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CIE Biology GCSE
1: Characteristics and Classification of Living

Organisms
Notes
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Characteristics of living organisms:
All living organisms undergo these processes:
● Movement - Living organisms are able to move all or part of themselves. Animals can
move to find food or escape predators, whilst plants can move their leaves to catch
more sunlight.
● Respiration - this is a series of chemical reactions that occurs in cells, leading to the
breakdown of nutrient molecules to release energy for metabolism.
● Sensitivity - living organisms can detect changes in their internal or external
environments and respond to these changes.
● Growth - organisms grow, leading to a permanent increase in size. This can be
measured through dry mass, cell size or number of cells.
● Reproduction - living organisms reproduce to create more organisms of their kind.
● Excretion - waste products from metabolic reactions are removed from the organism.
This includes toxic materials, excess substances and carbon dioxide from respiration.
● Nutrition - organisms take in materials for development. These materials are used in
chemical reactions to produce energy for growth and repair. Animals require organic
compounds, ions and water. Whereas plants take in light, carbon dioxide, water and
ions for use in photosynthesis.
Viruses are not classified as living as they do not have the ability to complete these processes.
Viruses are non-cellular and consist of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat. When
they reach a target cell, they inject this genetic material into the cell which is then replicated
to reproduce the virus. This harms the target cell which is unable to function normally.
Classification
Classification is used to group different s pecies. A group of organisms belong to the same
species if they can reproduce to produce fertile offspring.
Organisms are classified by evolutionary relationships.

These can be found by studying physical characteristics and DNA base sequences.
Traditionally, organisms were categorized based on morphology and anatomy. The structure
of bones and organs were studied through dissections and organisms were grouped based on
similarities. With the advancement of modern science and technology, DNA sequencing
studies, e.g. the human genome project, have become possible. This allows DNA for each
species to be mapped and compared. Therefore, species with similar ancestors are more
easily found as they have a close DNA base sequence. This is more accurate than comparing
physical characteristics as different species living in the same habitat often evolve similar
traits and hence resemble each other. As DNA codes for the amino acid sequence in proteins,
proteins can also be studied to find evolutionary relationships.
Organisms are named using the binomial naming system. This system uses their L atin names
and consists of two words. The first refers to the organism’s genus, and the second to its
species. For example, humans are classified as Homo sapiens.
The five kingdoms
The five kingdoms are Animal, Plant, Fungus, Prokaryote and Protoctista. The features of cells
can be used to help categorize organisms into one of these kingdoms. For example, animal cells
do not contain a cell wall or chlorophyll whereas plant cells do.
Features of cells:
● Cytoplasm - A jelly-like material within the cell in which reactions occur. The cytoplasm
contains organelles such as the nucleus and ribosomes.
● Cell membrane - a thin membrane that surrounds the cell. It controls entry and exit of
substances.
● DNA - genetic material contained in the nucleus which codes for proteins.
● Ribosomes - site of protein synthesis.
● Enzymes - catalyse reactions such as respiration in the cell.
Within the animal kingdom, organisms are further categorized into vertebrates and
arthropods. Vertebrates are animals which c ontain a backbone, such as mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians and fish. Arthropods do not contain a backbone and are identified through
their exoskeleton and s egmented body. Arthropods include myriapods, insects, arachnids and
crustaceans.
The plant kingdom is split into flowering and non-flowering plants.
There are two divisions of flowering plants: dicotyledons and monocotyledons, which are
identified by their leaves.
Non-flowering plants, such as ferns, reproduce through spores rather than by producing
seeds.
CIE Biology GCSE
2: Organisation of the Organism
Notes

Cells can be viewed using a microscope to study their structure. Plant and animal cells are
known as eukaryotic cells as they contain a nucleus and membrane bound organelles such as
ribosomes and mitochondria. Bacteria are known as prokaryotes as they do not contain
these. They also do not contain a rough endoplasmic reticulum.
To calculate the size of a specimen under a microscope:
Where the image size is the size the specimen

appears when viewed through the microscope.
Functions of eukaryotic cell structures:

● Cytoplasm - A jelly-like material within the cell in which reactions occur. The cytoplasm
contains structures such as ribosomes and vesicles.
● Cell membrane - a thin membrane that surrounds the cell, controls entry and exit of
substances.
● Nucleus and DNA - the nucleus contains genetic material in the form of DNA which
codes for proteins. DNA replication also occurs in the nucleus.
● Ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) - The RER surrounds the nucleus
and ribosomes are attached to it. Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
● Mitochondria - site of respiration. Provides energy for the cell to function.
● Vesicles - used to transport materials in the cell.
In addition to these, plant cells also contain a vacuole, chloroplasts and are surrounded by a
cell wall.
● Vacuole - is a fluid-filled sac containing mineral salts, sugars, amino acids, waste
substances and pigments which colour the cell and a ttract pollinating insects.
● Chloroplasts - are the site of photosynthesis, which allows plants to convert light
energy to glucose.
revents bursting. It also controls what enters
● Cell wall - gives the cell structure and p
and exits the cell.
Levels of organisation
Key terms:
● Tissue - a group of similar cells working together to carry out a particular process
● Organ - a group of tissues working together to carry out a specific function
● Organ system - a group of related organs working together to carry out functions in the
body
Specialised cells:
Cells and tissues are s pecialised to carry out their particular function. Examples of specialised
cells are:
● Ciliated cells - ciliated cells are found lining the trachea. They have hair-like projections
called c ilia which move together to transport mucus, dust and bacteria upwards to the
throat.
● Root hair cells - are adapted to have a large surface area. This speeds up the rate of
osmosis and mineral ion uptake in plants.
● Xylem vessels - used to transport water through plants in transpiration. The xylem is
made from h ollowed-out dead cells that have the ends removed to make a tube for
water to pass through. They have a thick cell wall to provide structural strength and are
thin to allow capillary action.
● Palisade mesophyll cells - this is where photosynthesis occurs. Mesophyll cells are tall
and closely packed to efficiently absorb light and contain lots of chloroplasts for
photosynthesis. They are also placed at the top of the leaf where most of the light hits
enabling them to absorb as much light energy as possible.
● Nerve cells - nerve cells are adapted to rapidly transmit electrical impulses. Nerve cells
are myelinated, which insulates the cell and prevents the impulse weakening and
slowing down. They also contain lots of mitochondria to provide energy. Dendrites have
a large surface area and are branched to receive impulses from many other neurons.
● Red blood cells - red blood cells contain haemoglobin which allows them to carry
oxygen around the body. They have a biconcave shape which increases their surface
area, allowing for rapid diffusion. They also have thin cell membranes to decrease the
diffusion distance. They do not contain a nucleus, thus have more space for oxygen.
● Sperm cells - sperm cells are adapted by containing lots of mitochondria so that the cell
has enough energy to reach the egg cell. It has a tail to allow movement and contains
digestive enzymes to help penetrate the egg cell membrane.
CIE Biology GCSE
3: Movement In and Out of Cells
Notes

The c ell membrane and cell wall control what substances enter and exit the cell. Molecules
such as glucose and proteins move into the cell for use in metabolic reactions and s torage.
Whereas w aste products such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid are transported out into the
blood to be excreted from the body.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an a rea of high concentration to an area of
low concentration down the c oncentration gradient, as a result of their random movement.
The energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of the molecules.
Solutes and gases, such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, are able to diffuse in and out of cells
across the cell membrane. This is important as these substances are crucial to metabolic
reactions which occur within the cell, for example respiration and photosynthesis. Without
them, the processes would not occur, and the cell would die.
Factors affecting rate of diffusion:

● Surface area - As the surface area increases, the rate of diffusion increases. This is
because there is more space available for the substances to diffuse through.
● Temperature - As temperature increases, the rate of diffusion increases. This is
because the molecules gain kinetic energy and thus move faster.
● Concentration gradient - As the concentration gradient increases, rate of diffusion
increases.
● Diffusion distance - A greater diffusion distance slows the rate of diffusion as
molecules must travel further.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane.
Key terms:
● Turgid - cells are described as turgid when they are swollen due to a high-water
content.
● Turgor pressure - The pressure on the cell wall from the cell membrane pushing upon
it. This is a result of the cell becoming turgid as water moves into the cell via osmosis.
● Flaccid - Occurs when water moves out of the cell via osmosis. The cell shrinks but the
cell membrane does not peel away from the cell wall. If more water leaves the cell, it
becomes plasmolyzed.
● Plasmolysis - Occurs when there is too little water in cells. In plant cells, the cell
membrane peels away from the cell wall.
Water moves in and out of cells through the cell membrane via osmosis. Water is important to
provide support for the cell structure through maintaining the turgor pressure. It also provides
a medium in which metabolic reactions occur. Water has a high specific heat capacity, thus
acts as a temperature buffer. This is important as it maintains the optimum temperature for
enzyme reactions.
Water particles diffuse from regions of high-water potential to regions of low water
potential, i.e. they move from dilute solutions to concentrated solutions. When the cell is
more concentrated than the surrounding cells, water molecules diffuse into the cell via
osmosis, making it turgid. When it is less concentrated than the surrounding cells, water
molecules will leave the cell, making it flaccid and leading to plasmolysis. This effect can be
investigated by placing cells in solutions of different concentrations.
Active transport
Active transport is the movement of molecules a gainst a concentration gradient using e

nergy
from respiration. Molecules are actively transported through a cell membrane from regions of
low concentrations to regions of higher concentration.
Carrier proteins:
Carrier proteins facilitate active transport. They are embedded in the cell membrane and
allow passage through it. Molecules from the side with lower concentration bind to the
carrier protein. The carrier protein then changes shape using energy from respiration. This
forces the molecule to move through the membrane to the side with high concentration,
where it is released.
Examples of active transport:
● Uptake of ions by root hair cells - plants take up ions such as nitrates and magnesium
from the soil via root hair cells. The concentration of ions in the root hair cell is greater
than the concentration of ions in the soil. Energy from respiration is therefore used to
transport ions into the cell against the concentration gradient.
● Uptake of glucose - glucose is taken up in the small intestine and kidney tubules.
Glucose moves against the concentration gradient through carrier proteins.
CIE Biology GCSE
4: Biological Molecules
Notes

Biological molecules are important in organisms to build structures and for use in metabolic
reactions. Large molecules are made when many smaller molecules bind together.
Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are made up of many sugar molecules, containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
atoms. G lucose is a small sugar molecule. When many glucose molecules bind together in a
chain cellulose, starch and glycogen can be made. Cellulose is used for structure and makes up
plant cell walls. Whereas starch and glucose are s tored in cells and used in respiration to
provide energy for the organism. Starch is stored in plants, whereas glycogen is stored in
animals.
Fats:
Fats and oils are made up of g lycerol and fatty acids, which contain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. Fats have a variety of roles in organisms including insulation, energy, waterproofing,
structure and protection around delicate organs.
Proteins:
Proteins are made up of n itrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur. These elements
make up a mino acids, which bind together in a chain to make proteins. Different arrangements
of amino acids make up different proteins and form different shapes. Enzymes are proteins;
each enzyme’s active site has a specific shape, allowing it to bind to a specific substrate
molecule to catalyze metabolic reactions. Antibodies also have a specific shape, formed by a
specific sequence of amino acids. This allows them to bind to antigens on foreign pathogens
to kill them.
Water:
Water is an important molecule that is a major component of cells. It acts as a solvent in which
chemical reactions occur, helps to maintain a constant temperature in the body, and is a
metabolite.
Water is needed for digestion to provide a medium for enzymes to act in and to allow free
passage of digestive products, so they can be absorbed into the blood. It also allows soluble
molecules, such as the products of digestion, to be transported around the body and through
cell membranes. It also transports waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide to be
excreted.
DNA:
DNA is composed of two strands coiled around each other to form a double helix. Each strand
is made up of a sugar backbone with bases attached. These bases bind to bases on the other
strand to form cross-links when they are wound together. There are four types of base: G, C,
A and T. G always binds to C and A always binds to T.
Chemical tests:
● Starch - add iodine solution to the sample. A colour change to blue-black indicates the
presence of starch.
● Reducing sugars - Glucose is a reducing sugar. Glucose and other reducing sugars are
detected using Benedict’s solution. Benedict’s solution contains copper sulphate which
makes it blue. When a reducing sugar is added to the Benedict’s solution and heated to
80°C, the Cu2+ ions are reduced to an insoluble brick red c opper (I) oxide.
● Proteins - The sample solution is placed in a test tube with an equal amount of sodium
hydroxide solution. Add a few drops of dilute copper II sulphate solution, if the sample
turns purple, a protein is present in the sample. If it remains blue, no protein is present.
This test is known as the biuret test.
● Fats and oils - place sample in a test tube and add ethanol. Shake tube to dissolve any
fats and oils. Add water and shake gently. If the sample contains fats or oils, it will turn
cloudy white. This test is known as the emulsion test.
● Vitamin C - Add DCPIP solution to a test tube, this is a blue colour. Add the sample and
shake gently. If the DCPIP becomes colourless, vitamin C is present.
CIE Biology GCSE
5: Enzymes
Notes

Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts. A catalyst is a substance which speeds up
the rate of reaction in chemical reactions, without being used up. The enzyme is not changed
by the reaction and can be used repeatedly. Enzymes are crucial to living organisms as they
speed up m etabolic reactions which would take too long to occur without them.
Enzyme action:
All enzymes contain an active site, which is a sequence of amino acids with a specific shape.
This shape is complementary to the substrate. When the enzyme breaks the substrate down,
the substrate enters the active site to form an enzyme-substrate complex. The substrate is
broken down and the product is released. The enzyme can then bind to another substrate
molecule.
Each enzyme is complementary to only one type of substrate; hence it cannot break down
other substrates. For example, proteases break down proteins so that amino acids can be
absorbed into the blood. Proteases cannot, however, break down other molecules such as
carbohydrates, which can only be broken down by carbohydrase enzymes.
Factors affecting enzyme action:
● pH - enzymes have an o ptimum pH that they work best at. As the pH moves away from
this, the rate of reaction decreases. The change in pH causes the shape of the active
site to change. This means that the substrate cannot fit in the active site, hence no
enzyme-substrate complexes can form. This means that the enzyme has become
denatured.
● Temperature - As the temperature increases up to the enzyme’s optimum, the rate of

reaction increases. This is because the molecules have more kinetic energy, thus move
faster. Consequently, more successful collisions occur, and more enzyme-substrate
complexes can form. At very high temperatures above the optimum, the enzymes
become denatured and the active site changes shape. This decreases the rate of
reaction as enzyme-substrate complexes cannot form.
CIE Biology GCSE
6: Plant Nutrition
Notes

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a metabolic reaction occurring in plants in which light energy converts raw
materials into c arbohydrates such as glucose, which can be stored in cells and used as an
energy source via respiration.
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll that
transfers light energy into chemical energy to make carbohydrates.
Equations for photosynthesis:
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
Factors affecting rate of photosynthesis:

The rate of photosynthesis is limited by the limiting factor. This is the factor which is least
available to the plant. For example, at night, light intensity is very low hence the rate of
photosynthesis is also very low, regardless of the carbon dioxide concentration and
temperature.
● Carbon dioxide concentration - as CO2 concentration increases, rate of photosynthesis

also increases.
● Temperature - photosynthesis requires enzymes to carry out the reaction. As these

enzymes have an optimum temperature, photosynthesis also has an optimum
temperature. This is usually about 25°C. At low temperatures, for example in the
winter, plants photosynthesize slowly as the enzymes have little kinetic energy, thus
few enzyme-substrate complexes are made. At very high temperatures, these
enzymes denature, also slowing the rate of photosynthesis.
● Light intensity - As the light intensity increases, rate of photosynthesis increases. A high
light intensity can sometimes lead to the plant heating up above the optimum
temperature. This means that temperature would become the limiting factor and the
rate of photosynthesis would not be increased by a further increase in light intensity.
Knowledge of limiting factors is useful for farmers as they can reduce the limitation on the
rate of photosynthesis due to these factors. This will mean that the plants have more energy
to use for growth, thus the yield is higher and growth time is shorter. Farmers can reduce the
effects of these limiting factors by placing plants in a greenhouse. Greenhouses trap heat,
thus the plants are always kept at their optimum temperature. In addition, artificial lighting
can be used so that the plant can photosynthesize during the night as well, and carbon
dioxide can be pumped into the greenhouse.
Leaf structure:
Plant leaves must be adapted to allow photosynthesis to occur. This means limiting water loss,
absorbing as much light energy as possible and allowing for efficient gas exchange.
● Chloroplasts - This is where photosynthesis occurs. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll

which allows light energy to be absorbed and converted to chemical energy.
● Cuticle - The cuticle is a clear waxy layer that surrounds the leaf. This provides
waterproofing and reduces water loss from the leaf without reducing light absorption.
● Guard cells and stomata - Stomata are located on the lower side of the leaf and allow
carbon dioxide in by diffusion, and water vapour and oxygen out of the leaf by diffusion.
Guard cells surround the stomata and can control the opening and closing of the
stomata to limit water loss from the plant; when there is a limited water supply, the
guard cells cause the stomata to close to prevent water loss. This, however, also
reduces the diffusion of carbon dioxide through the stomata for use in photosynthesis,
so can cause carbon dioxide to become the limiting factor and reduce the rate of
photosynthesis. Plants in hot places often have fewer stomata to reduce water loss.
Some plants, for example cacti, only open their stomata at night.
● Upper and lower epidermis - the epidermis acts as a protective barrier around the leaf
to prevent pathogens entering and causing harm to the organism. Epidermis cells are
transparent to let light pass through and do not contain chloroplasts.
● Palisade mesophyll - these cells are positioned near the top of the leaf where most
sunlight hits, thus palisade cells are adapted to absorb light energy efficiently. The
palisade layer cells contain many chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis. There are
also gaps between the cells to allow for efficient gas exchange and osmosis to occur.
CO2 and water move into the cells to be used in the photosynthesis reaction.
● Spongy mesophyll - This is the lower layer of the leaf. Cells are loosely spaced and have
a large surface area to allow rapid diffusion of CO2, water and oxygen when the
stomata are open.
● Vascular bundles - vascular bundles form the plant’s transport system. They consist of
the xylem and the phloem, as well as other cells around them which provide support.
● Xylem - the xylem is used to transport water through plants from the roots in
transpiration. The xylem is made from hollowed-out dead cells that have the ends
removed to make a tube for water to pass through. They have a thick cell wall to
provide structural strength and are thin to allow capillary action.
● Phloem - the phloem is made of living cells and is used to transport sugars and food
nutrients in translocation. The cells of the phloem are adapted by having no nucleus.
Minerals in plants:
Minerals are taken up actively by root hair cells and have a variety of important roles in the
plant.
● Nitrate ions - nitrate ions are used in the plant to build amino acids, and thus proteins
and enzymes. Without nitrate ions, the plant would not be able to grow or repair
itself.
● Magnesium ions - magnesium ions are used to make c hlorophyll; thus, a lack of
magnesium ions will lead to a lack of chlorophyll, meaning that photosynthesis cannot
occur. This means that sugars cannot be formed through photosynthesis, therefore
the plant will not have a sufficient enough energy source to grow and repair itself.
The lack of either of these ions leads to yellow leaves and poor growth, eventually leading to
the plant’s death.
CIE Biology GCSE
7: Human Nutrition
Notes

Humans need many different nutrients to survive. To receive these nutrients in the correct
alanced diet must be eaten. A balanced diet includes all essential nutrients, such
quantities, a b
as carbohydrates, fats and vitamins, in the c orrect amounts needed for growth and repair.
Balanced diets vary between people. The amounts of nutrients needed are different for people
of different ages and genders. The amount of nutrients needed also varies depending on the
amount of physical activity undertaken by individual people each day. In addition, pregnant
and breastfeeding women need more nutrients as they must be able to feed their baby as well
as themselves.
Nutrients and their importance:

● Carbohydrates - found in foods such as pasta, rice and potatoes; carbohydrates are
used as a source of energy in respiration in cells.
● Fats - found in fatty meats, cheese and butter. Fats have a variety of roles in organisms
including insulation, energy, waterproofing, structure and protection around delicate
organs.
● Protein - found in meat, fish and eggs. Proteins are broken down into amino acids in
digestion and absorbed into the blood. They are then used in cells to produce new
proteins by protein synthesis, where they are used as enzymes in reactions and for
structure. They can also be used for signalling as hormones, and carrying other
molecules, for example haemoglobin which carries oxygen in the blood.
● Vitamins (C and D) - Vitamin C is found in citrus fruits and some other vegetables and is
used in the synthesis of proteins which help make up the skin, ligaments and blood
vessels. Vitamin C is also used in the repair of tissues. Vitamin D is found in dairy
products, eggs and fish oil. It helps the uptake of calcium during digestion and is also a
factor in maintaining healthy bones. Vitamin D deficiency leads to rickets, a condition
that causes weak and soft bones, as well as deformities. It can also cause stunted
growth in children as the bones cannot develop correctly.
● Mineral salts (calcium and iron) - Calcium is needed for healthy bones and teeth and is
found in dairy products and fish. It also has a role in blood clotting. Iron is found in red
meat and some green vegetables. Iron is present in haemoglobin and plays an important
role in transporting oxygen around the body in the blood for cells to use in respiration. A
lack of iron leads to anaemia and can cause tiredness, as enough energy will not be
produced.
● Fibre (roughage) - Found in vegetables, fruit and whole grains. Fibre is not digested and
thus helps food to move through the stomach and intestines, it also adds bulk.
● Water - Comes from both drinks (80%) and food (20%). Water moves into the blood via
osmosis during digestion and then into cells. Here it acts as a solvent in which chemical
reactions occur. It also helps to maintain a constant temperature in the body due to its
high specific heat capacity and is a metabolite.
Malnutrition:
The lack of a balanced diet can lead to malnutrition which can have a variety of outcomes:
● Starvation - caused by eating too little food, leads to weight loss, organ damage, muscle
atrophy and eventually death.
● Constipation - caused by a lack of fibre, leads to pain, stomach ache and inability to
defecate.
● Coronary heart disease - caused by a build-up of cholesterol in the coronary artery

which limits blood flow to the heart and can cause heart attacks. Cholesterol is a result
of too much saturated fat in the diet, which comes from foods such as high fat dairy
products and fatty meats.
● Obesity - caused by eating too much food, leads to a range of health issues including
diabetes, high blood pressure, strokes and heart disease.
● Scurvy - caused by lack of vitamin C, leads to bleeding under the skin and around gums,
premature stopping of bone growth in children leading to stunted growth, and very dry
skin and hair.
● Kwashiorkor and marasmus - these are conditions caused by protein-energy

malnutrition, which is a result of having a protein or calorie deficiency over a long
period. Kwashiorkor occurs due to a severe protein deficiency and a
carbohydrate-based diet and is often developed by older children, whereas marasmus
is more common with young children and babies.
Alimentary Canal
Once food is ingested (taken into the body), it undergoes both mechanical and chemical
digestion as it is broken down. Mechanical digestion breaks down food into smaller molecules
without chemical change. This occurs in the mouth due to chewing and in the stomach as food
is churned. Chemical digestion is the breaking down of large, insoluble molecules into smaller,
soluble molecules with the use of enzymes, so that the products can be absorbed. Absorption
occurs as the smaller molecules and ions pass through the walls of the small intestine into the
blood. These molecules then travel around the body, where they are a ssimilated into the cells
and used in metabolic reactions. Food that is not digested and absorbed is e gested as faeces.
Parts of the alimentary canal:

● Mouth and salivary glands - food is mechanically digested in the mouth by the teeth.
The salivary glands release saliva which contains carbohydrase enzymes. These begin
the chemical digestion of starch.
● Oesophagus - this allows food to pass from the mouth to the stomach by peristalsis.
● Stomach - Protease enzymes break down protein in chemical digestion. The food is also
churned to break it up more by mechanical digestion. Hydrochloric acid is present to
maintain an optimum pH for enzyme action and kills bacteria by creating extremely
acidic conditions, which denatures the enzymes within them.
● Small intestine - the small intestine consists of the duodenum and ileum. In the
duodenum, the acidity from the stomach is neutralised and protease, lipase and
amylase enzymes are secreted to break down molecules. The ileum is the final part of
the small intestine and is where the products of the digestion are absorbed into the
blood.
● Pancreas - the pancreas secretes pancreatic juices into the small intestine. This contains
lipase, protease and amylase enzymes to break down food so that it can be absorbed.
● Liver - The liver makes bile. Bile is also secreted into the small intestine and has two
functions: firstly, it neutralises the acidic conditions from the stomach (bile is alkaline) to
provide a suitable pH for enzymes to work at. It also emulsifies fats, increasing their
surface area so enzymes can digest them more quickly.
● Gall bladder - Bile made in the liver is stored here before being secreted into the small
intestine.
● Large intestine - indigestible food passes through the large intestine. The large intestine
consists of the colon, rectum and anus. Remaining salts and water are absorbed here
(most is absorbed in the small intestine).
Cholera:
Cholera is a disease caused by bacteria present in contaminated food and water. Although most
bacteria are killed in the acidic conditions of the stomach, some pass through to the small
intestine where they stick to the intestinal walls. Here they release toxic proteins that causes
a secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine. This lowers the water potential in the gut
thus water moves into the gut via osmosis, leading to diarrhoea, which is the loss of watery
faeces. This can be avoided using oral rehydration therapy, where patients drink a mixture of
water, glucose and salts to r ehydrate themselves.
Mechanical Digestion
Mechanical digestion first occurs in the mouth. Incisors and canines at the front of the mouth
are used to bite and tear food, before it is passed to the premolars and molars at the back of
the mouth which are used for chewing and grinding food into smaller sections.
Tooth structure:
● Enamel - enamel is very hard. It covers the tooth and protects the tissue inside.
● Dentine - found underneath the enamel, dentine is less hard than enamel and thus
decays more easily if the enamel is worn away.
● Pulp - central part of the tooth. The pulp is made of soft tissue which contains blood
vessels and nerves.
● Cement - covers the root of the tooth and stabilises it
Dental decay:
Dental decay occurs due to bacteria coating the teeth. When the bacteria respire using sugars
from food, they produce acidic substances. This acidity dissolves the enamel on the outer layer
of the teeth and then the dentine on the inside, leading to tooth decay. To avoid tooth decay,
teeth should be r egularly brushed to remove bacteria and s ugary foods and drinks should be
limited.
Chemical digestion
Chemical digestion is important to allow food to be broken down into small molecules so that it
can be absorbed and used in the body.
Enzymes:
● Amylase breaks down starch into simpler sugars. Amylase breaks down starch into
maltose, and then maltase breaks down maltose into glucose. Maltase is a
membrane-bound enzyme found in the membranes of epithelial cells in the small
intestine. Amylase is found in s aliva and is also present in the small intestine.
● Protease breaks down p

rotein into amino acids. Pepsin and trypsin are proteases.
Pepsin works in the stomach, whereas trypsin is present in the small intestine. These
enzymes have different optimum pH, since in the stomach the conditions are very
acidic (pH 1.5), whereas in the small intestine the pH is about 6-7. These enzymes will
stop working in the wrong pH as they will become denatured.
● Lipase breaks down fats into glycerol and f atty acids. It is secreted into the small
intestine.
Absorption
Digested food products are absorbed in the small intestine. Cells lining the small intestine are
adapted for absorption by having hair-like projections called villi and microvilli, which
increase the surface area in the small intestine. Each villus contains capillaries, which carry
absorbed molecules away. This maintains a high concentration gradient which allows more
molecules to diffuse into the capillaries. They also contain lacteals, which absorb fats.
Water is absorbed in the small intestine and in the colon, but most of the absorption occurs in
the small intestine.
CIE Biology GCSE
8: Transport in Plants
Notes

Plants have a transport system made up of xylem and phloem vessels. These transport
nutrients from the roots of the plant to the stem and leaves, and vice versa. The xylem is used
to transport water through plants from the roots in transpiration. The xylem is made from
hollowed-out dead cells that have the ends removed to make a tube for water to pass through.
The phloem is made of l iving cells and is used to transport sugars and food nutrients in
translocation.
Water uptake:
Water is taken up by root hair cells via osmosis. The water then moves into the root cortex
cells by osmosis (as the root hair cells now have a higher water potential than the cortex cells),
before entering the xylem vessel where it is drawn up the s tem to the leaves. At the leaf it
esophyll cells where it is used in metabolic reactions such as p
diffuses into m hotosynthesis.
Root hair cells are adapted for efficient water uptake by having a large surface area. This
increases the rate of osmosis into the root, as well as increasing the rate of ion uptake by
active transport. They also have a thin wall, so the diffusion distance is shortened.
Transpiration:
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the mesophyll cell surface due to e vaporation.
The water vapour then exits the plant via the stomata. Water helps maintain plant structure by
keeping cells turgid. If the plant loses too much water which is not replaced, it begins to wilt
as water moves out of cells and turgor pressure decreases. To limit water loss, the plant closes
the stomata to prevent water vapour diffusing out.
Water molecules are drawn up the xylem by transpiration pull (not osmosis). Water
molecules are cohesive, meaning they stick together. This means that as the water
evaporates at the leaf and diffuses out of the stomata, more water is drawn up the plant
from the roots.
The r ate of transpiration depends on the temperature and humidity. On warm days the
temperature is higher, so water evaporates more easily, therefore there is more diffusion of
water vapour out of the plant, so the rate of transpiration is high. A high humidity, however,
decreases the rate of transpiration as the concentration gradient of water vapour between the
inside and outside of the plant is comparatively low, so diffusion out of the plant is slower.
Translocation:
Translocation occurs in the phloem vessels and involves the transport of amino acids and
sucrose. Areas where amino acids and sucrose are produced are called sources. Regions
where they are stored or used for respiration and growth are called sinks. Materials are
always transported from source to sink.
Sucrose and amino acids are produced in the leaves, before being transported to the roots for
storage. They are later transported to regions where they are used in respiration and for
growth. Some parts of the plant, such as the leaves, can act as both source and sink within a
plant’s life as they synthesise molecules and use them in metabolic reactions.
CIE Biology GCSE
9: Transport in Animals
Notes

The c irculatory system acts as the main transport system in animals. It is made up of blood
vessels such as arteries, veins and capillaries, in which blood travels around the body, carrying
nutrients and waste products.
Fish have a single circulatory system. This means that their heart only has two chambers, and
blood passes through it only once on its circuit around the body. Oxygen is absorbed as blood
passes the gills, thus fish do not have lungs. Mammals, in contrast, have a double circulatory
system, meaning that blood passes through the heart twice each circuit of the body. This
means that the mammalian heart must have four chambers to keep oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood separate. Mammals require double circulatory systems as they are
larger and have a greater need for oxygen to use in respiration for warmth, as oppose to fish
which are cold blooded. Double circulatory systems are also more efficient at supplying
oxygen and can maintain a high blood pressure.
The heart
Heart function:
1. Deoxygenated blood enters the heart through the vena cava (vein) into the right atrium.
2. The right atrium contracts and blood moves through a one-way valve (tricuspid valve)
to the right ventricle.
3. The ventricle contracts and blood exits the heart through a one-way valve (semilunar
valve) to the l ungs via the pulmonary artery.
4. Blood becomes oxygenated in the lungs and then returns to the heart via the
pulmonary vein, entering the left atrium.
5. The left atrium contracts and blood moves through a one-way valve (bicuspid valve)
into the left ventricle.
6. The left ventricle contracts and oxygenated blood exits the heart past the semilunar
valve through the a orta (artery) and travels around the body, becoming deoxygenated.
The wall of the left ventricle is much thicker than the right side, as it must be able to
pump blood at high pressure around the entire body, rather than just to the lungs. The
walls of both ventricles are thicker than the atria walls.
7. The left and right sides of the heart are separated by the septum, which makes sure
that oxygenated and deoxygenated blood remain separate.
Valves are present in the heart and veins to prevent backflow of blood. The bicuspid and
tricuspid valves are known as the atrioventricular valves as they prevent backflow of blood
between the ventricles and atria. They are not present in arteries as the pressure is high
enough that backflow does not occur.
eoxygenated blood travels in veins to the heart and o
Usually, d xygenated blood travels in
arteries away from the heart. The only exception to this is the p ulmonary artery, which carries
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, and the p ulmonary vein which carries
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.
Heart monitoring:
The heart can be monitored using an e lectrocardiogram (ECG), which records the electrical
signals in the heart that cause contractions of the atria and ventricles. It can also be monitored
by listening to the pulse rate and valve activity.
hysical activity is a factor that can influence

Pulse rate is affected by a variety of factors. P
short-term heart rate changes. When physical activity is carried out, muscles respire to
produce energy for movement. Aerobic respiration requires oxygen, thus the h eart rate
speeds up so that blood is pumped around the body more quickly, allowing more oxygen to be
delivered to respiring tissues. Long-term influencers of heart rate are diet and fitness.
Exercising regularly and eating healthily will result in a lower resting heart rate. Diets high in
salt and caffeine raise heart rate.
Coronary heart disease:

Coronary heart disease is caused by a buildup of cholesterol in the coronary artery which
narrows the artery thus limiting blood flow to the heart. Cholesterol is a result of too much
saturated fat in the diet, thus eating a healthy diet can reduce the risk of coronary heart
disease. Regular exercise can also decrease the risk of coronary heart disease by lowering
blood pressure. Other risk factors include stress, smoking, genetic predisposition, age and
gender.
Treatments:
● Drug treatment - Aspirin can be used to reduce the risk of heart disease. Aspirin thins
the blood and makes platelets less likely to clump together to block the artery. It also
helps to reduce high blood pressure.
● Surgery - There are a variety of treatments which involve surgery.

○ Stent - which is a small tube that can be inserted into the artery to keep it
open, allowing blood to flow.
○ Angioplasty - also helps widen the artery by inserting a deflated balloon into
the artery, before inflating it, causing the artery to widen. The balloon is then
removed, and the artery remains widened. A stent can also be inserted at the
same time to remain after the balloon has gone.
○ Coronary bypass - This is a more invasive method, where an artery from the
patient's leg or arm is grafted onto the damaged artery to divert the blood flow
around the damaged section.
Blood and lymphatic vessels

Adaptations of blood vessels:
● Arteries carry o xygenated blood at high pressure to the tissues. They have a thick
elastic layer and wall to maintain high pressure without bursting. They also have a
thick muscle layer to control the volume of blood by dilating and constricting the
artery. At tissues, arteries branch into arterioles, which enter the tissues and become
capillaries.
● Veins, by comparison, have a t hin elastic and muscle layer as the blood travels at low
pressure back to the heart so there is no need to control blood flow. They are also
adapted to prevent backflow of blood by containing valves. V
enules are small veins
which are formed by groups of capillary vessels. Venules eventually become veins.
● Capillaries are thin blood vessels which are used to exchange substances w ith tissues,
such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and other nutrients. Therefore, they must be adapted
for efficient exchange. They have a large surface area and are branched. They also
have a narrow diameter and lumen to decrease diffusion distance, and a slow rate of
blood flow to allow time for exchange.
● Shunt vessels connect arteries to veins without the blood travelling through
capillaries. They can dilate and constrict like arteries to control blood flow and dilate
in cold conditions to limit blood flow to extremities to reduce heat loss.
Lymphatic system and tissue fluid:

The lymphatic system is made up of lymph vessels and lymph nodes.
Capillaries exchange substances with cells by producing tissue fluid. This forms at the
arteriole end of the capillary when nutrients are forced out of capillaries due to the high
pressure in the narrower blood vessel. Tissue fluid bathes the cells and allows nutrients to
diffuse into cells, and waste substances to diffuse out into the tissue fluid. Most of the tissue
fluid is reabsorbed into the capillary at the venous end. Some larger molecules, such as lipids
and large proteins, cannot re-enter the capillary, thus must be carried away by the lymph
system. These molecules enter the lymph vessels and travel as a fluid called lymph. Lymph
passes through lymph vessels and drains into the blood system in the chest cavity.
Lymph nodes are present along the lymph vessels, predominantly located in the neck,
armpits and groin. Their function is to filter the lymph fluid, removing bacteria and foreign
particles from it. They therefore help protect the body from infection.
Components of the Blood

aemoglobin (protein) which binds to oxygen, allowing it to be
● Red blood cells - contain h
transported around the body to cells.
● White blood cells - play a major role in f ighting off infection. A lymphocyte is a type of
white blood cell which produces antibodies. Antigens are proteins found on the cell
membrane of pathogens. Each antibody is s pecific to one type of antigen, and they bind
to these antigens, causing the foreign cells to clump together. This makes them
harmless as they can no longer enter cells to cause damage. White blood cells also carry
out phagocytosis (below).
● Platelets - involved in blood clotting (below).
● Plasma - the liquid in blood vessels in which contains blood cells, ions, soluble nutrients,
hormones and carbon dioxide.
Phagocytosis:
1. Phagocyte recognizes and attaches to foreign pathogen
2. The membrane of the phagocyte envelopes the pathogen and folds inwards,
trapping it inside the phagocyte.
3. The phagocyte releases enzymes which break down the pathogen, killing it.
Blood clotting:
Blood clotting occurs when a blood vessel breaks due to an injury. Platelets stick to the
broken vessel wall and clump together, blocking the cut. Fibrinogen is then converted to a
protein called fibrin, which forms a mesh of fibrin fibers across the wound. More platelets
stick to this mesh. This forms a scab and prevents bleeding by blocking the cut. This prevents
blood loss and allows the vessel to heal, as well as preventing pathogens from entering the
blood vessel.
CIE Biology GCSE
10: Diseases and Immunity
Notes

A pathogen is an o
rganism that causes disease. Pathogens include bacteria and viruses.
Organisms which harbour these pathogens are referred to as hosts. Pathogens can be spread
from host to host through contact with an infected organism, or through other mediums such as
food, water, waste and bodily fluids, and are thus called transmissible diseases. It is therefore
important to make sure that food is prepared h ygienically, waste and sewage are treated, and
good personal hygiene is maintained to p revent the spread of disease.
Defences against infection:

The body’s first line of defense attempts to prevent pathogens from entering the body, and
includes:
● Mechanical barriers - this includes hairs in the nose and skin.
● Chemical barriers - includes mucus, stomach acid and tears.
Once the pathogen has infected the body, an i mmune response occurs to kill it. This involves
phagocytosis and antibody production by white blood cells.
Antibodies and antigens:

Pathogens can be detected by white blood cells and are destroyed in an immune
response. Each pathogen has a specific antigen protein on the cell membrane. In the
immune response, lymphocytes produce specific antibodies, which bind to the antigens
to produce an antibody-antigen complex. As each type of pathogen has different
antigens, a specific antibody which is complementary to this antigen must be made for
each disease. Once the antibody binds to the antigens, the pathogens clump together
making them harmless. They can then either be killed directly or marked for destruction
by phagocytes.
Autoimmune diseases:
Some diseases can be caused by an immune response on healthy body cells, where they
are targeted and destroyed by the immune system. An example of this is type 1 diabetes,
where the body targets cells in the pancreas, thus insulin can no longer be produced.
Immunity
Active immunity:
Active immunity can be gained after an infection, or through vaccination.
Infection:
After the pathogen has been killed, some of the lymphocytes remain as memory cells.
This means that if the same pathogen ever enters the body again, the lymphocyte would
recognize the antigens and be able to produce new antibodies more quickly than the first
time. Memory cells stay in the body for years, thus giving long-term immunity.
Vaccination:
1. A dead or attenuated version of a pathogen is given to the patient
2. The antigens evoke an immune response, in which antibodies are produced
3. Memory cells are produced which stay in the body, giving long-term immunity
Vaccination can be used to control the spread of disease by providing herd immunity.
This is where a large amount of the population is vaccinated and are thus immune to the
pathogen, so the disease cannot spread as there are only a few people left who can still
become infected. The few that cannot be vaccinated, for example due to medical reasons,
are therefore protected against the disease.
Passive immunity:
Passive immunity is a short-term defense against a pathogen and can be gained through
acquiring antibodies from another individual. One example of passive immunity is
antibodies being passed to a baby through the mother’s milk, thus it is important for
babies to be breastfed to reduce the risk of diseases. It can also be gained through
injections of antibodies from a donor.
Passive immunity is short-term as memory cells are not produced.
CIE Biology GCSE
11: Gas Exchange in Humans

Notes

Human respiratory system
Key structures:
● Lungs - The lungs are the main organs in the respiratory system, containing the surfaces
where gas exchange takes place.
● Ribs and intercostal muscles - Intercostal muscles are found between the ribs. Internal
and external intercostal muscles work antagonistically in pairs to expand and contract
the rib cage during breathing. The ribs also protect the lungs and heart from physical
damage.
● Larynx - contains the vocal cords.
● Trachea - connects the throat to the bronchi. C-shaped cartilage rings are present to
provide structural strength, keeping the trachea open so that air can pass through it.
● Bronchi - hollow tubes composed of cartilage rings that carry air from the trachea to the
lungs. The bronchi splits into two tubes to enter the left and right lung, before branching
further inside the lungs.
● Bronchioles -Smaller tubes which branch off from the bronchi in the lungs, leading to
the alveoli.
● Alveoli - Where gas exchange occurs; comprised of tiny air sacs with a capillary network.
Oxygen from the air diffuses into the capillaries, whilst waste carbon dioxide diffuses
out. Waste gases are then breathed out.
Ventilation:
Ventilation is the act of moving air into and out of the lungs to allow gas exchange to occur.
● Breathing in - internal intercostal muscles relax whilst the external intercostal muscles
contract, pulling the ribs up and out while the diaphragm flattens, pushing the
abdominal muscles downwards. The volume in the thorax (chest cavity) increases, so
air enters the lungs. Air diffuses into the lungs, rather than being ‘sucked’ in. This is
because when the volume of the chest increases, there is a lower concentration of air
inside the lungs compared to outside, thus air diffuses in.
● Breathing out - volume of thorax decreases, increasing pressure so that air is forced
out. This is passive (does not require muscle contraction) except when forcibly
breathing out, where the internal intercostal muscles contract.
The majority of air in the atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Inhaled air is made up of m ore oxygen than exhaled air, as oxygen is absorbed into the blood
in the alveoli instead of being exhaled. Oxygen is used in cells for respiration, and carbon
dioxide is produced as a waste product. This carbon dioxide is released from the blood at the
alveoli and diffuses out into the lungs, before being exhaled, thus there is more carbon
dioxide in exhaled air. Exhaled air also contains more water vapour than inhaled air.
During physical activity, the rate and the depth of breathing increases. When exercise is carried
out, muscles increase the rate of respiration to produce energy for muscle contraction.
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen; thus, a greater amount of oxygen is demanded. In
addition, a greater amount of carbon dioxide is produced as a waste substance, which
diffuses into the blood. This increase in carbon dioxide in the blood is detected by the brain,
which causes the rate of breathing to speed up, allowing gas exchange to happen more
rapidly, expelling the carbon dioxide whilst taking in more oxygen. The heart rate is also
increased to pump substances around the body more quickly in the blood.
Adaptations of exchange surfaces:

● Large surface area - allows more efficient diffusion. The alveoli allow the lungs to have a
huge surface area of 80-100 square meters.
● Thin surface - this means that there is a short diffusion distance, thus exchange can
occur more rapidly.
● Good blood supply - Maintains concentration gradient by carrying away substances
which have diffused across already.
● Good ventilation with air - this means that waste gases can diffuse out of the blood into
the air in the lungs whilst oxygen diffuses into the blood.
● Moist - Allows gases to dissolve before diffusing across the membrane.
The lungs are also adapted to protect from foreign pathogens and particles. Goblet cells,
found in the trachea and bronchi, are adapted to secrete mucus into the respiratory tract.
Foreign pathogens and particles stick to this mucus, which is then moved upwards towards
the throat by cilia (hair-like projections from some cells). Mucus is then swallowed, and
pathogens are destroyed in the acidic conditions in the stomach.
CIE Biology GCSE
12: Respiration
Notes

Respiration is a chemical reaction which happens in almost all cells in the body to produce
energy from nutrient molecules. This energy can be used in a variety of processes including:
● Muscle contraction
● Protein synthesis
● Cell division
● Active transport
● Growth
● Nerve impulses
● Maintaining body temperature
Respiration usually occurs with the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration), although it can
occur in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic respiration). Anaerobic respiration is less efficient
and leads to f atigue in humans. Both types of respiration are c atalysed by enzymes. This means
that the rate of respiration can be influenced by factors such as temperature and pH.
Aerobic Respiration:
Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen. Glucose is broken down into carbon
dioxide, water and energy with the help of oxygen. This occurs in the cell m itochondria. Cells
which require lots of energy, such as muscle cells, therefore have high amounts of
mitochondria.
Equations for aerobic respiration:

● glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
● C6H1 2O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Anaerobic respiration:
Anaerobic respiration occurs when oxygen is not present. It is less efficient than aerobic
roduces less energy per glucose molecule. It occurs in the cell c ytoplasm and
respiration and p
thus does not require mitochondria.
Animal cells undergo anaerobic respiration during vigorous exercise as not enough oxygen is
delivered to muscles. In this reaction, glucose is broken down to produce lactic acid, a s well as
releasing energy. This lactic acid builds up in muscles and causes muscle fatigue. Anaerobic
respiration also produces an ‘oxygen debt’. To repay this, the lactic acid must be transported
to the liver where it is broken down into carbon dioxide and water using oxygen. This is the
reason why the breathing and heart rates remain high after exercise.
Microorganisms, such as yeast, also undergo anaerobic respiration. Yeast breaks down
anaerobically to form alcohol a nd carbon dioxide instead of lactic acid.
Equations for anaerobic respiration in yeast:
● glucose → alcohol + carbon dioxide
● C6H1 2O6 → 2C2H5 OH + 2CO2
Equation for anaerobic respiration in animal cells:

● glucose → lactic acid
CIE Biology GCSE
13: Excretion in Humans

Notes

Waste products:
● Urea - urea is formed in the liver as a result of an excess of amino acids. Amino acids
cannot be stored in the body, unlike glucose and other nutrients, thus excess amino
acids that cannot be converted to proteins and used in the body are removed from the
body in a process called de-amination. De-amination takes place in the liver and
involves the removal of the nitrogen-containing section of the amino acids. This forms
urea, which is then filtered from the blood by the kidney and e xcreted from the body as
urine.
● Carbon dioxide - Carbon dioxide is a waste product produced in cells during r espiration;
carbon dioxide exits cells and is dissolved in the blood, where it is carried to the lungs to
be excreted.
● Excess water and salt - Filtered from the blood by the k idney and excreted as urine.
The Kidney
The kidney’s role is to f ilter waste and excess substances from the blood to be excreted from
the body as u rine. It is important for these substances to be filtered out of the blood, as a
build-up of toxins could cause harm to the organism.
The volume of urine produced is dependent on the water intake, temperature and exercise: a
large amount of dilute urine is formed when there is a large intake of water, a low temperature
(water is not lost through sweating), and when a low amount of exercise is carried out.
The renal system:

Blood enters the kidney through the r enal artery and exits through the renal vein.
● Cortex - the outer region of the kidney; the cortex contains nephrons.
● Nephron - the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. It contains the glomerulus,
which is where the blood is filtered and glucose, urea, water and salts are removed.
● Tubule - All glucose, most water and some salts are reabsorbed into the blood in the
tubule (after being filtered out in the glomerulus). This prevents the loss of too much
water. Urea is not reabsorbed, leading to a high concentration of urea in the urine.
● Medulla - the inner region of the kidney.
● Ureter - tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder, where it is stored
before being excreted from the body.
Dialysis machines and kidney transplants:
When the kidneys are not working, the body cannot maintain the amounts of salts and
glucose in the blood or remove urea. If the blood is not filtered correctly, urea builds up in
the body, which is toxic and can eventually be fatal if a dialysis machine is not used or the
kidney repaired or replaced.
During dialysis, blood is taken from the arm and travels through the dialysis machine. Inside,
the blood flows past a solution called dialysis fluid, containing glucose and ions. The blood
and fluid are separated by a partially permeable membrane, allowing diffusion between the
blood and fluid. As the fluid contains no urea, there is a high concentration gradient and urea
exits the blood into the dialysis fluid by diffusion. The levels of glucose and ions in the dialysis
fluid are similar to that of the blood, thus there is usually no net diffusion of ions or glucose
across the membrane, unless the blood is lacking in ions, in which case ions will diffuse into
the blood from the dialysis fluid. Clean blood then exits the machine and re-enters the
patient's arm.
Dialysis machines must be used regularly, however, to keep the blood clean. Patients
typically undergo dialysis 3 times a week for hours at a time, making it difficult to work and
carry out a normal lifestyle as a large amount of time is spent travelling and undergoing
dialysis. This lowers quality of life.
Kidney transplants are an alternative to constant dialysis. Although this comes with the risks
associated with major surgery, as well as the risk of rejection to the organ, a successful kidney
transplant can raise the quality of life of the patient and patients are not required to undergo
hours of dialysis. Most humans are born with two kidneys, although they can survive with
one, thus kidney transplants are from family members, as there is less chance of rejection.
CIE Biology GCSE
14: Coordination and Response

Notes

The nervous system
Both controlled movement and autonomic reflexes are carried out by the body’s n ervous
system. The nervous system controls movement by sending electrical signals known as nerve
impulses along a network of specialised nerve cells called neurons. This allows coordinated
movement and a c onstant internal environment to be maintained (homeostasis).
The nervous system consists of two main sections: the central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system. The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord, whereas the
peripheral nervous system contains motor and sensory neurons, which carry impulses to and
from the CNS.
Types of neuron:
● Sensory - carries impulses from a receptor to the spinal cord and brain
● Relay (connector) - carries impulses between different parts of the central nervous
system
● Motor (effector) - carries nervous impulses from the central nervous system to the
effector, e.g. a muscle
Synapses:
Where two neurons meet is called a synapse. The synapse forms a gap called a synaptic cleft
between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron. When an impulse arrives at
the presynaptic neuron, vesicles in the neuron fuse with the membrane, releasing a
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse,
binding to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. This triggers a nervous impulse in the
postsynaptic neuron, thus the impulse can continue.
Synapses ensure unidirectionality of nervous impulses, as the vesicles containing the

neurotransmitter are only present in the presynaptic neuron, whilst the receptors are only
present in the postsynaptic neuron, thus the impulse cannot travel backwards.
Many drugs act upon synapses. Stimulants, such as caffeine, can cause the release of
neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin into the synapse, whereas depressants, such
as heroin and alcohol, inhibit synapses by blocking the receptors on the postsynaptic neuron
so that impulses cannot be sent.
Reflexes:
Some movement is involuntary; organisms have adapted to carry out automatic reflexes
when in danger in order to quickly remove themselves from a hazard such as fire or sharp
objects. As these reactions must occur almost instantly to protect the organism, the nervous
impulse does not travel to the brain. Voluntary impulses are controlled by the brain.
Reflex arc:
1. A s timulus, such as heat from a flame, is detected by receptors.
2. The receptor sends an impulse down the sensory neuron to the s pinal cord.
3. The relay neuron in the CNS passes the impulse to the motor neuron.
4. The impulse travels along the motor neuron to an effector (e.g. a muscle), which reacts
to remove the organism from the danger.
The eye
Sense organs are groups of receptor cells which respond to a specific stimulus. The eye is a
sense organ which responds to light. Other sense organs may respond to temperature, touch,
sound and chemicals.
Eye structure:
● Cornea - A clear layer which coats the iris. The cornea refracts light into the eye.
● Iris - The coloured section of the eye. This controls the amount of light that enters the
eye by contracting and dilating the pupil.
● Pupil - Allows light into the eye
● Lens - Positioned behind the iris. The lens changes shape in order to focus the image on
the retina.
● Retina - Contains rod and cone cells which are sensitive to light, these are also called
photoreceptors. There are also many blood vessels which supply nutrients to these cells.
● Fovea - a section in the middle of the retina which contains a large amount of cone
cells; this section provides the clearest image.
● Optic nerve - Each photoreceptor cell is attached to a neuron. These neurons group
together to form the optic nerve, which carries the impulse to the brain.
Rods and cones:
Rods and cones are the two types of photoreceptor cells found in the eye:
Rods Cones
Shape Rod-shaped Cone-shaped
Function Used for monochromatic night Used for colour vision in bright light.
vision as they are more There are three types of cone cells,
sensitive to low levels of light each sensitive to a different colour
(red, green and blue)
Distribution Evenly distributed at the Concentrated at the fovea

periphery of the retina; absent
at the fovea
Pupil reflex:
upil of the eye can expand and contract to control the amount of light that enters the
The p
eye. This action is carried out by two sets of muscles, circular muscles and radial muscles,
which work antagonistically. At low light intensities, the pupil dilates to allow more light to
enter the eye by relaxing the circular muscles and contracting the radial muscles. At high light
intensities, the pupil constricts to limit the amount of light entering the eye by relaxation of the
radial muscles and contraction of the circular muscles. This is to prevent the eye being
damaged by the bright light.
Accommodation:
The eye can focus on both near and far objects. This is achieved by changing the shape of the
lens, which is controlled by ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments. These work
antagonistically. The shape of the lens, as well as its curvature, is altered to change the way
light is refracted onto the retina, focusing the image.
To focus on near objects, the ciliary muscles contract whilst the suspensory ligaments relax,
making the lens fatter and curved. To focus on distant objects, the ciliary muscles relax whilst
the suspensory ligaments contract, making the lens thinner and less curved.
The endocrine system
The endocrine system produces and secretes hormones. Hormones are molecules that travel in
the blood and are used for s ignalling in the body. They are produced in glands such as the
pituitary and adrenal glands, before being excreted into the blood, where they travel to t arget
organs and cause a change in the cells.
Endocrine glands:
A network of hormone-secreting glands make-up the endocrine system. This system helps to
control growth, metabolism and homeostasis, among other functions.
Example glands and functions:
Gland Hormone Function
Adrenal gland Adrenaline Secreted during the ‘fight or flight’ response, and when
(located at the top stressed or excited. It leads to an increase in pulse rate
of the kidneys) and widened pupils.
It also causes glycogen to be converted to glucose in
cells so that it can be used in respiration for energy.
Heart rate increases to provide more oxygen for this.
Pancreas Insulin Maintains blood-glucose concentration.
Testes Testosterone uscle and bone strength and plays a role in

Maintains m
reproduction.
Ovaries Oestrogen Regulates female r eproductive system.
Endocrine system vs nervous system:

● Nervous impulses travel along n eurons whereas hormones travel in the blood.
● Nervous impulses are much quicker than hormones, as hormones must be transported
in the blood whereas nervous impulses can travel along specialised nerve cells.
● Nervous impulses are instantaneous and short-lived, whereas a hormonal response
can be long-lasting.
● The endocrine system uses chemicals (hormones) whereas the nervous system uses
electrical signals.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment in organisms, despite
ptimum for cells to function.
external changes. This allows the environment to be at an o
Internal conditions must be maintained between set limits and if these limits are exceeded,
negative feedback mechanisms work to correct the change and restore the internal
environment to the optimum.
Regulating blood-glucose concentration:

The level of glucose in the blood must be maintained as part of homeostasis:
● If the level of glucose in the blood is too high, the water potential of the blood
becomes very low, thus water moves out of cells into the blood by osmosis. This leads
to cells shrinking and eventually dying.
● If the level is too low, water potential is high and thus water moves from the blood
into the cells, causing them to burst. Maintaining a constant blood-glucose level
therefore maintains a constant water potential so no unwanted osmosis occurs. In
addition, it means that there is a reliable source of energy for cells.
There are two hormones that are used to regulate blood-sugar levels: glucagon and insulin.
Both of these are synthesised in cells in the pancreas and are released into the blood from
here when the levels of blood-glucose are too high or too low:
● Insulin is released when blood-glucose concentration is too high. This is detected in
the pancreas. Insulin causes glucose to be converted to glycogen in the liver. This
lowers the concentration of glucose in cells, thus glucose diffuses into cells from the
blood, lowering the amount of glucose in the blood.
● Glucagon is released when blood-glucose concentration is too low. Glucagon inhibits
glucose being converted to glycogen in the liver and activates an enzyme that converts
glycogen to glucose, making more glucose available to cells. It also decreases the
respiratory rate in cells so that less glucose is used in respiration.
People with diabetes cannot produce insulin. Type 1 diabetes is caused by an autoimmune
response in which antibodies attack cells in the pancreas which usually make insulin. This
means that no insulin can be produced. In type 2 diabetes, either not enough insulin is
produced by the pancreas, or the cells do not respond correctly to the insulin. Type 1 diabetes
is usually treated by patients injecting insulin themselves. There are several new treatments
being developed, including the use of stem cells and artificial pancreases, although these
treatments will be very expensive.
Regulating temperature:
It is important to maintain a constant temperature of 37°C in humans as this is the optimum
temperature for enzyme reactions. If the temperature was lower, the rate of reaction would
decrease so reactions would take too long to occur. If it was too high, the enzymes may
denature and prevent reactions from occurring. The temperature is regulated by the
hypothalamus in the brain, which contains thermoreceptors. If the temperature moves away
from the optimum, a response is triggered to return the temperature to the optimum.
Reactions to a l ow internal temperature:

● Shivering - muscles contract to produce heat.
● Vasoconstriction - blood vessels constrict to reduce surface area and move away from
the surface of the skin to reduce heat loss.
igh internal temperature:

Reactions to a h
● Sweating- sweat evaporates from the skin, reducing the surface temperature.
● Vasodilation - blood vessels dilate, causing more heat loss to the environment.
Tropic Responses
Tropisms are growth movements in plants that occur in reaction to external stimuli. Plants can
show a positive or negative response, and different parts of the plants can show different
responses. These responses are controlled by plant hormones called auxins which cause cell
elongation. Auxins are made in shoot tips and move through the plant by diffusion and active
transport (short distances), or via the phloem (longer distances).
Gravitropism:
Gravitropism (also known as geotropism) is a response to g ravity. Shoots are negatively
gravitropic, as they grow upwards against gravity, whereas roots are positively gravitropic.
Phototropism
Phototropism is a response to light. Plant shoots are positively phototropic, as they m
ove
towards light in order to allow the plant to absorb more light to photosynthesise. Plant roots
are negatively phototropic as they move away from light.
Phototropic response:
1. Auxins are produced in the shoot tips, which are then transported down the shoot.
2. Light causes the auxin to move to the shady side of the shoot.
3. The auxin causes cell elongation on the shady side.
4. The cells grow faster on the shaded side, thus the shoot bends towards the light.
Weed killers:
Weed killers are used to selectively kill plants. One of the main herbicides contains an organic
compound known as 2,4-D, which is a synthetic plant hormone. When a plant is exposed to
2,4-D, it results in uncontrolled growth, leading to the plant’s death.
CIE Biology GCSE
15: Drugs
Notes

A drug is a substance that, when taken into the body, has an effect on the chemical reactions
that take place. There are a variety of different drugs which treat different diseases.
Antibiotics:
Antibiotic drugs are used to treat bacterial infections. Some antibiotics kill bacteria by
destroying their cell wall, leading to the cell bursting, whilst others inhibit the growth of the
bacteria. Viruses cannot be killed by antibiotics as they do not grow and reproduce in the
same way as bacteria, and do not have the same structure.
Some bacterial strains become resistant to antibiotics as a result of natural selection:

1. A mutation occurs in a bacterial cell which makes it resistant to an antibiotic.
2. When that antibiotic is administered, this c ell is not killed, whereas cells which have not
become resistant are killed.
3. The resistant cell can therefore survive and reproduce, producing more resistant
bacteria.
Resistance to antibiotics results in antibiotic resistant bacterial infections in hospitals such as
MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus). It is therefore important to try and slow
the development of resistant bacterial strains. This can be done by only using antibiotics for
serious infections, and always completing the full course of antibiotics to make sure that all
the bacteria is killed.
Misused drugs
Alcohol and heroin:
Alcohol and heroin are both depressants, meaning that they lower the rate of nervous impulses
by blocking synapses. This means that reactions are slower. They also lower self-control,
which can lead to increased crime rate and antisocial behaviour.
These drugs also cause the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine into synapses in
the reward pathway which causes a ‘high’. This can be addictive and thus lead to withdrawal
symptoms if the person stops taking the drug, such as anxiety, insomnia, headaches and
nausea.
They can also lead to other medical problems:

● Heroin is usually injected, thus infections such as HIV are common from sharing dirty
needles.
● Excessive alcohol consumption leads to liver damage. The liver usually breaks down
alcohol and other toxins.
Performance-enhancing drugs:
Some drugs are used to enhance sporting performance. In competitive sports, these drugs are
seen as unfair and are usually banned, with those using them being disqualified.
● Anabolic steroids - anabolic steroids trigger the release of hormones which promote
muscle mass and strength. Different types of steroids target different muscle groups.
In 2018, the Russian Winter Olympic team was disqualified from competing for taking
anabolic steroids to enhance their performance.
● Testosterone - testosterone is a hormone which enhances athletic performance by

improving muscle strength and size, as well as increasing energy levels and hand-eye
coordination.
Smoking
Smoking and diseases:

icotine which is inhaled with the cigarette smoke
Smoking is addictive due to a chemical called n
and causes the release of dopamine. This leads to long-term smoking habits, which have been
linked to many diseases:
● Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) - a group of diseases that decrease the
efficiency of gas exchange in the lungs by damaging the alveoli, hence decreasing the
surface area for diffusion, and causing inflammation in the airways. COPD causes
breathlessness, a persistent cough and frequent chest infections. The condition cannot
be cured, although the progression can be slowed, and symptoms treated.
● Lung cancer - one of the more serious forms of cancer, for which smoking accounts for
over 85% of cases. This is because cigarette smoke contains a variety of toxic chemicals,
many of them carcinogens.
● Coronary heart disease - smoking puts a strain on the heart due to the nicotine and
carbon monoxide breathed in. Carbon monoxide is dangerous as it displaces the oxygen
bound to haemoglobin and binds to it instead. This means that there is less oxygen
present in the blood so the heart must work harder to supply it to the tissues. There is
also an increased risk of blood clots, and other chemicals can damage arteries. Coronary
heart disease can lead to heart attacks and heart failure.
Although smoking is a major risk factor for all of these diseases, it does not mean that every
smoker will develop these diseases. There are a v ariety of other factors that alter the
probability of having one, such as a ge, fitness and amount/length of time smoking.
Components of cigarettes:
There is a toxic mix of over 7000 chemicals in every cigarette, many of which are poisons and
carcinogens:
● Nicotine - addictive, causes high heart rate and blood pressure, and also triggers the
release of adrenaline.
● Tar - tar, when inhaled, sticks to the cilia of cells in the lungs which usually transport
mucus away from the lungs to protect them from infections. Tar prevents them from
doing this, which is why smokers are more susceptible to chest infections. In addition, a
build-up of tar can narrow airways.
● Carbon monoxide - Carbon monoxide decreases the amount of oxygen in the blood,
thus putting a strain on the heart to supply more.
Other chemicals include arsenic (used in rat poison), formaldehyde (poisonous) and hydrogen
cyanide (chemical used to kill ants).
CIE Biology GCSE
16: Reproduction
Notes

Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a process which results in the production of genetically identical

offspring, known as clones. This only requires one parent, unlike sexual reproduction. Asexual
reproduction occurs predominantly in plants, although some animals such as starfish also
reproduce in this way.
Advantages of asexual reproduction:

● Only one parent is required - this is helpful for organisms which live in desolate
environments where finding a mate is difficult.
● Can reproduce quickly - large quantities of offspring can be produced quickly to
rapidly populate an area. This helps to dominate a habitat and prevent competition
from other species.
● It takes less energy to reproduce asexually.
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:

● Lack of diversity - all offspring are genetically identical.
● Prone to extinction - as each organism produced is genetically identical, a disease
which harms one will be dangerous to all of them, thus it is easy for the whole
population to be destroyed by one pathogen.
● Cannot adapt - organisms are adapted to one environment and cannot adapt to
changes. If the environment changes, e.g. the temperature rises, they are likely to be
killed.
● Overpopulation - too many offspring may be produced, which causes overcrowding in
a habitat.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction requires two parents. The nuclei of two gametes, one from each parent,
fuse together to form a zygote. Each offspring is genetically different. The process of the
gametes fusing is called fertilisation.
Most cells in the body are diploid cells, meaning that they have a full set of chromosomes,
whereas haploid cells (egg and sperm cells) only have half as many chromosomes. This means
that when two haploid gametes fuse during fertilisation, a complete set of chromosomes is
produced - half from the mother and half from the father. The nucleus of a zygote is therefore
diploid as it has a complete set of chromosomes.
Advantages of sexual reproduction:
● Wide diversity - each offspring is genetically unique.
● Promotes survival - each organism is unique so disease cannot spread as easily.
● Organisms can adapt - as each offspring is born with different genes, those with a
genetic advantage are more likely to survive and pass their positive traits on to their
offspring, whilst those with a genetic disadvantage are more likely to die without
producing offspring. This allows the species to evolve through natural selection.
Disadvantages of sexual reproduction:

● Two parents are required - it may be difficult for some species to find mates,
especially when there is an imbalance of males and females in an area or if the species
is endangered.
● Fewer offspring produced - it takes longer and requires more energy to produce
offspring, therefore it is less efficient than asexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction in plants

Plant reproductive system:
● Sepals - protects unopened flowers.
● Petals - flowering plants have petals which are brightly coloured to attract pollinating
insects to the plant. Insects are also attracted by scents and nectar in the plant.
● Anthers - produces male sex cells in the form of pollen. This pollen is then either picked
up by insects or blown off the plant and carried in the wind.
● Stigmas - the female part of the plant which collects pollen from insects or from the air.
In wind-pollinated plants, the stigmas and anthers hang out of the plant where they are
more exposed to the wind.
● Ovaries - produces the female sex cells which are contained in the ovules. Fertilisation
occurs when the nucleus of this fuses with a pollen cell nucleus.
Sexual reproduction in plants takes place in the flowers using pollen. C

ross-pollination occurs
when grains of pollen are transferred from the anthers of one plant to the stigma of another
plant of the same species. Some flowers can produce male and female gametes, and thus can
self-pollinate by transferring pollen from their anther to their stigma. This is considered as
sexual reproduction as there is still a male and female gamete.
Cross-pollination vs self-pollination:
● Cross-pollination results in more genetic diversity in a species, thus the species can
adapt and is more resilient to diseases.
● Self-pollination uses less energy as the plant does not need to expend energy in
attracting pollinating insects.
● Self-pollinating plants can spread to areas where the species does not currently exist
as other pollinators are not required. Cross-pollinating plants, however, are reliant on
pollinators.
● Cross-pollination can only occur when the flowers are open.
Methods of pollination:
There are two methods of pollination in plants: insect pollination and w ind pollination. In
insect pollination, insects are attracted to the plant, where pollen sticks to them. They then
move to another plant and drop the pollen, causing the second plant to be pollinated. In wind
pollination, the wind blows pollen off the first plant and carries it to the second plant. Pollen
that is carried by insects is adapted to be sticky and have h
ooks which attach to the insect.
Pollen carried by the wind does not need to stick to anything, thus is smooth. It is also very
light.
Fertilisation:
1. Pollen grains land on a plant stigma.
2. If the pollen is of the same species, a pollen tube begins to grow.
3. The pollen moves down the pollen tube to the ovule.
4. Fertilisation occurs when the nucleus from the pollen cell fuses with a nucleus in an
ovule. This produces a zygote.
5. The zygote develops into an embryo plant.
Factors affecting seed germination:

● Water - water moves into the seed, causing it to swell. This allows the embryo to begin
growing.
● Oxygen - used in respiration to produce energy for growth.
● Temperature - the seed contains enzymes, e.g. for respiration, which will work faster at
the plant’s optimum temperature. This is why seeds are dormant in the winter and grow
again in the spring.
Sexual reproduction in humans
Male reproductive system:
● Testes - there are two testicles. This is where sperm cells are produced, as well as
testosterone.
● Scrotum - Contains the testicles.
● Sperm ducts - Tubes that carry sperm from the testes to the urethra.
● Prostate gland - Secretes nutritive fluid which combines with sperm to form semen.
● Urethra - Tube which allows excretion of urine and semen from body.
Female reproductive system:

● Ovaries - there are two ovaries. Their function is to develop egg cells. Woman have
undeveloped egg cells from birth, whereas men produce new sperm throughout their
lives.
● Oviducts - connect to each ovary and contain cilia to transport the egg cells through the
tube. This is where fertilisation occurs.
● Uterus - this is where the foetus develops.
● Cervix - separates the vagina from the uterus, and also holds the baby in place during
pregnancy. The cervix is made of muscular tissue.
● Vagina - Tube that leads from the cervix to outside of the body. Receives the penis
during intercourse.
Fertilisation:
Fertilisation occurs when a s perm cell and an egg cell fuse their nuclei together. Sperm cells
are male gametes produced in large numbers in the testes. They are adapted by having a
tail-like flagellum which allows movement to the egg cell. Sperm cells also contain many
mitochondria to produce energy for this movement. Eggs, in contrast, are much larger than
sperm and are unable to move themselves. They are instead transported by cilia on the walls
of the oviducts. When the sperm cell reaches the egg cell, it must digest the wall of the cell so
that it can fuse their nuclei. This is done using enzymes located in the acrosome. The egg
contains a j elly coat which changes after fertilisation and ensures that only one sperm cell can
enter.
Once fertilisation has occurred, the z ygote undergoes mitosis (cell-division) to produce many
cells which make up an e mbryo. The egg cell contains energy stores to allow this to happen.
The embryo is implanted into the wall of the uterus, where it grows.
Development of the foetus:
Key structures:
● Umbilical cord - allows the exchange of substances between the foetus and the mother
through the cord.
● Placenta - Connects to the foetus end of the umbilical cord and allows exchange of
substances. It also produces hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone.
● Amniotic sac - Surrounds the foetus and produces amniotic fluid.
● Amniotic fluid - protects the foetus.
The mother passes essential nutrients to the foetus through the umbilical cord, such as amino
acids, oxygen and glucose. These help build cells, and hence structures, in the foetus. In
addition, waste products diffuse out of the foetus to be excreted from the mother’s body.
This prevents a build-up of toxins which could harm the foetus. In addition, antibodies are
passed to the foetus, allowing it to develop a resistance to pathogens.
Throughout this exchange of substances, the blood of the foetus and mother do not mix;
instead, substances diffuse between them. This is to prevent diseases passing to the foetus
through the blood, although some toxins, such as nicotine from cigarettes, and pathogens
such as the rubella virus, can still pass from the mother to the foetus.
Diet is also important during pregnancy. A greater amount of protein and carbohydrates
should be consumed to provide nutrients for the foetus to grow. Nutrients such as iron, which
is needed to make haemoglobin in blood, and calcium, which is used in bone growth, are also
essential to the foetus. Drugs, alcohol and cigarettes should be avoided as they can harm the
foetus. Babies whose mothers s moked or consumed alcohol during pregnancy are more likely
to have issues in cognitive development, behaviour and growth. There is also a larger risk of
fetal mortality.
Birth of the child:

1. The a mniotic sac breaks, releasing the amniotic fluid.
2. Muscles in the uterus wall contract to push the baby out while the cervix dilates.
3. The baby exits the mother through the vagina.
4. The u mbilical cord, which is still attached to the baby, is cut and tied.
Breastfeeding vs bottle-feeding:
● Breastfeeding allows antibodies to be passed from the mother to the child, providing
immunity.
● Breastfeeding contains all the essential nutrients for the baby. Some nutrients in
bottled milk may be harder for the baby to digest. There is also no risk of an allergic
reaction to breastmilk.
● Breastfeeding may be painful for the mother.
● Breastfeeding can only occur when the mother is present.
Sex hormones in humans

Two hormones are key to the development of secondary sexual characteristics during puberty
and the subsequent regulation of these characteristics:
● Testosterone - Testosterone is produced in the testes of males, and in small amounts
in the ovaries of females. It is responsible for muscle development and the deepening
of the voice, amongst other things.
● Oestrogen - made in the ovaries of females. It leads to the development of widened

hips, breasts, and plays a part in the menstrual cycle.
Menstrual cycle:
The menstrual cycle happens approximately every 2 8 days. During each cycle, an egg cell is
released from the ovaries. The uterus wall thickens by filling with blood capillaries in
preparation for a pregnancy, which would occur if the egg is fertilised. If this egg is not
fertilised, the egg dies and menstruation occurs, where the dead egg cell and old uterus lining
is expelled from the body in a period.
The menstrual cycle is regulated by four hormones:

● FSH - Follicle stimulating hormone triggers the development of an egg cell in the
ovary, and also stimulates oestrogen production in the ovaries. This is produced in the
pituitary gland.
● LH - Luteinising hormone triggers an egg to be released, as well as stimulating
progesterone production in the ovaries.
● Progesterone - Progesterone is responsible for maintaining the thick uterus lining in
the cycle and during pregnancy. It also decreases FSH production.
● Oestrogen - Stimulates LH production, whilst decreasing FSH production.
At the beginning of the cycle, levels of FSH and LH are high to stimulate egg production and
cause the production of oestrogen which thickens the uterus lining. When the egg is released,
the levels of LH, FSH and oestrogen decrease, whilst progesterone is released to maintain the
uterus lining. If the egg is not fertilised, progesterone levels decrease and the uterus lining
breaks down, causing menstruation.
Birth control in humans

Birth control is used in family planning to control when, and how many, children are produced.
There are many methods to prevent pregnancy if children are not wanted, including:
● Natural birth control methods - these methods use the knowledge of the menstrual
cycle to avoid pregnancy. This is done by monitoring body temperature and cervical
mucus to predict when ovulation is occurring and avoiding sexual intercourse in this
period. As cycles can be irregular and difficult to accurately predict, this method is not
always reliable. Another natural method is to abstain from sexual intercourse.
● Chemical methods - chemical methods include the contraceptive pill, implant and
injection, as well as IUD and IUS. These contain hormones which stop pregnancy. The
contraceptive pill contains the hormones progesterone and oestrogen, which prevents
ovulation. The contraceptive implant, injection and IUS both release progesterone and
cause the uterus lining to thin, preventing the fertilised egg from implanting in the
uterus wall. IUD also prevents implantation of the egg by thinning the uterus lining,
and also acts as a physical barrier to stop sperm reaching the egg.
● Barrier methods - this includes the condom, femidom and diaphragm. These are used to
act as a physical barrier and prevent the sperm from reaching the egg. Condoms also
have the advantage of preventing the spread of STIs.
● Surgical methods - these procedures prevent the release of sperm and egg cells. A
vasectomy involves the sperm ducts being tied or cut, preventing sperm from exiting
the testes. In women, the oviducts can be tied or cut to prevent the release of egg cells
from the ovaries.
Fertility treatments:
On the other hand, there are also people who would like to have children who have difficulty
becoming pregnant. In vitro fertilisation (IVF) and artificial insemination (AI) are two fertility
treatments which can solve this:
● IVF - If fertilisation cannot occur due to the sperm count or quality being too low, the
egg cell can be fertilised outside of the body and then be implanted back into the
uterus.
● AI - sperm is directly inserted into the uterus. This sperm can be from the partner, or
from a sperm bank if their sperm is not of a high enough quality.
Social implications of contraception and fertility treatments:

Some people believe that fertility treatments, such as IVF, and genetic screening of embryos
may lead to ‘designer babies’, where parents will discard eggs which do not have desired
characteristics, for example a certain hair colour or gender. In addition, they may avoid
having a child with an inherited disease.
Some religious groups do not agree with artificial methods of contraception. This is because
they believe that they are preventing a life that otherwise would have been created, which
goes against their beliefs. Fertility treatments are also contentious as during IVF, multiple
eggs are taken and fertilised at once, leading to spare embryos which are afterwards frozen
and stored or destroyed.
Sexually transmitted infections

Sexually transmitted infections, known as S TIs, are infections that are transmitted via bodily
fluids during sexual intercourse or contact. The spread of STIs can be controlled by abstaining
from sexual contact, avoiding risky sexual practices and always using protection such as
condoms.
HIV
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is an example of an STI. HIV is present in the bodily fluids
of infected people, such as blood and semen, and can be transmitted during sexual intercourse.
In the blood, HIV attaches to lymphocytes (white blood cells) and enters the cell. Here, it uses
the cell to replicate itself and thus the cell cannot carry out its normal functions.
Consequently, HIV reduces the number of functioning lymphocytes, as well as reducing the
body’s ability to produce antibodies to fight off infection. HIV leads to AIDS, which makes the
person extremely susceptible to other pathogens as the white blood cells can no longer fight off
disease, which can be fatal.
CIE Biology GCSE
17: Inheritance
Notes

Key words:
● Inheritance - the transmission of genetic information from parents to offspring.
● Chromosome - a thread-like structure of DNA that carries genetic information in the
form of genes.
● Gene - a length of DNA that codes for a particular protein.
● Allele - one of a number of different versions of a gene.
● Genotype - the genetic makeup of an organism, consisting of all the alleles present.
● Phenotype - the observable features of an organism as a result of the expression of
particular alleles of the gene.
● Homozygous - an organism containing two identical alleles of a particular gene.
● Heterozygous - an organism containing two different alleles of a particular gene.
● Diploid nucleus - nuclei which contain a full set of chromosomes (23 pairs).
● Haploid nucleus - nuclei which only contain half the number of chromosomes. These
cells are egg and sperm cells, which fuse during fertilization to produce a diploid cell.
There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of all diploid human cells. One of these
etermine gender. These chromosomes are therefore called the sex chromosomes. For
pairs d
females these chromosomes are XX and for males the chromosomes are XY. All female egg cells
contain only an X chromosome, whereas male sperm cells may contain an X or a Y, thus the
gender of the baby depends on which sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell.
Protein synthesis:
DNA controls the function of the cell by regulating protein synthesis, antibodies and
receptors for neurotransmitters. Protein synthesis is important to maintain cell structure, as
well as for producing enzymes to catalyze metabolic reactions:
1. The gene which codes for the protein is used to make an mRNA copy in the nucleus.
mRNA is similar to a single strand of DNA, although contains the base U rather than T.
2. The mRNA copy leaves the nucleus and travels through the cytoplasm to a ribosome.
3. The ribosome uses the mRNA strand to produce a chain of amino acids which make up
the protein. The order of the amino acid chain is determined by the order of bases on
the mRNA. This order is specific to each protein made.
As each type of cell has a different function, not every type of protein is synthesized in every
cell. The genes to code for each protein are present in every cell, however. These genes are
therefore switched ‘on’ or ‘off’. When the gene is switched on, it is expressed, and the
protein associated with the gene is synthesized. When the protein is not required, the gene is
switched off.
Mitosis:
Mitosis is a form of cell division. During mitosis, nuclear division of a parent cell occurs,
producing t wo genetically identical daughter cells. Mitosis is used to create new cells in the
body to r epair and replace old and damaged tissues, as well as allowing growth of the
organism and playing a role in asexual reproduction. Mitosis involves the s plitting of
chromosomes into their two halves, each of which are known as a chromatid:
1. Before replication can occur, the chromatids in the parent cell must replicate to
produce identical copies of themselves which pair as chromosomes.
2. The chromosomes line-up along the nucleus.
3. The chromosomes separate so that each identical chromatid is pulled to opposite
poles of the cell.
4. The cell membrane constricts in the middle and the nucleus is separated as the cell
splits into two new daughter cells. Each of these cells will contain a set of chromatids,
which then replicate themselves again to produce new chromosomes.
Stem cells:
Stem cells are found in embryos or in the bone marrow. These cells are unspecialized and
divide by mitosis to produce daughter cells which then specialize to have a variety of
functions. Cells, once specialized, cannot produce unspecialized cells. For example, a cell
which makes up the heart tissue cannot divide to make a cell which can act as skin tissue as
the cell produced will already be specialized as a heart cell.
Meiosis:
Meiosis is used to make four genetically unique daughter cells and is used in the production of
gametes. During meiosis, the chromosome number is halved, and a diploid cell divides to
produce four haploid cells. As each gamete produced is genetically unique, each of the
offspring will also be unique. This is beneficial for a species as it produces genetic variation.
Monohybrid inheritance:
Offspring inherit characteristics from both their mother and father and two sets of genes are
inherited, one from each. If the mother and father pass down the same allele for a particular
trait, e.g. they both pass down the allele for blue eyes, the offspring will have two identical
alleles for this trait, which is referred to as homozygous. If two separate alleles are passed
down, e.g. the mother has blue eyes and the father has brown eyes, the offspring will have two
different alleles for the gene, which is called heterozygous.
If two identical homozygous individuals are bred together, it is referred to as p

ure-breeding,
and the offspring will have the same characteristics as the parents. Breeding heterozygous
parents is not pure-breeding, as there are a number of different alleles that the offspring could
display in their phenotype.
Alleles can be dominant and recessive. A d

ominant allele is always expressed if present,
whereas the recessive allele is only expressed in the a bsence of the dominant allele. For
example, the allele for brown eyes is dominant and the allele for blue eyes is recessive. This
means that if two parents with blue and brown eyes were bred, the offspring would have
brown eyes as this allele is dominant.
Monohybrid crosses:
Monohybrid crosses are used to predict the ratios of inherited characteristics in a population.
There are always four outcomes. The dominant allele is written as a capital letter and the
recessive as the lowercase of that letter.
E.g. 1) Crossing two heterozygous green and yellow pea plants (both parents contain the alleles
for both traits):
G= green (dominant allele)

g= yellow (recessive allele)
Parent one → G g
Parent two ↓
G GG Gg
g Gg gg
The outcomes are GG, Gg, Gg and gg. As G is dominant, there is a 75% chance that the offspring
will display this allele in the phenotype and be green. There is a 25% chance that the offspring
will be yellow therefore the ratio is 3:1.
eterozygous pea plant:

E.g. 2) Crossing a homozygous recessive (yellow) pea plant with a h
G= green (dominant allele)

g= yellow (recessive allele)
Parent one (homozygous) → g g

Parent two (heterozygous) ↓
G Gg Gg
g gg gg
The outcomes are Gg, Gg, gg and gg. There is a 50% chance of the offspring being green or
yellow, therefore the ratio is 1:1.
Co-dominance:
Some alleles are co-dominant, meaning that neither is recessive, and they are both displayed
in the phenotype. An example of this is blood groups. The three possible alleles for blood
groups are A, B and O. The A and B alleles are co-dominant, which leads to the AB blood
group. O is recessive, and thus is only displayed in the phenotype if both parents have O
blood groups.
When writing codominant alleles, a capital letter is used to show the gene, and a superscript
letter is used to denote the allele, e.g. Cw
Sex-linked characteristics:
Some genes are located on the sex chromosomes. A characteristic which comes from one of
these genes is referred to as a sex-linked characteristic. A result of this is that some traits are
more common to one gender, for example any gene located on the Y chromosome can only
be present in males as females do not have this chromosome. An example of a sex-linked
characteristic is colour blindness, which is a recessive characteristic found on the X
chromosome.
CIE Biology GCSE
18: Variation and Selection

Notes

Variation
Variation refers to the differences between each organism in a species. Variation is beneficial
to a species as it allows natural selection to occur and r educes the risk of extinction from
disease. There are two types of variation: genetic variation and phenotypic variation.
● Genetic variation - each organism in a species has a different set of DNA, which is due to
genetic variation. Genetic variation is increased during meiosis, which produces
gametes. Each gamete has a different set of alleles, which means that when the two
gametes fuse an entirely new set of genes are produced.
● Phenotypic variation - The phenotype of an organism refers to its observable

characteristics, such as height or hair colour. Phenotypical variation can be caused by
both genetic and environmental factors. For example, the potential height of an
organism is decided in genes which come from the parents, although some organisms
will never reach this height as they do not receive enough nutrients from their
environment.
Variation can be continuous and discontinuous. Continuous variation results in a range of
phenotypes between two extremes, for example height or weight. Discontinuous variation,
however, is limited to a discrete number of categories, such as blood group, which is limited
to A, B, AB, or O in humans. Discontinuous variation is mainly caused by genes alone.
Mutations:
Mutations are genetic changes which result in a change in the sequence of DNA bases. These
changes can occur due to a variety of factors, including exposure to some c hemicals and
ionising radiation. If the mutation occurs at a particular allele, this allele may be altered,
changing how it functions. This is how n ew alleles are formed.
An example of this is sickle-cell anemia: sickle-cell anemia is a condition where red blood cells
become sickle shaped. Sickle cells carry less oxygen and can block blood vessels. This
condition is caused by a mutation in the beta-haemoglobin gene, which alters the allele
which produces haemoglobin (protein). This allele is recessive; thus, it is only present in the
phenotype if two copies of this allele are present (homozygous). The mutation can also have
positive effects; people who are homozygous or heterozygous, i.e. have one sickle-cell allele
and one un-mutated allele, are immune to malaria, as the malaria parasite cannot infect the
sickle-shaped cells. Sickle-cell anemia is therefore commonly found in areas where malaria is
common. This shows that natural selection for this gene is occurring in these areas, as those
with the gene do not catch the disease and are more likely to survive. This allows this allele to
be preserved.
Adaptations
Adaptive features are inherited functional features that help the organism by increasing its
fitness, which is the ability of the organism to s urvive and reproduce in its environment.
Xerophytes are plants that are adapted to live in very dry climates, such as cacti. They have a
number of adaptive features that help to increase survival by reducing water loss:
● Fewer stomata - water vapour diffuses out of the plant via the stomata, thus less
water is lost if there are fewer stomata. Stomata are also sunken in pits in the leaf,
which allows bubbles of moist air to be trapped around them. This lowers the water
potential gradient, so less water is lost from the leaf.
● Small, rolled leaves or spines - this reduces the surface area of the leaf and traps
moisture to lower the water potential gradient, reducing water loss.
● Deep roots - this allows plants to absorb water from the soil. Roots are also adapted
to absorb lots of water when it rains for storage, e.g. in monsoon seasons.
● Thick waxy cuticle - this provides a waterproof barrier around the leaf to prevent
water loss.
Hydrophytes, in contrast, are plants which are adapted to live in very wet conditions and
includes species such as the water lily and the lotus. These plants are adapted differently to
xerophytes as they do not need to minimize water loss:
● Leaf shape - leaves are usually large and flat to have a large surface area which
promotes water loss.
● Stomata - positioned on the top of the leaf where the sun hits. There is also a large
number of stomata, which are usually open to allow water vapour to diffuse out of
the leaf.
● Thin/no waxy cuticle - water loss does not need to be restricted by this layer in
hydrophytes.
● Small root system - as there is a large amount of water reliably available, root systems
can be shallow, and water can diffuse directly into the stem.
Selection
Natural selection is where organisms with favourable alleles and advantageous characteristics
have a higher probability of surviving and reproducing. This is due to competition within a
population for resources and mates. As there is v ariation in the alleles of each species, each
organism within a species has different traits, some positive and some negative. Those with
more positive traits can a dapt to the environment more effectively and are thus is more likely
to survive and produce many offspring, which inherit these alleles. O ver time, negative
characteristics are lost from the species as organisms with those characteristics are not able
reproduce to pass on their alleles. This is known as evolution. Evolution allows a population to
become more adapted to its environment over time, as a result of natural selection.
Antibiotic resistance:
Some bacterial strains become resistant to antibiotics as a result of natural selection:
1. A mutation occurs in a bacterial cell allele which makes it resistant to an antibiotic.
2. When that antibiotic is administered, this cell is not killed, whereas cells which have
not become resistant are killed.
3. The resistant cell can therefore survive and reproduce, passing on the resistant allele
to produce more resistant bacteria.
Selective breeding:
Selective breeding is where humans select animals or plants with desirable features and breed
these together to make more offspring with these desirable features. This process is repeated
over many generations. As this breeding is controlled by humans, it is known as artificial
selection.
An example of selective breeding of animals is the German Shepherd. These dogs were
originally bred as working dogs to herd sheep as they are known for their intelligence and
agility. Humans selectively breed these dogs to exaggerate desirable qualities, such as their
sloping backs and large ears. This involves crossing dogs which show these traits so that the
alleles are passed on to their offspring. Farmers also selectively breed crops. For example,
bananas are selectively bred for their size, shape and easiness to peel. This means that plants
which express these characteristics are bred to produce more offspring with desirable
characteristics.
CIE Biology GCSE
19: Organisms and Their Environment

Notes

Food chains
Key words:
● Producer - an organism which converts light energy to chemical energy in order to
produce its own nutrients.
● Consumer - an organism which gets energy from feeding on other animals or plants.
● Food chain - a diagram which shows the order of energy transfer through feeding in an
ecosystem.
● Food web - a diagram showing how different food chains interact with each other.
● Trophic level - the trophic level of an organism refers to its position in the food chain,
food web, pyramid of numbers or pyramid of biomass.
● Pyramid of numbers - shows the number of organisms in each trophic level of a food
chain.
● Pyramid of biomass - shows the total mass of organisms in each trophic level of a food
chain.
● Biomass - the total mass of living material.
● Herbivore - organisms which feed on plants.
● Carnivore - organisms which feed on animals.
● Decomposer - organisms which break down decaying organic material.
Energy is introduced into biological systems as light energy which is absorbed by plants, where
the Sun is the principal source of energy. This energy is then transferred to chemical energy
and can pass to other organisms through feeding. When these animals die, they are broken
down by decomposers which return their nutrients to the soil.
A food chain shows the order of energy transfer between organisms. Food chains start with
producers, which are plants which convert light energy from the Sun to chemical energy.
Organisms which feed on plants, or other animals, are known as consumers. Plants are eaten
by h erbivores, which gain nutrients from the plants that are used for growth. This consumer is
then eaten by another animal which gains the nutrients from the first. Each of these organisms
has its own trophic level. Consumers are classed as p rimary, secondary, tertiary or
quaternary, depending on their position in the food chain.
Energy is passed between trophic levels, although this process is highly inefficient due to a
variety of reasons:
● Not all animal and plant material can be digested to gain energy from, e.g. fur and
bones.
● Energy is lost through excretion and decay.
● Energy is used in other processes, e.g. movement and keeping warm.
This means that organisms later on in the food chain gain less energy from their food than
organisms earlier on, as energy is lost at each level. Consequently, organisms later in the food
chain must eat a larger amount to gain enough energy for survival. For this reason, there are
usually not more than five trophic levels as too much energy would be lost to sustain
another. This is also why it is more efficient for humans to eat plants rather than animals, as
there are more stages in the food chain if animals are present.
A pyramid of numbers can be used to show the number of organisms in each trophic level. This
is similar to a pyramid of biomass, which measures the total biomass of all the organisms at
each level. A pyramid of biomass tends to have a true pyramid shape as biomass is lost in
each level which corresponds to the energy lost. A pyramid of biomass therefore is more
useful as it gives an indication of the amount of energy being passed on at each stage of the
food chain.
Human impact on food chains:

Humans alter food webs through over-harvesting food species and i ntroducing foreign species
to habitats. Over-harvesting will damage food chains as other organisms which consume these
organisms will not have enough food to survive, meaning that many of them will die.
Introducing foreign species may have the same effect as there is now competition for
resources, which could damage existing species by interfering with the food chain.
An example of this is cane toads, which were introduced to Australia to eat pests. Due to their
estroyed many native species and damaged habitats, especially water
toxic skin, they have d
habitats, where the biodiversity has been reduced. This has had a negative effect on the bird
population which preyed on animals living in these areas. This shows that when one trophic
level is damaged, all that follow are also impacted as the amount of food for them decreases.
Nutrient cycles
The carbon cycle:
lement which makes up the majority of molecules in living organisms.
Carbon is an essential e
The carbon cycle is used to show how carbon atoms move between the a tmosphere and living
organisms:
1. Carbon is present in the atmosphere in the form of c arbon dioxide, which makes up
about 0.04% of the air.
2. Carbon dioxide is taken in by plants during photosynthesis. Here, the carbon is
transferred from carbon dioxide to other molecules such as proteins and
carbohydrates.
3. These molecules are passed through the food chain when feeding occurs, hence carbon
is also passed between the trophic levels.
4. Carbon is returned to the atmosphere during respiration, which releases carbon
dioxide, and during decomposition.
Carbon can be trapped in dead organisms when decomposition does not occur. These
organisms become fossilised over thousands of years to form fossil fuel. When this fossil fuel is
burned, large amounts of carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere. This, along with
the effect of deforestation, leads to the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
increasing, which causes global warming.
The water cycle:

1. Water evaporates from bodies of water such as lakes and rivers to form water vapour
(gas). It also is released from plants during transpiration.
2. This water vapour rises upwards and begins to cool. When it cools, condensation
occurs, turning the vapour back into liquid water which forms clouds.
3. When the cloud becomes too heavy, water falls from the cloud as precipitation (rain,
snow, hail etc.).
4. This water is then taken up by plants and animals, or returns to a body of water, so that
the cycle can continue.
The nitrogen cycle:

Nitrogen is another element which is key to biological lifeforms. Nitrogen is used to make
amino acids, DNA and ATP, which is a molecule that releases energy. Microorganisms are key
to the nitrogen cycle as they help to convert nitrogen to different forms so that it can be
used.
1. Nitrogen gas is present in the air. This nitrogen is fixed (converted to useable nitrate
ions) by nitrogen-fixing bacteria which live on the root nodules of some plants, or by
lightning.
2. Plants absorb these nitrate ions and use them to make other molecules, such as amino
acids and proteins.
3. These molecules are passed through the food chain via feeding.
4. Nitrogen is returned to the soil in the form of ammonia when decomposition occurs,
or in the form of urea, which is excreted from organisms after deamination occurs. If
this decomposition occurs in anaerobic conditions (without oxygen) then denitrifying
bacteria can break down nitrates and return nitrogen gas to the atmosphere.
Population size
Key words:
● Population - A group of organisms of the same species living together in one habitat.
● Community - Populations of many different species living together in one ecosystem
make up a community.
● Ecosystem - A system in a specific area which contains a variety of living organisms
which work together within the environment.
Factors affecting rate of population growth:

● Food supply - if there is a large amount of food, organisms can breed more successfully.
If there is a food shortage, there is a higher death rate which results in a slow or
negative population growth.
● Predation - organisms which have lots of predators will have a slower rate of population
growth as more will be killed by predators.
● Disease - disease can reduce the population by killing organisms. In densely populated
areas, disease can spread quickly, thus a large proportion of the population may be
wiped out.
Human population growth:

Over the last 250 years, the human population has risen from just over 1 billion to 7.6 billion.
There are many social and economic implications of this. Due to the massive demand for
resources and space, d eforestation occurs, and a high amount of fossil fuels are burnt. This
leads to global warming and also d amages habitats. Rapid population growth also puts a strain
on services such as healthcare and education, meaning that many people cannot access these
services, which lowers quality of life.
CIE Biology GCSE
20: Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

Notes

Genetic engineering is the process of artificially altering genes in a cell to change the way it
works. This could be to make the cell perform a desired function, such as making a specific
protein, or to make the cell r esistant to different factors. For example, some strawberries have
been genetically modified to become resistant to frost by inserting a gene taken from cold
water fish which makes antifreeze proteins.
Genetic engineering and bacteria:

Bacteria are useful to genetic engineering as they r eproduce very rapidly but still have the
ability to produce complex molecules. Bacteria contain plasmids, which are circular rings of
DNA, into which new genes can be inserted, removed or changed. There are also no ethical
concerns about manipulating the DNA of bacteria.
Bacteria can be manipulated to produce human proteins, such as insulin:

1. The gene which codes for the desired protein is located and isolated using restriction
enzymes. The isolated gene has “sticky ends”.
2. The plasmid from the bacterial cell is cut with the same restriction enzymes. This
leaves complementary sticky ends to the isolated gene.
3. The gene is inserted into the plasmid. The complementary sticky ends are joined using
the enzyme DNA ligase. This forms a recombinant plasmid.
4. This plasmid is inserted into the bacteria, which will then produce this protein as the
inserted gene is expressed.
5. The bacterial cell reproduces, making more cells which produce the protein.
Examples of genetic engineering:

● Insulin production - people with diabetes must take insulin to regulate their
blood-glucose concentration. Insulin was originally harvested from animals, such as pigs,
although this had slight differences to human insulin, which made some people allergic
to it. Genetic engineering has allowed human insulin to be made in bacteria cells. This
produces cheap, human insulin in high quantities.
● Herbicide and insect resistant plants - genes can be inserted into plants to make them
resistant to herbicides and insects. This means that less crops die, so farmers have a
larger crop yield.
● Vitamin-rich plants - some plants can be genetically modified to increase the number of
vitamins in them. This is beneficial to places where certain vitamins are hard to find to
reduce vitamin deficiency. For example, “golden rice” is a type of rice that has been
genetically modified to produce beta carotene, which humans use to produce vitamin A.
This reduces vitamin A deficiency in some areas.
Disadvantages of genetic engineering:
● Loss of biodiversity.
● Potential development of weeds that are resistant to herbicides.
● GM crops are more expensive.
● GM crops may contaminate wild species by crossbreeding.
● Long-term health impacts not known.
Biotechnology:
Biotechnology involves using microorganisms and biological substances to carry out functions
in manufacturing processes:
● Yeast is a microorganism which can respire anaerobically (without oxygen) to release

carbon dioxide. This can be used in bread-making to make dough rise as bubbles of
carbon dioxide form. Ethanol is also released during this reaction, which can be used to
make biofuels that are used as an alternative to fossil fuels.
● Pectinase is an e
nzyme used in fruit juice production. Pectinase breaks down pectin,
which is found in p lant cell walls and is used to hold the cell wall together. Adding
pectinase therefore breaks down these walls to release the contents of the cell, which
increases the yield of fruit juice.
nzymes to break down different molecules.

● Biological washing powders contain e
Amylases break down starch, lipases break down fats and oils, and proteases break
ater soluble, thus
down proteins. Enzymes break these into smaller products that are w
can be washed out easily. As enzymes are denatured at high temperatures and extreme
pH, a lower washing temperature is needed, and the enzymes may not work in acidic or
alkaline water.
● The enzyme lactase can be used to make lactose-free milk. When lactase is added to
milk, it breaks down the lactose into glucose and galactose, which can be safely
consumed by lactose-intolerant people.
● Penicillium is a fungus used to produce penicillin, an antibiotic. The fungus is placed in

a fermenter to keep it at the optimum temperature and pH, so the penicillin yield is
high. There is also an air inlet so that aerobic respiration can take place, and all other
microorganisms are killed to limit contamination and competition.

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CIE Biology GCSE

1: Characteristics and Classification of Living

(Content in ​bold​ is for Extended students only)

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

Organisms are classified by ​evolutionary relationships​.

The five kingdoms

The plant kingdom is split into​ flowering and non-flowering plants​.

(Content in ​bold​ is for Extended students only)

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To calculate the size of a specimen under a microscope:

Where the image size is the size the specimen

Functions of eukaryotic cell structures:

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Factors affecting rate of diffusion:

Active transport is the movement of molecules a​ gainst a concentration​ gradient using e

Examples of active transport:

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Factors affecting enzyme action:

● Temperature​ - As the temperature increases up to the enzyme’s optimum, the rate of

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This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

Equations for photosynthesis:

carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen

Factors affecting rate of photosynthesis:

● Carbon dioxide concentration​ ​- as CO2 concentration increases, rate of photosynthesis

● Temperature​ ​- photosynthesis requires enzymes to carry out the reaction. As these

● Chloroplasts​ ​- This is where photosynthesis occurs. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll

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Nutrients and their importance:

● Coronary heart disease​ ​- caused by a build-up of cholesterol in the coronary artery

● Kwashiorkor and marasmus ​- these are conditions caused by ​protein-energy

Parts of the alimentary canal:

● Protease​ ​breaks down p

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​ hysical activity​ is a factor that can influence

Coronary heart disease:

● Surgery​ - There are a variety of treatments which involve surgery.

Blood and lymphatic vessels

Lymphatic system and tissue fluid:

Components of the Blood

● Platelets​ - involved in blood clotting (below).

10: Diseases and Immunity

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Defences against infection:

Antibodies and antigens:

Passive immunity is short-term as ​memory cells are not produced​.

11: Gas Exchange in Humans

(Content in ​bold​ is for Extended students only)

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

Organisms are classified by evolutionary relationships.

The plant kingdom is split into flowering and non-flowering plants.

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

Active transport is the movement of molecules a gainst a concentration gradient using e

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

● Temperature - As the temperature increases up to the enzyme’s optimum, the rate of

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

● Carbon dioxide concentration - as CO2 concentration increases, rate of photosynthesis

● Temperature - photosynthesis requires enzymes to carry out the reaction. As these

● Chloroplasts - This is where photosynthesis occurs. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

● Coronary heart disease - caused by a build-up of cholesterol in the coronary artery

● Kwashiorkor and marasmus - these are conditions caused by protein-energy

● Protease breaks down p

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

hysical activity is a factor that can influence

● Surgery - There are a variety of treatments which involve surgery.

● Platelets - involved in blood clotting (below).

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

Passive immunity is short-term as memory cells are not produced.

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

Synapses ensure unidirectionality of nervous impulses, as the vesicles containing the

Pancreas Insulin Maintains blood-glucose concentration.

Testes Testosterone uscle and bone strength and plays a role in

Ovaries Oestrogen Regulates female r eproductive system.

Reactions to a l ow internal temperature:

igh internal temperature:

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

Some bacterial strains become resistant to antibiotics as a result of natural selection:

● Testosterone - testosterone is a hormone which enhances athletic performance by

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

Asexual reproduction is a process which results in the production of genetically identical

Sexual reproduction in plants takes place in the flowers using pollen. C

● Oestrogen - made in the ovaries of females. It leads to the development of widened

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

If two identical homozygous individuals are bred together, it is referred to as p

Alleles can be dominant and recessive. A d

eterozygous pea plant:

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

● Phenotypic variation - The phenotype of an organism refers to its observable

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)

(Content in bold is for Extended students only)