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Enrichment and Exposure of Particulate Lead in a Traffic Environment in India

Article  in  Environmental Geochemistry and Health · October 2003

DOI: 10.1023/A:1024520522083 · Source: PubMed

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 ENRICHMENT AND EXPOSURE OF PARTICULATE LEAD
IN A TRAFFIC ENVIRONMENT IN INDIA

RAJNIKANT SHARMA and SHAMSH PERVEZ∗

Department of Chemistry, Government V.Y.T. Postgraduate Autonomous College, Durg, CG,
491 001, India (∗ author for correspondence: e-mail: shamshp@yahoo.co.in)

Received 5 December 2000; accepted in revised form 5 November 2002

Abstract. Enrichment of lead in respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM) and exposure of
human blood to particulate lead in traffic environment were investigated. Samples of RSPM, non-
respirable suspended particulate matter (NRSPM) and total suspended particulate matter (TSPM)
were collected in 10 sampling sites located on National Highway No. 6, Durg–Bhilai section of
Chhattisgarh State of India. Forty blood samples, out of which 20 of highway traffic personnel with
chronic exposure and other 20 of general population who were residing more than 10 km away from
the National Highway, were collected. Samples of particulate matter were weighed and analysed
for particulate lead. Results have shown a higher concentration of average RSPM and TSPM in
all the sampling sites compared to the Indian permissible limits. Geometric mean of lead levels
was found in the range of 0.880–1.414 µg/m3 (TSPM) in the study sites. Concentrations of lead
in RSPM have shown a higher enrichment (range 2.645–3.171) relative to NRSPM. Blood lead
levels in traffic personnel and general population were found in the range of 56.70–101.17 µg/dL and
7.92–31.22 µg/dL, respectively.

Key words: blood lead level, enrichment factor, particulate lead, traffic personnel

1. Introduction

Particulate lead in the air of traffic environment has received meticulous atten-
tion in the world (Deborrah and Muthusubramaniam, 1991; Gajghate et al., 1998;
Gajghate and Hasan, 1999). The road length in India has increased 5-fold from
400 000 km in 1950–1951 to 2 103 000 km in 1990–1991, whereas the number
of vehicles has grown 70 times, from about 0.3 million to more than 21 million
during this period (TERI, 1996). Combustion of leaded fuel from automobiles
is the foremost emission source of lead in the traffic environment. A significant
part of lead emitted from auto exhaust is absorbed by living tissues (Murthy and
Ramarao, 1992). Atmospheric contamination of 2×105 t of lead in USA as a result
of combustion of leaded gasoline has been reported by Manhan (1979). Automobile
exhaust emissions can be reduced by maintaining the ideal fuel–air ratio (1:13) of
the auto engines. Tetraethyl lead in the fuel is mixed as an anti-knocking agent.
Petroleum combustion in the engine converts the tetraethyl lead into toxic fumes
which results in the emission of lead bearing particulates (Khopkar, 1994).

Environmental Geochemistry and Health 25: 297–306, 2003.

© 2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
298 RAJNIKANT SHARMA AND SHAMSH PERVEZ

Many reports have been published on the exposure of automobile exhaust emit-
ted lead to urban population resulting in higher blood lead levels (Haferutar, 1961;
Barry, 1987). Lead level linkages between auto exhaust particulate matter and bio-
logical samples in traffic environment have also been established (Krishnamurthy
et al., 1990; Murthy and Ramarao, 1992). As far as human exposure to particulate
matter is concerned, particulate matter (<10 µm) is known to affect the respiratory
system as a result of inhalation and ingestion (Sinha et al., 1983).
Lead is a cumulative poison. Increasing amount in the body eventually reaches
a point where lead-related toxicity symptoms and disabilities occur. The red blood
cells are destroyed more rapidly as a result of lead contamination and the body
becomes anemic. It can also produce a damaging effect on the kidney, liver, male
gonads, nervous system, blood vessels and other tissues, which resulted in autop-
sies in death. Blood lead levels of 70 µg/dL can cause serious lead poisoning and
blood lead levels of 10 µg/dL can have the effect of diminishing IQ scores of
children (Irwing and Lewis, 1989).
The present study aims to investigate the enrichment of lead in respirable sus-
pended particulate matter (RSPM) relative to non-respirable suspended particulate
matter (NRSPM) in traffic environment and assess the exposure of human blood
to chronic (traffic police personnel of the study area) and sub-chronic (general
population) exposure of particulate lead.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. SAMPLE COLLECTION

Ten sampling stations on National Highway No. 6, Durg–Bhilai section of

Chhattisgarh state, India, were identified for the collection of RSPM, NRSPM
and total suspended particulate matter (TSPM) samples (Figure 1). A set of two
samplers, one respirable dust sampler (RDS) (Envirotech, Model APM 460) and
one high volume sampler (HVS) (Envirotech, Model APM 410), were installed
at a height of 4 ft at each sampling site and operated on 8 hourly basis round the
clock (24 h) at an average flow rate of 1.1 m3 /min for RDS and 1.3 m3 /min for
HVS (Envirotech, 2000). Total five samples each of RSPM, NRSPM and SPM
were collected at each site in alternate days. An average traffic volume (vehicles/h)
at each sampling site was also recorded.
Blood samples (10 mL each) of 20 traffic personnel, who were deployed in
study sites of national highway with a working period more than 8 h/day, were col-
lected. Twenty more blood samples (10 mL each) were also collected from the local
residents who were residing 10 km away from the National Highway. All blood
samples were taken through sterilised syringes (Dispovan No. 24) and collected in
vials of 10 mL capacity. The collected samples were transferred to the laboratory
for chemical investigation (Murthy and Ramarao, 1992). All particulate matter and
 ENRICHMENT AND EXPOSURE OF PARTICULATE LEAD 299

Figure 1. Location map of sampling sites on National Highway No. 6 (Durg–Bhilai area) in Central
India.

blood samples were collected in the months of June–July 2000. Two hundred and
ten millimeters of rainfall and a variation of 36–41 ◦ C in the temperature were
recorded during the month of sampling.

2.2. SAMPLE PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS

Samples of RSPM and TSPM were collected on pre-weighed glass microfilter

sheets attached to RDS and HVS, respectively. NRSPM samples were collected
through attached cyclonic cups in RDS. All samples were carried to laboratory
and dried in desiccators for 24 h and weighed. In case of each RSPM and TSPM
sampling, weights of all three microfilter sheets of 8 hourly basis (sampling period
24 h) were then added to obtain the total concentration for 24 h of sampling. Sim-
ilar method was also used for NRSPM samples. Concentration of all fractions of
particulate matter was then computed on the net mass collected in proportion to
volume of air sampled (Janssens and Dams 1973). Arithmetic means and geometric
means of RSPM, NRSPM and TSPM (in µg/m3 ) of each sampling site are shown
in Table I. Correlation between RSPM and traffic volume was also calculated and
presented in Table I.
Twelve circles (1 in. diameter) were punched out from all three micro filter
sheets of each sample of RSPM and TSPM and put in a conical flask. Concentrated
nitric acid (20 mL) was added to it and the conical flask was covered with a watch
 300
TABLE I
Levels of particulate matter (µg/m3 ) at selected sites on National Highway No. 6 in India

Site no. Traffic volume RSPM levels∗ NRSPM levels∗ TSPM levels∗ ‘r’ between traffic volume
(vehicles/h)∗ and RSPM levels
AM GM AM GM AM GM

1 816 68.57 65.37 193.07 191.81 260.12 258.38 0.82

(790–850) (40.33–99.01) (160.12–221.31) (221.22–300.14)

RAJNIKANT SHARMA AND SHAMSH PERVEZ

2 710 74.88 71.87 163.08 159.82 240.71 236.29 0.75
(670–760) (46.12–102.01) (127.54–220.14) (189.33–321.22)
3 1804 77.40 75.02 517.38 516.71 594.01 591.07 0.85
(1760–1840) (52.10–100.12) (488.14–563.14) (527.33–703.15)
4 1104 84.37 83.26 493.20 492.56 574.40 573.44 0.92
(1080–1120) (62.12–101.11) (460.14–536.22) (527.14–621.25)
5 1194 76.73 75.54 472.04 470.74 540.12 538.60 0.92
(1140–1230) (60.14–97.14) (428.32–524.32) (488.88–600.80)
6 2012 105.24 104.38 569.38 568.34 665.45 664.08 0.76
(2000–2030) (88.14–127.42) (530.12–630.00) (599.36–720.15)
7 1070 63.17 62.83 173.23 172.42 237.23 235.70 0.98
(1050–1090) (55.23–73.15) (144.33–189.11) (200.33–282.25)
8 2094 89.35 88.83 153.19 150.63 247.22 245.34 0.94
(2050–2120) (76.22–104.09) (119.22–192.07) (200.32–287.22)
9 1416 65.57 61.85 503.06 501.67 561.21 559.40 0.86
(1370–1460) (44.02–110.22) (464.07–563.11) (501.23–627.22)
10 1496 70.65 69.19 473.17 470.08 538.20 537.24 0.91
(1480–1520) (50.22–89.28) (407.14–548.11) (499.32–593.01)
∗ Mean of five measurements (range of five measurements are shown in brackets).
AM: arithmetic mean, GM: geometric mean, and r: correlation coefficient values.
 ENRICHMENT AND EXPOSURE OF PARTICULATE LEAD 301

glass and heated at 140 ◦ C in a fume hooded hot plate, until most of the acid
was evaporated. This step was repeated twice in order to solubilize the metallic
compounds. The solution was then filtered through 0.45 micron Whatman filter
paper and the insoluble residue on the filter paper was rinsed with 10% nitric
acid (10 mL). The bottom of watch glass was rinsed with 10% nitric acid and
the solution was evaporated to dryness. The paper blank and nitric acid blank
were then cooled and the residue was dissolved in concentrated HNO3 (1 mL).
The clear solution was made upto 100 mL using double-distilled water (Gajghate
et al., 1998). Finally, the digested samples were analysed for lead content atomic
absorption spectrophotometrically (Varian Techtron, Model AA 575) using recom-
mended conditions of operation and standard method of chemical analysis (Richard
et al., 1970; Valkovic, 1978). All reagents and chemicals used in analysis were
spectroscopic and Analytical Reagent grade and glassware were of superior quality
borosilicate. Standard deviations, correlation between RSPM and RSPM-Pb and
between RSPM-Pb and traffic volume at each site are also calculated. Results are
presented in Table II.

2.3. DETERMINATION OF ENRICHMENT FACTOR

Enrichment factor for lead content of RSPM relative to NRSPM was calculated
using following formula (Quraishi, 1997):

Enrichment factor (EF) =

conc. of lead in RSPM/conc. of reference element in RSPM
conc. of lead in NRSPM/conc. of reference element in NRSPM

Samples of RSPM of each site were also analyzed for selected major constituents
(Fe, Ca, Mg, Al, Na and K) to obtain reference element concentration. Chemical
analysis was carried out by standard methods using standard analytical reagents
(Bassett et al., 1989). Reference element concentration in each site was evaluated
by correlation coefficient values between concentrations of Fe, Mg, Ca, Al, Na, K
and Pb of all RSPM samples of that site. Ca has shown best correlation with other
metal concentrations and was taken as reference element concentration in each site.
Blood samples were digested with perchloric acid and nitric acid using stan-
dard method of digestion of blood samples (Welcher, 1963). All digested samples
were then subjected to chemical analysis of lead using atomic absorption spec-
trophotometer (Varian Techtron, Model APM 575) under the standard conditions
of operation (Valkovic, 1978). All chemicals and analytical reagents used were of
Analytical Reagent grade. Results are shown in Table III and Figure 2. Correlation
between blood-Pb level and age groups was also calculated and are presented in
Table III.
 302
TABLE II
Analysis data (in µg/m3 ) of lead content in particulate matter at selected sites on National Highway No. 6 in India

Site Lead levels in RSPM∗ Lead levels in NRSPM∗ EF Lead levels in TSPM∗ ‘r’ between RSPM ‘r’ between
no. and RSPM-Pb traffic
AM GM SD AM GM SD AM GM SD volume and
RSPM-Pb

1 0.653 0.596 0.243 0.274 0.255 0.129 2.676 0.934 0.880 0.32 0.377 0.47

RAJNIKANT SHARMA AND SHAMSH PERVEZ

(0.230–0.850) (0.180–0.500) (0.450–1.250)
2 0.706 0.636 0.346 0.266 0.222 0.215 2.645 0.986 0.897 0.522 0.549 0.506
(0.320–1.200) (0.160–0.650) (0.564–1.871)
3 0.992 0.916 0.428 0.340 0.300 0.224 2.725 1.356 1.273 0.514 0.643 0.206
(0.456–1.650) (0.223–0.740) (0.670–2.120)
4 0.751 0.709 0.246 0.297 0.279 0.109 2.681 1.095 0.953 0.731 0.441 0.038
(0.348–0.999) (0.143–0.450) (0.541–2.370)
5 0.800 0.709 0.361 0.287 0.181 0.371 2.715 1.095 0.955 0.759 0.361 0.293
(0.250–1.258) (0.090–0.950) (0.743–2.451)
6 1.074 0.850 0.921 0.401 0.243 0.542 2.662 1.551 1.414 0.703 0.523 0.77
(0.452–2.660) (0.143–1.370) (0.644–2.621)
7 0.739 0.604 0.542 0.286 0.200 0.329 2.660 1.105 1.063 0.293 0.447 0.447
(0.236–1.640) (0.124–0.874) (0.586–1.289)
8 1.101 1.099 0.071 0.411 0.389 0.168 2.723 1.037 1.208 0.454 0.947 0.884
(1.000–1.200) (0.287–0.700) (0.496–1.550)
9 0.886 0.633 0.919 0.339 0.222 0.425 2.739 1.299 1.088 1.036 0.52 0.519
(0.269–2.500) (0.145–1.100) (0.773–3.151)
10 0.923 0.544 1.279 0.316 0.217 0.375 3.171 1.124 1.098 0.238 0.105 0.105
(0.310–3.210) (0.148–0.987) (0.698–1.250)
∗ Mean of five measurements (range of five measurements are shown in brackets).
AM: arithmetic mean, GM: geometric mean, SD: standard mean, r: correlation coefficient values and EF: enrichment factors.
 ENRICHMENT AND EXPOSURE OF PARTICULATE LEAD 303
TABLE III
Blood lead levels (µg/dL) of traffic personals and ordinary citizens in India

No. Age group Blood lead levels∗ of Blood lead levels∗ of Correlation between
(years) ordinary citizens traffic personnels blood lead levels and age

1 <30 7.92 56.70 0.981

(5.23–11.36) (49.22–62.18)
2 30–40 12.63 86.10 0.785
(9.25–18.22) (80.19–94.21)
3 40–50 20.06 99.02 0.756
(16.31–24.11) (91.21–110.23)
4 >50 31.22 101.17 0.984
(29.16–39.45) (98.47–114.63)

∗ Mean of five measurements (range are shown in brackets).

Figure 2. Blood lead levels of traffic personnels of National Highway No. 6 and ordinary citizens.

3. Results and discussion

Table I presents both arithmetic and geometric means of RSPM, NRSPM and
TSPM (in µg/m3 ) levels at the study sites. Results are discussed on the basis of
geometric mean levels, since the air pollutant concentration generally follows a
log normal distribution. Arithmetic mean is probably more meaningful for any
exposure evaluation (Gajghate and Hasan, 1999). Concentration of RSPM and
TSPM are seen to be higher in all sampling sites compared to Indian permis-
sible limits for RSPM (60 µg/m3 ) and TSPM (140 µg/m3 ) (CPCB, 1995). Highest
mean RSPM level is found at site No. 6. Mean concentration of TSPM in all
sites was found in the range of 235.70–664.08 µg/m3 . A good positive correla-
tion between RSPM and traffic volume was obtained. It explains that local traffic
volume is the key factor of occurrences of higher RSPM concentration. A mean
RSPM, NRSPM and TSPM concentration of all study sites is depicted in
Figure 3.
304 RAJNIKANT SHARMA AND SHAMSH PERVEZ

Figure 3. Levels of RSPM, NRSPM and TSPM at National Highway No. 6.

Table II presents arithmetic and geometric means together with their standard
deviation for lead concentration in RSPM, NRSPM and TSPM at different study
sites. Data evaluation projected that the lead concentrations ranged from 0.646 to
1.101 µg/m3 in RSPM, 0.243 to 0.409 µg/m3 in NRSPM and 0.884 to 1.506 µg/m3
in TSPM in the study sites. Higher concentration of lead content in TSPM was
observed at site No. 3, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 compared to Indian permissible limit
(1.0 µg/m3 ) (CPCB, 1995). Positive correlation coefficient values (range 0.10–
0.94) between RSPM and RSPM-Pb and between traffic volume and RSPM-Pb
(range 0.10–0.88) are indicative of the fact that lead contamination may be from
a common source with similar chemical behaviour (Sinha et al., 1983). A signif-
icant enrichment (range 2.645–3.171) has also been obtained for lead in RSPM
relative to NRSPM (Table II). Thus concentration of lead in respirable size range
is seen to be sufficiently enhanced compared to its concentration in particles of
non-respirable size range.
Blood-Pb levels of subjects with chronic (traffic personnel) and sub-chronic
(general population) exposure to particulate lead in study sites of highway en-
vironment is presented in Table III. Graphical representation of age groupwise
blood-Pb content of subjects of both category is observed in Figure 3. Blood-Pb
levels of traffic personnel observed to be higher when compared to blood-Pb levels
of general population. All subjects of chronic exposure have higher blood-Pb level
compared to 70 µg/dL blood-Pb level for serious lead poisoning except for age
group less than 30 years. This was due to the small duration of service as traffic
police in National Highway. Correlation between age and blood-Pb level is worked
out in both categories for selected age group and presented in Table III. A good
positive correlation in each age group confirms the increasing trend of blood-Pb
levels with increasing age in both categories (Hofreuter, 1961; Barry, 1987; Murthy
and Ramarao, 1992). Correlation between blood-Pb levels of traffic personnel and
RSPM levels in a particular study site cannot be established because traffic police
personnel were deployed throughout the study area rather than in a specific study
site.
 ENRICHMENT AND EXPOSURE OF PARTICULATE LEAD 305

It is concluded that human blood has a higher susceptibility for lead deposition
in traffic environment. The results above give alarming signals and hence a pre-
caution is needed in preventing the particulate lead from getting into the highway
traffic environment through automobile exhaust.

Acknowledgements

One of the authors (R.K. Sharma) is grateful to the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, New Delhi, Government of India and Department of Chemistry, Gov-
ernment V.Y.T. Postgraduate Autonomous College, Durg, Chhattisgarh, India for
providing the financial assistance and experimental facilities, respectively.

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