymously, and the teacher can display the data immediately and graphically. What makes
SRS distinct from other assessment tools is its ability to collect and display data instantly rather
than waiting days to present the outcome as with a test, essay, or project.
g. Role-plays and scenario-based learning

Role-plays allow students to take on the role of a persona and to respond as that persona
in a scenario constructed by the teacher. They are designed as authentic learning and
assessment activities. Students can interact with other students (through their personas) to
collaborate, collude, negotiate, or debate an issue. Both role-plays and scenario-based learning
provide students with decision points and branching opportunities (Crisp, 2011).
h. Graphic Organizers and Concept Mapping
Graphic organizers and concept mapping are visual representations of mental maps. As an
authentic assessment strategy, students are encouraged to apply skills such as sequencing,
comparing, contrasting, and classifying in presenting relationships and associations of concepts
and ideas through a visual format. A scoring rubric is used to measure a graphic organizer or a
concept map (Scott, n.d).
REFERENCES:
• Clay, B. (2001). Is This a Trick Question? A Short Guide to Writing Effective Test
Questions. Kansas Curriculum Center, Kansas State Department of Education.
https://www.k-state.edu/ksde/alp/resources/Handout-Module6.pdf
• Crisp, G. (2011). Teacher’s Handbook on E-Assessment.
https://www.dkit.ie/system/files/Teachers%20Handbook%20on%20e-
Assessment%20G%20Crisp%20Transforming%20Assessment.pdf
• Price J.K., Pierson, E., and Light, D. (2011). Using Classroom Assessment to Promote
st
21 Century Learning in Emerging Market Countries.
http://cct.edc.org/sites/cct.edc.org/files/publications/Using%20Classroom%20Assessme
nt.pdf
• Scott, J. (n.d). Authentic Assessment.

https://ilearn.marist.edu/access/content/group/bb30edbb-84eb-4d65-8292-
ff8ac52de2e3/Readings%20and%20Information/custer5.pdf
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ASSESSMENT:
Output 4
4.1 Select a particular topic in your field of specialization. You may google a topic of your
interest or get it from a book that you may borrow from a teacher or student in your
neighborhood. You will use your desired topic to prepare sample items for the following
types of test:
a. 5 items for MCQ
b. 5 items for True-or-False
c. 5 items for Matching Type
d. 5 items for Completion for Fill-in-the-Blanks
e. 2 items for Essays
Include in your output the following:

• Answer Keys for a to d
• Scoring Model for e
• Details of your reference material/s (author, title, copyright information, website,
etc.)
4.2 Create an informative and creative brochure/e-brochure of authentic assessments. Show

pictures and details of each type. Have your brochure/e-brochure be assessed by three
classmates using the criteria below.
Criteria 4 3 2 1
Attractiveness The brochure/e- The brochure/e- The brochure/e- The brochure/e-
brochure is brochure is brochure is brochure is
exceptionally exceptionally acceptably distractingly
attractive in attractive in attractive though messy or poorly
terms of design, terms of design, it may be a bit designed. It is
layout, and layout, and messy not attractive.
neatness neatness
Content-Accuracy Majority (76% Most (51-75%) of (Some (26-50%) Very limited
and above) of the the facts of the facts (25% and below)
facts discussed in discussed in the discussed in the facts discussed
the lesson are lesson are lesson are in the lesson are
incorporated. incorporated. incorporated. incorporated.
Grammar x There are no There are 1-2 There are 3 or
grammatical or grammatical or more
mechanical mechanical grammatical or
mistakes in the mistakes in the mechanical
poster/concept poster/concept mistakes in the
map. map. poster/concept
map.
Reminder: Output 4 (4.1 and 4.2) will be part of your e-portfolio.
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LESSON 5: TESTS, TEST CONSTRUCTION AND TEST IMPROVEMENT
OVERVIEW:
A test is a measuring tool. In education, teachers use different kinds of a test to measure
students’ learning and to get essential information to make decisions in instruction and grading
students.
This lesson presents different types of test according to categories. Moreover, you will be
informed about the principles of a good test which you need to follow when constructing a test.
You will also be taught how to prepare a table of specifications (TOS) which is a requirement in
preparing a valid test. And lastly, item analysis will be presented in this lesson to teach you how
to improve a teacher-made test, thus, strengthening its validity and reliability.
1. identify the different types of a test according to categories;
2. explain the principles of a good test;
3. construct a table of specifications; and,
4. analyzing test items using the Difficulty Index and Discrimination Index.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Types of Test
Tests are divided into different types taking into consideration their content, objective,
administration system, scoring style, etc.
a. According to the principle of test construction:

• Teacher-made tests - are tools prepared by the teachers to evaluate their
students. They are prepared for a small number of students, generally for a section
or a class.
• Standardized test - is developed in such a way that it reaches up to a specific level
of quality or standardization with respect to form and construction, administration
procedures, and test norms. It is standardized in terms of its development,
administration, scoring, and interpretation. The test is standardized to bring
objectivity, reliability, validity, and to have all the other characteristics of a good test.
Later, the characteristics of a good test will be discussed for further understanding.
b. According to the point of reference:
• Norm-Reference Test. To understand the norm-referenced test, let us understand

first the term ‘norm’. In the community, a norm is a set of behavior or conduct
followed or displayed by all the members. It could be customs, traditions, practices
that people “normally” do and follow in their community.
In the classroom, the norm is the average performance of the group or class. For
example, a group of 60 students took a 50-item test, with a total score of 50. After
determining the scores of all the students and identifying that the average score of
these 60 students is, say 33, then the said mark or score is the norm of this group.
In evaluating all the 60 students considering 33 (the norm) as the point of
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reference, we can say that those who got scores higher than 33 are considered
above average while those who got lower than 33, below average.
Take note that there is no pass or fail in this type of evaluation since there are set
marks for passing the test. This type of evaluation is called a norm-referenced
evaluation and the test is considered as a norm-referenced test.
• Criterion-referenced test. It is a type of evaluation in which the performance of

the students is evaluated with reference to some predetermined criteria. No weight
is given to the norm or average performance of the group in this evaluation.
Instead, all decisions, such as pass or fail are taken with reference to criteria set
already in advance.
For example, if 50% is the minimum requirement (the criterion) to pass a 50-item
test, then those who got a score of 26 or higher are declared as “pass” while those
who got a score of 25 or lower are declared as “fail”.
c. According to the mode of administration:

• Individual Test - when a test is administered upon an individual at a particular
time.
• Group Test – when a test is administered upon a group of individuals at a
particular time.
d. According to the ability of the student:

• Speed Test – this is applicable upon the individuals to know the mental
speediness. In this test, the time is limited and all the questions are equal in
difficulty level.
• Power Test – this type of test is applicable upon individuals to know the mental
power or the ability. Time limit is not present and the individuals are expected to
answer the question within as much time as they lie. All the questions of this test
are arranged according to difficulty level and discriminating power.
e. According to the type of items involved in the test:

• Essay-type test - otherwise known as an open-ended test. This is useful in
measuring student learning which cannot be measured through objective tests. By
giving an essay test, the teacher can measure the learner’s ability to organize,
integrate, and express ideas about the lessons learned.
• Short-answer type test – this test requires to be written in a short-cut manner
regarding a concept. It is suitable for measuring a wide variety of relatively simple
learning outcomes such as the recall of memorized information.
• Objective-type test – in this test, the individual is expected to answer the question
with the help of a word, a phrase, a number, or a symbol. The test with multiple-
choice items, true-false items, matching type items, and fill-in-the-blanks items are
examples of objective type tests.
f. According to the method of scoring:

• Machine-scored test - tests that are scored or assessed by a machine like
computers.
• Hand-scored test - Tests that are assessed by a human being.
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g. According to the nature of the test:

• Oral test – it is a kind of verbal test where the individual is expected to answer orally.
• Written test – the individual has to respond in writing form.
• Performance test - also known as “non-verbal test” where the student has to
perform the task.
2. Principles of a Good Test
The following are the characteristics of a good test:

• Reliability – it is the consistency of scores gained by the learner at different times on the
same test or parallel test, scored by the same or different examiner at the same or different
times. The difference in scores, if any, should be insignificant.
• Validity – the test should measure what it is supposed to measure. The test, therefore,
should be aligned to the learning objectives to make it valid. If a tool is developed or
prepared for a particular cognitive level, say, analysis, then it should measure that aspect
only.
• Objectivity – a test should be objective in nature. The test should gain almost the same
score to an individual, irrespective of the examiner who scores it. It should be free from all
kinds of biases.
• Practicability – the usefulness of a test in terms of time, energy, and resources should
be considered. Also, it should also be easy to administer.
Remember, RVOP - reliability, validity, objectivity, and practicability.
3. Test Construction
In constructing a test, say you are preparing a periodical test or a long test, you need to
prepare a Table of Specifications (TOS). Remember that TOS is a pre-requisite when constructing
a test. TOS is sometimes called a test blueprint which helps teachers aligning the learning
objectives, instruction, and assessment. This strategy can be used for a variety of assessment
methods but is most commonly associated with constructing traditional summative tests.
The TOS can help teachers map the amount of class time spent on each objective with the
cognitive level at which each objective was taught thereby helping teachers to identify the types
of items they need to include on their tests (Fives and DiDonato-Barnes, 2013).
When constructing a test, teachers need to be concerned that the test measures an adequate
sampling of the content at the cognitive level in which the material was taught. This means that
aside from weighing up the coverage of the lessons taught, teachers need also to consider the
taxonomy of learning expressed in the learning objectives in teaching these lessons. For
example, if the lesson was taught to students on how to do analysis and evaluation, then assess
them by giving test questions that will require them to do so.
According to Khan (no date), a TOS is designed based on the following:

• Course learning outcomes/objectives;
• Topics covered in class;
• Amount of time spent on those topics;
• Methods of instruction; and
• Assessment plan.
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Fives and DiDonato-Barnes’ (2013) sample TOS has the following parts:
• Instructional objectives;
• Time spent on teaching;
• Percent of class time on a topic;
• Number of test Items;
• Number and kind of test items in lower levels; and
• Number and kind of test items in higher levels.
Below is a sample TOS with some modifications from the parts suggested by Khan and
Fives and DiDonato-Barnes.
Table of Specifications for a 50-item Midterm Examination in Assessment in Learning 1

Lessons Time Allotted for Teaching Number Distribution of items
hours % of items * Understanding Applying Analyzing
1. Intro to 3 14.29% 8 4 4
Assessment
2. Types of 6 28.57% 14 4 5 5
Assessment
3. Alignment of 6 28.57% 14 4 5 5
Assessment with
Learning
Outcomes and
Learning
Objectives
4. Assessment Tools 6 28.57% 14 3 5 6
and Strategies:
Total 21 100% 50 15 15 20
*50 test items x percentage of teaching time
You will notice from the sample above the following:

a. The test is composed of 50 items. It is the teacher who determines how many items should
be included in a test to cover all the lessons and to assess enough the students’ knowledge.
b. All topics discussed are enlisted. This is to make sure that no lesson is missed when you
give a test.
c. The number of test items allotted is proportionate to the amount of time the lesson is taught.
This is to assure that all the lessons discussed are proportionately represented. Students
would not like to take too many test items in a lesson which was almost not discussed. The
same is true in taking a test where the topics presented in the class were not included in
the test.
d. Items are distributed in terms of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Learning. Notice that the
sample has only three (3) out of the six (6) cognitive types. The sample shows that the
learning objectives set in teaching the topics are centralized to understanding, applying, and
analyzing only. This means that in test preparation, teachers need to revisit the learning
objectives and consider these in determining what type of test items to be included in the
test. To reiterate from the past lessons, there is a need to align the learning objectives to
instruction and assessment.
You may then ask what kinds of tests to be considered in this 50-item test. You need to
go back to Lesson 4 and review the Test Assessment. There are different kinds of tests that
teachers commonly used such as multiple-choice questions, true-or-false, matching type,
completion or fill-in-the-blanks, and essay. While you may have a combination of these kinds, you
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may also opt to have all the 50 items in MCQ. Just remember that the quality of questions to be
included must test the students’ understanding, applying, and analyzing the concepts learned in
the four (4) lessons cited in the TOS.
4. Item Analysis as Basis for Test Improvement
Classroom tests must be reviewed for technical quality to be able to provide information that
is meaningful and consistent. In doing so, teachers need to do item analysis which is a relatively
easy procedure.
In item analysis, individual items on a test are examined instead of examining the test as a
whole, for its difficulty, appropriateness, relationship to the rest of the test, among others. It is
useful in helping teachers determine which items to retain, to revise, or to discard on a given test.
The overall quality of the test is improved since the reliability and validity of the test are also
improved through item analysis.
According to McMillan (2019), item analysis is both qualitative and quantitative. He

distinctively described each:
a. Qualitative analysis of test assessment items is conducted before the test is given to prevent
the inclusion of vague questions and to ensure that each item will provide useful information
about the students’ learning. It is also done after determining the quality of the test through
qualitative item analysis which will be discussed later. In qualitative analysis, teachers act as
content experts who evaluate if the test items:
• match the course objectives and content being assessed;

• are written clearly to avoid confusion;
• have one correct answer (for MCQ);
• provide clear expectations for constructed-response like essay tests and performance-
task items;
• provide an equal chance for success to all students
• help teachers determine their students’ learning performance
b. The quantitative item analysis, on the other hand, happens after the items have been
administered and scored. The responses given and scores obtained by the students provide
numeric data which serves as educational information produced by each item. To mean how
well an item functions as an indicator of student knowledge, assessment experts sometimes
refer this to “item behavior”.
Analyzing an item quantitatively in a test can be done through Item Difficulty Index and
Item Discrimination Index.
b.1 Item Difficulty Index. It is also called the p-value because it is a measure of proportion,
that is the proportion of students who answer a particular question correctly on a test. The
formula is
Np Where Np is the number of test-takers who got the item correct

p=
Nt Nt is the number of test-takers
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Take these results in a 10-item test taken by 10 students (Nt) as our example. Data in
each question item were recorded in which 1 means that the item was answered correctly while
0 refers to an incorrect answer. Using MS Excel, the number of test-takers who got the correct
answer in each question item was summed up (N p) and then the difficulty index or p-values were
calculated across all items.
Difficulty Index of a 10-Item Test in English

Question Items
Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ana 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
Ben 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
Carl 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Dan 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Eli 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Fae 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
Gino 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
Hero 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
Ian 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
Jay 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Np 8 7 6 5 10 2 3 9 7 4
p 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 1 0.2 0.3 0.9 0.7 0.4
In item analysis, p-values are reported in a range between 0.0 and 1.0. Higher p-values
correspond with a greater proportion of students who answered a question correctly. It implies
that easier questions will have greater p-values while difficult questions will have lower p-values.
To interpret:
Range Difficulty Level Decision

More than 0.8 Very easy item Revise or Discard the item
0.3 to 0.8 Moderate item Retain the item
Less than 0.3 Very difficult item Revise or Discard the item
Notice that in test item no. 5, all the 10 students got the correct answer (p-value of 1.0).
We can say item 5 is a very easy question because all got the correct answer. On the other hand,
notice that in test item no. 6, only two (2) got the question answered correctly (p-value of 0.2),
hence, we can say that it is too difficult. Can you identify which other items are too easy and too
difficult?
An item that almost all students got correct answers (high p-value) may suggest that all
students understand the item, but it could also signify the item was not well-written due to clues
that lead students to get the correct response or it could be simply so easy that the score says
very little about whether the content is fully understood by the students. Likewise, an item that
very few students got correct answers (low p-value) may suggest the material is a poorly written
item that may cause confusion, or it could be too difficult for the students’ current level of
understanding (McMillan, 2019).
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 31
Items may be problematic for one or more of the following reasons:

• awkward wording, causing students to be confused when responding;
• unclear or misleading graphs, pictures, diagrams, or other information accompanying the
items;
• multiple correct responses;
• obviously wrong distractors (incorrect options for multiple-choice items) that lead to
increasing the chance of guessing the correct answer; and
• biased manner of how items are written which favors one group of students over another.
b.2 Item Discrimination Index. It is another way that teachers can evaluate the validity of
their tests. It evaluates how well an individual question sorts students who have mastered the
material from those who have not. Students with mastery of the material should be more likely
to answer a question correctly, whereas students without mastery should get the question
wrong. Through Item Discrimination Index, we can identify those questions that do good in
sorting those students who have mastered the material from those who have no or lack
mastery.
Let us have the previous data as our example.
Discrimination Index of a 10-Item Test in English

Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 total scores
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Upper
Dan 10
Group
Fae 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 9
Hero 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 9
Ben 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 6
Eli 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 6
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 Lower
Ian 5
Group
Ana 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 5
Gino 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 4
Jay 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 4
Carl 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 3
Number of students in
the UG who got the
correct answer (Cug) 4 4 5 4 5 2 2 5 5 4
Number of students in
the LG who got the
correct answer (Clg) 4 3 1 1 5 0 1 4 2 0
Di = (Cug - Clg) / N 0 0.1 0.4 0.3 0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4
As you can see in the example given, the scores were arranged from highest to lowest,
then they are divided into two equal groups, the upper group (upper 50%) and the lower group
(lower 50%).
The total number of test-takers (N) is 10. In each question item, the sum of the number of
students who got the correct answer in the lower group (Clg) was determined. Similarly, the sum
of the number of students who got the correct answer in the upper group (Cug) was also calculated.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 32
Using MS Excel, the Discrimination Index value (Di) was calculated through this formula:
Cug - Clg
Di =
N
The range in the Discrimination Index is +1 to -1. To interpret,

Range Verbal Interpretation Decision
0.40 and above Very good item Retain the item
0.30 to 0.39 Good item Retain the item
0.20 to 0.29 Fair item Retain the item; revision may be considered
0.19 and below Poor item Revise or discard the item
Based on the table on the previous page, items 1 and 2 have low Discrimination Index
value. Can you spot other items with low D i value that is 0.19 and below? Items with low Di value
must be given a careful qualitative review in terms of wording, presentation, and content.
In a test result, imagine that those students who did well overall got an item wrong while
students who did not do well overall got the correct answer. This should not be the case, isn’t it?
This implies that there is a problem with the item.
According to McMillan (2019), problematic items do not contribute consistent information

on what students know, hence, they should be removed from scoring and future testing. However,
upon review, you may either remove it or revise it.
REFERENCES:
• Classroom Assessment. https://fcit.usf.edu/assessment/selected/responsec.html
• Fives, H. and DiDonato-Barnes, N. (2013) "Classroom Test Construction: The Power of a
Table of Specifications," Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation: Vol. 18, Article 3.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.7275/cztt-7109
Available at: https://scholarworks.umass.edu/pare/vol18/iss1/3
https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1300&context=pare
• Khan, A (no date) Table of Specifications. http://profdrayubent.com/files/ppt/1/EPEV-2-3-
TABLE-OF-SPECIFICATION.pdf
• Kumar, H, Kumar, S, Ahmad, J. and Khan A.; Mani, A. (ed) (2016). Measurement and
Evaluation in Education. Directorate of Distance Education, Tripura University. Vikas
Publishing House, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
https://www.tripurauniv.ac.in/Content/pdf/Distance%20Education%20Notice/Measurement
%20and%20Evaluation%20in%20Education%20_%20MA-Edu%20_%20ED-
804%20E%20_%20English_21072017.pdf
• McMillan, S. (2019) Item Statistics for Classroom Assessments.
https://eddata.com/2019/06/item-statistics-for-classroom-assessments-1/
Assessment:
Output 5
5.1 Create a table of specifications for a 40-item test of a subject in your field of
specialization. For specific lessons, you may refer to a reference book used in schools. The
learning objectives when the lessons were taught include those which required students to
remember, apply, analyze, and evaluate the concepts learned. Each lesson was taught with an
equal number of hours. Reminder: Do not forget to write the title of your TOS. (Note: This TOS
will be used later as basis of Output 6).
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 33
5.2 Below are the scores of 20 students who took a 15-item test. Copy this to an MS Excel
document.
Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
C 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
D 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
E 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
F 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
G 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
H 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
I 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
J 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
K 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
L 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
M 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
N 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
O 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
P 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
Q 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
R 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
S 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
T 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
Calculate the Difficulty Index value and the Discrimination Index value to determine how
to treat each of the 15 items (whether to retain or to revise or discard). After computations, show
your decision using this matrix:
Item Difficulty Index Discrimination Index
no. (p-value) Verbal Decision Di value Verbal Decision
Description Description
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Reminder: Output 5 (5.1 and 5.2) will be part of your e-portfolio.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 34
LESSON 6: RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF TESTS
OVERVIEW:
Reliability and validity are two requirements of a good test. This lesson presents the
concept, characteristics, types, and factors of reliability and validity.
At the end of this lesson starts, you are expected to:
1. compare and contrast different types of validity and reliability tests; and
2. apply an appropriate validity test in a constructed classroom test.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Reliability of a Test
Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement, which is how stable test scores or other
assessment results are from one measurement to another. Hence, the reliability of a test which
is a measuring device signifies the extent to which it yields consistent results upon testing and
retesting. If a test measures consistently, it is reliable.
The characteristics of reliability are as follows:

• It refers to the degree to which a measuring tool yields consistent results upon testing and
retesting.
• It indicates the level to which a test is internally consistent.
• It refers to the preciseness of a measuring instrument.
• Reliability is necessary but not a sufficient condition for validity.
Factors affecting reliability:

a. Length of the test. There is a positive correlation between the number of items in
a test and the reliability of a test. The more the number of items the test contains,
the greater is its reliability.
b. Construction of the test. The nature of items, their difficulty level, the objectivity
of scoring, item interdependence, and alternative responses are factors that affect
the reliability. More alternative responses will increase the reliability of the test.
c. Nature of the group. The reliability of a test will be more if the test is administered
to a heterogeneous group. The more the variability, the higher the reliability
coefficient.
d. Testing Conditions. If the testing conditions are not similar at all the places, then
differences in scores are obtained. The physical conditions of the test and the
environmental factors around the test-taker affect the reliability of a test.
e. Guessing and chance errors. Guessing paves the way to increase error
variances and it reduces reliability. If there are more opportunities for guessing in
the test, the test will yield less reliable results.
f. Too easy or too difficult items. Too easy or too difficult items fail to distinguish
between good and bad students which otherwise affects the reliability of a test.
g. Other factors that affect the reliability of tests are subjects of the examiner, clerical
error, interval between testing, the effect of practice, etc.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 35
Types of Reliability Testing
Source: Koul, L. and Mani, A. (ed) (2016). Measurement and Evaluation in Education
2. Validity of a Test
The validity of a test is determined by measuring the extent to which it matches with a
given criterion. It refers to the very important purpose of a test, and it is the most important
characteristic of a good test. A test may have other merits, but it if lacks validity, it is useless.
Characteristics of Validity
• It refers to the truthfulness of the test result.
• If the test is valid, it is reliable; but if the test is reliable, it may or may not be valid.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 36
• It is an evaluative judgment on a test. It measures the degree to which a test measures

what it intends to measure.
• It refers to the appropriateness of the interpretation of the result, and not to the procedure
itself.
• No assessment is valid for all the purposes. A test is valid for a particular purpose only.
Factors Affecting Validity

• Lack of clarity in directions. If the directions are not clear, the students will
misunderstand the purpose of the test, and this in turn will hamper the validity of the test
• Ambiguity. Ambiguous statements lead to confusion and misinterpretation.
• Length of the test. Lengthening of a test not only increases its reliability but also its
validity. If a test is too short to provide a representative sample of the performance, its
validity will suffer accordingly.
• Nature of the group. A test may be valid for one group but may not be valid for another.
• Inadequate time. In the case of an achievement test, if sufficient time will not be given to
the students, it reduces the validity of the interpretation of results.
• Poorly constructed test items. Sometimes, the test items are very subjective, vague,
unclear and this affects the validity of a test.
• Improper arrangement of items. The items in a test should be arranged according to the
difficulty order, from easy to difficult.
• Identifiable pattern of answers. Correct answers in some systematic order enable a
student to guess the right answers more easily and affect the validity of a test.
• Factors in administration and scoring. Factors like insufficient time, unfair aid to
individual students who ask for help, cheating, and unreliable scoring by students tend to
lower validity.
• Cultural influences. Cultural influence, socio-economic status, social class structure, etc.
affect the test scores as well as the validity of a test.
• A criterion that is correlated to the test. The criterion, for which the validity is assessed,
should be a reliable one and free from bias, or else it will affect the validity.
Types of Validity Test

• Face validity. When a test appears to measure what the test user wishes or intends to
measure, it is said to possess face validity. Face validity does not require any statistical
technique. It is based on subjective judgment. Whenever a test is prepared, it is submitted to
experts to assess if it measures what it intends to measure.
• Content validity. Content considerations are especially very important when validating
achievement tests or constructing classroom tests. The content validity of a test is estimated
by assessing the presence of the content to be assessed in the test paper. So if we want to
construct a test in a specific subject, questions included in the test should be related to the
topics covered and all the items must measure the different behavioral objectives. Content
validity is also known as “curricular validity” or “rational validity” or “logical validity”.
• Concurrent validity. Content validity is used to refer to the process of validating a new test
by correlating it with some available source of information that might have been obtained
shortly before or shortly after the new test is given. Concurrent validity indicates to what extent
the test scores correspond to already accepted measures of performance. When new tests
are validated against previous tests, these previous or established tests are known criteria
for the new tests.
• Construct validity. The construct validity of a test is the extent to which the test may be said
to measure a theoretical construct or trait. A construct is an individual characteristic that we
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 37
assume exists to explain some aspects of behavior. Examples of such constructs are
scholastic aptitude mechanical comprehension, anxiety, etc.
• Predictive validity. The predictive validity of a test refers to the predictive capacity of a test.
It refers to the effectiveness of a test in predicting future outcomes in a particular area. Like
for example, PUPCET scores are correlated to LET scores. If the coefficient of correlation is
high, we say that PUPCET has high predictive validity.
• Criterion validity. Criterion validity evidence tells us just how well a test corresponds with
particular criteria. It includes both predictive validity and concurrent validity. A test may be
validated against many criteria as there are specific uses for it.
REFERENCES:
• Koul, L. and Mani, A. (ed) (2016). Measurement and Evaluation in Education. Directorate
of Distance Education, Tripura University. Vikas Publishing House, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
https://www.tripurauniv.ac.in/Content/pdf/Distance%20Education%20Notice/Measureme
nt%20and%20Evaluation%20in%20Education%20_%20MA-Edu%20_%20ED-
804%20E%20_%20English_21072017.pdf
ASSESSMENT :
Output 6:
6.1 Prepare a 40-item test based on the TOS prepared in Output 5.1. Request two (2) licensed
professional teachers to critique on the content validity of the test as well as its overall appearance
and structure, among others. Show your TOS together with your test for their reference. With
this, you are required to
• summarize all the comments using the matrix below and write around a 250-word
reflection on what you have learned about their expert comments;
Points to be critiqued COMMENTS

Critic Teacher 1: Critic Teacher 2:
Test Instructions
Test appearance
Content of the test
Construction of test
items
Arrangement of test
items
Scorability of the Test
Reminder: Output 6 will be part of your e-portfolio. Document the following: the
constructed 40-item test, the critique teacher’s comments in matrix form, and your
reflection.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 38
LESSON 7: QUANTIFYING AND ANALYZING TEST RESULTS
OVERVIEW:
In the previous lesson, you were taught how to construct a test and improve it after item
analysis. When a teacher administers a valid and reliable test, results should be recorded and
analyzed quantitatively to give meaningful information on how the students performed, either
individually or as a class.
This lesson starts with the presentation of data in frequency distribution table which is a
springboard to understand the data through the next topics: measures of central tendency (mean,
median and mode) and measures of variation (range and standard deviation).
1. prepare a frequency distribution table; and
2. compute and analyze students’ performance in a test based on the measures of
central tendency and measures of variability
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Presentation of Data in Frequency Distribution Table

After the collection of data say the scores of the students, it requires to be presented in a
systematic form so that it can be managed properly. Raw data gives no meaning until it is
arranged properly. The most common way or organizing raw data is to form a frequency
distribution. It may be done in the form of tally mark and frequencies (Figure 1) which is used
when data is small in size and grouped frequency distribution when data is big (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Tally mark and frequencies
When the amount of data is large, it is useful to group data into classes or class
intervals using a frequency distribution table.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 39
Let us have the following scores obtained by 40 students in a 50-item test in

Mathematics as our example:
46 27 36 28 29
33 43 37 42 24
34 22 38 29 25
35 27 28 39 41
33 34 35 35 32
36 37 38 30 31
33 34 36 37 38
30 31 35 32 30
To construct the frequency distribution table for grouped data:

• Find the range. The range is the difference between the highest score and the lowest
score in the set. In the given data, the greatest is 46 and the least is 22. Hence, the
range is 24.
• Find the intervals. The intervals separate the scale into equal parts. We could choose
intervals of 3. The lowest score is 22, we then begin with 21 since 21 is the nearest
score lower than 22 which is divisible by 3.
• Draw the frequency table using the selected scale and intervals.
Frequency Distribution Table of a 50-item Test in Mathematics

Scores Tally Frequency
45-47 / 1
42-44 // 2
39-41 // 2
36-38 ////-//// 9
33-35 ////-//// 10
30-32 ////-// 7
27-29 ////-/ 6
24-26 // 2
21-23 / 1
ci = 3 N= 40
Figure 2 Frequency Distribution Table for Grouped Data
2. Measures of central tendency - mean, median and mode

If the scores of students in a class are taken, we may find who scores very high or very low
since the marks of most of the students will lie somewhere between the highest and the lowest
scores of the entire class. This tendency of a group about distribution is named as central
tendency and the typical score that lies in between the extremes and shared by most of the
students is referred to as a measure of central tendency (Chandan, 2016). A measure of central
tendency is a central value within a group of numbers where the most common statistics used
to represent the central values are mean, median and mode.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 40
h. The mean is the most common measure of central tendency and the one that can be
mathematically calculated. It is the average of a group of numbers. The mean is
calculated by summing up all the individual values and dividing by the total number of
values. It adds together all the numbers within a range and divides by the quantity of
numbers.
In calculating the Mean in ungrouped data, the formula is
M = X/N
where X stands for the sum of scores or values of the items and N for the total number in a
series or group.
Take for example the scores in a 30-item test in TLE taken by 9 learners presented and
computed in Excel:
However, in calculating the Mean in grouped data (data in the form of frequency distribution),
the formula is
M = fX/N
where X represents the mid-point of the class interval, f is its respective frequency, and N the
total of all frequencies.
Let us have the same data presented on the Frequency Distribution Table of a 50-item Test
in Mathematics as our example,
Scores f X or mid-point fX
45-47 1 46 46
42-44 2 43 86
39-41 2 40 80
36-38 9 37 407
33-35 10 34 170
30-32 7 31 62
27-29 6 28 336
24-26 2 25 75
21-23 1 22 22
40 fX = 1342
M = fX/N M = 1342/40 M = 33.55
In education, we use mean:

• to report average school performance in internal or external assessments;
• to compare previous year averages;
• to compare results against another class or to a previous assessment task;
• to establish the performance of students as a group in a class assessment task; and
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 41
• to examine trends over time.
i. The median is the middle value of a list of numbers. It divides the distribution into halves;
half of the numbers are above the median and half are below it. The median is also known
as the 50th percentile.
Let us take again for example the scores in a 30-item test in TLE taken by 9 learners
presented in Excel. While the Mean is computed as 21.67, the Median is 23 since it is the
number at the center.
In case there is an even quantity of numbers, find the middle two numbers, add them
together, then divide them by 2. There are 8 numbers in this group. The middle 2 numbers are
22 and 24. 22 and 24 added together equals 46 divided by 2 is 23.
The median is 23.
In calculating the Median for grouped data (in the form of frequency distribution), it first
requires the location of the median class. Here, in the distribution below, N (=40) is even.
Therefore, the median will fall somewhere between the score of 20th and 21st items. In the given
frequency distribution table, if we add frequencies either above or below, we may see that the
class interval designated as 33-35 is to be labeled as the median class where the score
representing median will fall.
Scores f
45-47 1
14
42-44 2
39-41 2
Median Class 36-38 9 20th to 21st items
Lower Limit is 32.5 33-35 10

30-32 7
27-29 6 16
24-26 2
21-23 1
40
After estimating the median class, the median of the distribution may be interpolated
with the help of the following formula:
(N/2-F)
Md = LL + xi
f
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 42
Where,
LL = exact Lower Limit of the Median class
F = cumulative frequency before the median class
f = frequency of the median class
i = class interval
N = Total of all the frequency
Hence,
Md = 32.5 + [(40/2) – 16]
x3
5
= 32.5 + (4/5) x 3
= 32.5 + 2.4
Md = 34.9
So when do we use the Median?

• In a class test, if there are some very high or very low performers, a median will better
represent the class average. The median is the preferred measure of central tendency
when the distribution is skewed.
• It can be used to understand the point at which 50% of students are above and below a
percentile.
j. Mode. The mode is the value that appears most frequently within a set of numbers. Take
for example the scores below where 21 is the score which appeared most frequently, hence
it is considered the mode.
If two numbers appear the same amount of times, and more frequently than any other
number, this is referred to as bimodal. If multiple numbers appear the same amount of times,
and more frequently than any other number, this is referred to as multimodal.
To calculate mode for grouped data, the formula is
fm – fm-1
Mo = LL + xw
(fm – fm-1)+ fm – fm+1)
Where,
LL = lower limit of the modal group
fm-1 = frequency of the group before the modal group
fm = frequency of the modal group
fm+1 = frequency of the group after the modal group
i = class interval
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 43
Scores f
45-47 1
42-44 2
39-41 2
36-38 9 fm+1
Modal group 33-35 10 fm
fm-1
Lower Limit is 32.5 30-32 7
27-29 6
24-26 2
21-23 1
ci = 3 40
10 – 7
Mo = 32.5 + x3
(10-7)+ (10+9)
3
Mo = 32.5 + x3
3+19
Mo = 32.9
What to consider when using a mode?

• If your mode represents a large proportion of cases (for example, 12 times in 20), this
would indicate that the assessment does not discriminate well between student
achievements of learning outcomes.
• If the mode is apparent at either end of the assessment scale, this would suggest a lack
of differentiation between the students. The assessment may be too easy or too difficult.
3. Measures of Variability
Measures other than the mean may provide additional information about the same data.
These are the measures of dispersion. Measures of dispersion or variability refer to the spread of
the values about the mean. Smaller dispersion of scores arising from the comparison often
indicates more consistency and more reliability.
The most commonly used measures of dispersion are the range, the standard deviation,
and the variance. This lesson emphasizes Standard Deviation which is commonly used in the
classroom and online class assessment.
• The Range
The range is the simplest measure of variability. It is the difference between the largest
value and the smallest value. The formula is
R =H – L
where R = Range, H = Highest value, L = Lowest value.
Test scores of 10, 8, 9, 7, 5, and 3, will give us a range of 7 from 10 – 3.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 44
• Standard Deviation. A Standard deviation is a number that tells you how far numbers are
from their mean. The STDEV.P function (the P stands for Population) in Excel calculates
the standard deviation based on the entire population. For example, you're teaching a
group of 9 students. You have the test scores of all students. The entire population
consists of 9 data points. The STDEV.P function uses the following formula:
Let us do the steps in calculating the SD for ungrouped data through MS Excel with the following
scores of nine (9) students who took a 30-item test in TLE:
a. Calculate the mean.
b. For each number, calculate the distance to

the mean (A1-A10; A2-A10; A3-A10;
and so on until A9-A10).
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 45
c. For each number, square the distance.
d. Sum of these values
e. Divide by the number of data points

(where N = 9)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 46
f. Take the square root
This is the SD
This implies that scores from 16.77 (-1SD) to 26.57 (+1SD) are within the average
scores. Since the test is 30 items, scores above 26.57 are considered above average while
scores below16.77 are below average.
11.87 16.77 21.67 26.57 31.47
-2SD -1SD Mean +1SD +2SD
below average Average scores above average
SD is a measure of the average distance between the values of the data in the set and
the mean. A low standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the
mean; a high standard deviation indicates that the data points are spread out over a large range
of values (lumenlearning.com).
Let us have again another example. Let us use our previous data, the scores obtained
by 40 students in a 50-item test in Mathematics.
46 27 36 28 29
33 43 37 42 24
34 21 38 29 25
35 27 28 39 41
33 34 35 35 32
36 37 38 30 31
33 34 36 37 38
30 31 35 32 30
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 47
Instead of calculating manually with the use of a frequency distribution table, let us simply
repeat the steps that we used in calculating SD using MS Excel. Hence, the results will be like
this:
Mean
5.22 is the SD
This implies that the scores can be categorized like this:
18.08 23.3 28.25 33.47 38.69 43.91 49.13

-3SD -2SD -1SD Mean +1SD +2SD +3SD
below average Average scores
above average
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 48
REFERENCES:
• Chandan, J. S. and Mani, A. (ed) (2016). Measurement and Evaluation in Education.

Directorate of Distance Education, Tripura University. Vikas Publishing House, Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi,
https://www.tripurauniv.ac.in/Content/pdf/Distance%20Education%20Notice/Measureme
nt%20and%20Evaluation%20in%20Education%20_%20MA-Edu%20_%20ED-
804%20E%20_%20English_21072017.pdf
• https://www.mathsisfun.com/data/frequency-grouped-mean-median-mode.html
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-statistics/chapter/describing-variability/
• https://www.cese.nsw.gov.au/effective-practices/using-data-with-confidence-main/mean
ASSESSMENT :
Output 7:
7.1 Find the mean, median and mode of the scores in a 20-item test in English of 10 Grade VII
learners:
Student Score
A 15
B 10
C 20
D 17
E 14
F 12
G 12
H 7
I 9
J 6
7.2 Using the following scores in a 40-item test in Food and Nutrition,
• Prepare a frequency distribution table
• Compute the mean and standard deviation using MS Excel
35 21 25 22 28 19
14 32 22 25 26 27
13 17 28 31 26 15
16 18 20 30 24 28
36 30 26 33 26 25
Answer the following questions:

a) Which scores belong to average scores?
b) Which scores are above average?
c) Which scores are below average?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 49
By knowledge the rooms are filled with all precious and

pleasant riches.
Proverbs 24:4 (ESV)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

379 - Educ 30083 Assessment in Learning 1 - Rebusquillo

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379 - Educ 30083 Assessment in Learning 1 - Rebusquillo

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Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Dr. Lizyl R. Rebusquillo, LPT

LESSON 2: TYPES OF ASSESSMENT 6

LESSON 3: ALIGNMENT OF ASSESSMENT WITH LEARNING OUTCOMES 12

LESSON 4: ASSESSMENT TOOLS AND STRATEGIES 17

LESSON 5: TESTS, TEST CONSTRUCTION, AND TEST IMPROVEMENT 25

LESSON 6: RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF TESTS 34

LESSON 7: QUANTIFYING TEST RESULTS 38

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT

Walvoord (in Gravells, 2013) defined assessment as a systematic collection of

The Glossary of Education Reform (2014) has a similar definition of the

2. Why Assess Learning? The Roles of Assessment

• To know what they have • To improve learner motivation and self-

3. How to Assess Learning? The Principles of Assessment

Two important principles are known as VARCS and SMART.

9. Responsibility – making objective decisions, following all organizational guidelines,

LESSON 2: TYPES OF ASSESSMENT

However, there are innovative ways to do AfL or formative assessment as proposed by

2. Assessment OF Learning (AoL)

3. Assessment AS Learning (AaL)

4. Diagnostic Assessment, Formative Assessment, and Summative Assessment

Formative • gather information in an ongoing manner Pre-assessments and

LESSON 3: ALIGNMENT OF ASSESSMENT WITH LEARNING OUTCOMES AND

1. Learning Outcomes and Learning Objectives as Bases for Assessment

Learning Objectives vs. Learning Outcomes: How they are different?

Learning objectives Learning outcomes

2. Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning as a Framework in Setting Learning

As practiced, teachers use Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives as a framework

While it is important to include LOTS in determining learning objectives because of their

Figure 1: Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Figure 2: Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Learning

Figure 3 is a table of verbs in Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy that is proposed by Andersen

Figure 3: Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Action Verbs

Figure 4 Mind Map of Bloom’s Revised Digital Taxonomy by Churches (2007)

• Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Action Words.

What kind of ___________________ ___________________ ___________________

LESSON 4: ASSESSMENT TOOLS AND STRATEGIES

As a recall, the selection of assessment strategies to be used depends on the learning

a. Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQ)

The following guidelines must be considered by a teacher when preparing True-False

c. Matching Type Test

Directions: One the line next to each psychological theory in Column A,

d. Completion or Fill-in-the-Blanks Test

The following guidelines must be considered by a teacher when preparing completion

An authentic assessment is related to tasks relevant to professional practice or real-life

b. Performance-based Assessments (PBA)

f. Student Response Systems

g. Role-plays and scenario-based learning

h. Graphic Organizers and Concept Mapping

• Scott, J. (n.d). Authentic Assessment.

Include in your output the following:

4.2 Create an informative and creative brochure/e-brochure of authentic assessments. Show

Reminder: Output 4 (4.1 and 4.2) will be part of your e-portfolio.

LESSON 5: TESTS, TEST CONSTRUCTION AND TEST IMPROVEMENT

a. According to the principle of test construction:

b. According to the point of reference:

• Norm-Reference Test. To understand the norm-referenced test, let us understand

• Criterion-referenced test. It is a type of evaluation in which the performance of

c. According to the mode of administration:

d. According to the ability of the student:

e. According to the type of items involved in the test:

f. According to the method of scoring:

g. According to the nature of the test:

What kind of _________ _ ___________