INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

Science – is a systematized body of knowledge based from experimentation

What is Chemistry?

Chemistry- a branch of science concerned with the study of matter and the changes matter
undergoes.
- branch of science that deals with the study of matter and its properties.

*Things that chemistry is concerned; environment, energy sources, food production

and medicines.

Branches of Chemistry
1. Organic chemistry- is the study of all compounds of carbon.
2. Inorganic chemistry- study of all elements and compounds other than organic
compounds.
3. Physical chemistry- study of theoretical aspects of the structure and the changes of
matter.
4. Analytical chemistry- study of the matter and the development of tools used to
measure properties of matter.
-The study of qualitative and quantitative chemistry.
5. Biochemistry- study of chemistry of biologically important elements and compounds.

Brief history of chemistry and important names in chemistry

Alchemy- emerged as a science concerned with the
transmutation (changing) of one element
into another.
- begins in China about 140 B.C.
Robert Boyle- did studies and found that when a metal is
heated in air, the mass increases.
-he also discovered the relationship between volume
and pressure of a gas and was first to work with
gases.
-he wrote the book “The Skeptical Chemist” in which
he criticized the basic ideas of alchemy
George Ernst Stahl- he proposed the Phlogiston theory.
Phlogiston- a substance in combustible material that is given
off when the material burns.

*During the last half of the 18th century, much work was done with gases, especially by
Joseph Black, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestly in England and Carl Scheele in Sweden.*

Oxygen- was discovered by Carl Scheele, but his work was not
published until 1777, however, and for this reason
Priestly is usually credited with the discovery in 1774.
Joseph Priestly- a Unitarian minister who did much scientific
research, especially on gases.
Antoine Laurant Lavoisier- a French chemist, is often called the
father of modern chemistry.
John Dalton- he develop the atomic theory and develop the
Periodic Law and Periodic table.

The History of chemistry can be classified approximately into the following areas:
1. Prehistoric man – used metals and made pottery and bricks.
2. 400 B.C. – beginning of chemistry as a science
 3. First Century – combination of the arts of the Egyptians and the Greeks; first book of
chemistry is written in Egypt; also the beginning of alchemy in China.
4. Twelfth century – alchemy reached Europe, through Spain.
5. Sixteenth and Seventeenth centuries – chemistry applied to medicine; study of gases
begun; quantitative experiments begun; first textbook of chemistry written in 1597;
Boyle studied gases and criticized the basic ideas of alchemy in his book The Skeptical
Chemist.
6. Eighteenth century – Phlogiston Theory proposed; oxygen discovered 1774; careful
quantitative work by Lavoisier generally described as the beginning of modern
chemistry.
7. Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries – atomic theory (Dalton), periodic law and theories
of the nature of matter; further development and applications of these theories is
currently taking place.

Scientific Method
It is set of procedure or step-by-step process designed to solve scientific problems.

Hypothesis – an intelligent guess derived from observations or an educated guess.

Steps in Scientific Method

1. Identifying the problem. The problem should be clearly and concisely stated.
2. Gathering data or information. An in-depth collection of facts or information to make
the experiment reliable.
3. Formulating a hypothesis. The hypothesis should contain the problem or the subject
being studied and the two possible consequences or results.
4. Testing the hypothesis or Experimentation. This is the most important step of scientific
study. When testing, observing, and recording should take place.
5. Interpreting data or results. The results of the experiment should be carefully
interpreted and if possible compare the result with that of similar experiments.
6. Drawing conclusions or Generalization. This the final step in solving problem which may
lead to new studies.
7. Application. Certain actions must be made to prove how effective the study or
experiment may be.

Measurement – used to measure a substance property.

Mass – measure of the amount of matter in an object.
Weight – the force that gravity exerts on an object.

SI units – a revised metric system

PHYSICAL QUANTITY NAME OF UNIT ABBREVIATION

Mass - Kilogram (kg)
Length - Meter (m)
Time - second (s)
Temperature - Kelvin (K)
Amount of substance - Mole (mol)
Electric current - Ampere (A)
Luminous Intensity - Candela (Cd)

Derived quantities and their units

Area - m2
Volume – m3
Speed/velocity – m/s
Force/Weight – N or Newton
Acceleration – m/s2
Energy/Work – Joule
Pressure – Pascal, atm, mmHg
Power – watt
Density – g/ml, kg/m3

Prefix Abbreviation Decimal Expression Exponential

Mega M 1 000 000 106

Kilo k 1 000 103
Hekto h 100 102
Deka da 10 101
Deci d 0.1 10-1
Centi c 0.01 10-2
Milli m 0.001 10-3
Micro u 0.000001 10-6
Nano n 0.000000001 10-9
Pico p 0.000000000001 10-12

TEMPERATURE
FAHRENHEIT – named after the German physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit (1686-1736).
CELSIUS - named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701-1744).
KELVIN - named after the British physicist and mathematician William Thompson 91824-1907)
who was later titled Lord Kelvin..

Significant Figures Worksheet

When doing calculations, we have to know how many significant figures (sig figs) we have so
that we can report our answer with the proper amount of precision. There are a few rules to learn
to be able to figure out which numbers are significant:

MODULE 2 ENERGY AND MATTER

In this module, you will:

1. To distinguish among various forms of energy
2. To study the properties of matter
3. To understand the states of matter
4. To calculate the energy requirements for several processes
5. To distinguish among and to compare elements, compounds, and mixtures
6. Classify a change in substance as chemical or physical change
7. Classify elements into metals and nonmetals according to their characteristic properties
2.1 ENERGY IN ITS MANY FORMS

Most of the world’s energy (ability or capacity to do work) comes from the sun.
Radiation from the sun powers the atmospheric engine causes climate and weather
changes. If we trace back the origin of the energy of the wind, of falling water, of the
fossil fuels and of the we eat, we will find that they all originated from the sun’s energy.

Although the various forms of energy can be traced back to the sun, the names
used to describe them came from the processes that produced them. For instance, the
energy from wind and falling water is mechanical energy. Chemical reactions like
burning and digestion release chemical energy stored in fossil fuels and food,
respectively. Energy possessed by the moving molecules of steam, or any other
substances is called thermal energy. The nuclear processes of fission and fusion
convert matter into nuclear energy. Light from torch gives off radiant energy. Air
compressions from a loudspeaker produce sound energy. Electrical charge moving
through cables has electrical energy.

Energy exists in many different forms. Two of these are discussed here-KINETIC
ENERGY is the energy possessed by bodies in motion; that is energy that is doing
something now, such as heat energy obtained from burning wood, light energy from an
incandescent light bulb, mechanical energy from a motor and atomic energy from a
nuclear reactor. POTENTIAL ENERGY is stored energy, energy not associated with
motion. Examples are a dry cell, food, and water at the top of a water fall. Chemical
energy is a form of potential energy. Most chemical reactions involve changes in heat
energy. If heat is given off during a chemical reaction, that is reaction is said to be
EXOTHERMIC. If heat is absorbed during a chemical reaction, that reaction is said to
be ENDOTHERMIC.

2.2 TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY

Energy can be transformed from one form into another. Thus, burning of piece of
coal changes its potential energy into heat (kinetic) energy. The heat energy thus
produced might be used to boil water, which produces large amount of steam. The
steam might be used to drive a generator to produce electrical energy. In turn, this
electrical might be used to drive a motor (mechanical energy), produce light in a
fluorescent lamp (light energy), operate a radio (sound energy), or operate a toaster.

2.3 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND MATTER

The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created nor
destroyed during a chemical reaction.
The law of conservation of mass states that during a chemical reaction mass
is neither created nor destroyed.

2.4 MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY

HEAT is the most commonly form of energy; all other forms of energy can be
converted into heat energy. The unit of heat energy is the calorie (cal), which is defined
as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water 1 K or oC. The
calorie is abbreviated as cal. It is a rather small unit of heat.
A larger unit of heat, the kilocalorie, is equal to 1000 cal. The kilocalorie is
abbreviated as kcal. The kilocalorie is used when measuring the heat energy of the
body and nutritional values of foods. The kilocalorie is also called a “large Calorie,”
abbreviated as Cal. The calorie values of foods are listed in Cal.
Another unit of heat is the joule or J. Calories are used primarily as a unit of
measurement for medical work, whereas joules (kilojoules, kJ) are used in chemical
work.

EXERCISE 1.1

1. It takes 2.26 kJ to convert 1.00 g of liquid water into steam. Express this value in kcal.

2. 8.4 x 102 J are required to convert 1.00 g of liquid ethyl alcohol into vapor. Express this value
in calories.

TABLE 2.1 SPECIFIC

HEAT VALUES ( in cal/g
o
C
GASES LIQUIDS SOLIDS
Ammonia 0.502 Alcohol Aluminum
 0.587 0.215
Chlorine 0.114 Chloroform Calcium
0.231 0.156
Oxygen 0.219 Ether Copper
0.555 0.092
Nitrogen 0.249 Water Iron
1.00 0.106

2.5 SPECIFIC HEAT

When heat is added to a substance, its temperature rises; when heat is removed,
its temperature falls. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of a
substance 1 K or 1 oC is called the specific heat capacity or the specific heat. From
the definition of the calorie, the specific heat of water is 1 cal/g oC.
The specific heat values of various substances are listed in TABLE 2.1. Note that
water has an abnormally high specific heat value when compared with other
substances.
The amount of heat required to change the temperature of a substance is given
by the following formula:
Q = mc ΔT
Where m is the mass in grams, c is the specific heat in cal/goC, and ΔT is the
change in temperature in degrees Celsius.

EXERCISE 2.2
How many calories are required to change the temperature of 1.0 x 10 2 g of water
from 18oC to 19.5oC?

EXERCISE 2.3
500 calories are added to 100 g of copper at 25 oC.
a. What will the final temperature be?
b. If the same amount of heat was added to an equal amount of water, what would
be the final temperature?

2. 4 WHAT IS MATTER?
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It can be classified
according to the following division

2.4 MATTER FLOWCHART

A pure substance can either be an element or a compound. An element is a

substance that is composed of only one kind of atom while a compound is composed of
two or more elements chemically combined in definite and constant proportions.
 TABLE 2.4
SOME ELEMENTS AND THEIR SYMBOLS
ELEMENT SYMBOL ELEMENT SYMBOL
Aluminum Al Manganese Mn
Argon Ar Neon Ne
Arsenic As Nitrogen N
Barium Ba Oxygen O
Calcium Ca Phosphorus P[
Carbon C Platinum Pt
Chlorine Cl Radium Ra
Chromium Cr Silicon Si
Cobalt Co Strontium Sr
Fluorine F Sulfur S
Helium He Uranium U
Hydrogen H Zinc Zn
Iodine I
Lithium Li
Magnesium Mg
TABLE 2.5
ELEMENTS WITH IRREGULAR SYMBOLS
ELEMENT SYMBOL ORIGIN
Antimony Sb Stibium
Copper Cu Cuprum
Gold Au Aurum
Iron Fe Ferrum
Lead Pb Plumbum
Mercury Hg Hydrargyrum
Potassium K Kalium
Silver Ag Argentum
Sodium Na Natrium
Tin Sn Stannum
Tungsten W Wolfram

Most substances found in nature are generally impure that is, they are part of a mixture.
A mixture is a physical combination of two or more substances in varying proportions. It
may either be homogeneous or heterogeneous. Materials with parts that are composed
of different properties are HETEROGENEOUS MATERIALS. The properties of one part
are identical with the properties of all the other parts. These are HOMOGENEOUS
MATERIALS.

Example of heterogeneous
1. Cereal in milk is a great example of a heterogeneous mixture. It consists of a solid
cereal in liquid milk.
2. Oil and water form a heterogeneous mixture.
3. Orange juice with pulp is a heterogeneous mixture. The components are unevenly
distributed, plus they exist in two phases. Juice is a liquid and pulp is a solid.
4. Sandy water is a heterogeneous mixture. It consists of two phases that readily
separate.

Example of homogeneous
1.Sea water.
2.Wine.
3. Vinegar.
4. Steel.
 Substances around us are subject to change. This change can either be physical
or chemical in nature. PHYSICAL CHANGE occurs when no new substance are formed
while CHEMICAL CHANGE is a change in which a new substance with new properties
is formed.
TABLE 2.6
SOME PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
CHEMICAL CHANGE PHYSICAL CHANGE
Rusting of a nail Setting of a jelly
Baking a cake Melting butter
Fermentation of rice washing Boiling water
Tarnishing of a silver spoon Sawing a board in half
Dissolving antacid in water Breaking a glass

2.7 PROPERTIES OF MATTER

One portion of matter can be distinguished from another by means of its properties.
These distinguishing properties of matter can be classified into two main types.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Physical properties are classified into EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE PROPERTIES.
Properties that depend on the amount of material like mass, length and volume are
called extensive properties. Intensive properties are properties that depend on the
quality of material. Odor, color, specific gravity, solubility, density, boiling point, melting
point, and electrical conductivity are some examples of intensive properties.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Properties such as reacting (or not reacting) in air, reacting (or not reacting) with an acid
or burning (or not burning) in a flame are chemical properties. Examples of chemical
properties include flammability, toxicity, acidity, reactivity (many types), and heat
of combustion.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. A 500 gram cube of lead is heated from 25 °C to 75 °C. How much energy was
required to heat the lead? The specific heat of lead is 0.129 J/g°C.
2. A hot 1 kg chunk of copper is allowed to cool to 100°C. If the copper gave off 231 kJ
of energy, what was the initial temperature of the copper? The specific heat of copper is
0.385 J/g°C.
3. It takes 2.26 kJ to convert 1.00 g of liquid water into steams. Express this value in
kcal.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

THE ATOMIC THEORY

By JOHN DALTON

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms. All atoms of a given
element are
identical, having the same size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of one elements
are
different from the atoms of all other elements.
2. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound, the ratio
of the
numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present is either an integer or a simple
fraction.
3. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination or rearrangement of atoms; it
does
 not result in their creation or destruction.

 According to Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms of the same element are identical, but
atoms of the one element are different from atoms of other elements.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

-Dalton’s 3rd Hypothesis
-that matter can be neither created nor destroyed
-since matter is made of atoms that are unchanged in a chemical reaction, it follows that
mass
must be conserved as well.

Atom- the basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination, extremely small
and
indivisible.
-consist of electrons surrounding a nucleus that contains protons and neutrons, but
protons and
electrons are electrically charged. Protons have a relative charge of +1, while electrons
have a
relative charge of -1. The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number.

Nucleus
The nucleus was discovered in 1911, but its parts were not identified until 1932.
Virtually all the mass of the atom resides in the nucleus. The nucleus is held together by the”
strong force” , one of the four basic forces in nature. This force between the protons and
neutrons overcomes the repulsive electrical force that would, according to the rules of
electricity, push the protons apart otherwise.

3 Subatomic Particles of Atoms

1.Protons- are positively charged particles found within atomic nuclei.

- they were discovered by Ernest Rutherford in experiments conducted between 1911
and
1919.
The number of protons in an atom defines what element it is. For example, Carbon
atoms have 6 protons, Hydrogen atoms have 1 and Oxygen atoms have 8. The number of
protons in an atom is referred to as the atomic number of that element. The number of protons
in an atom also determines the chemical behavior of the element.
Protons are made of other particles called quarks. There are 3 quarks in each proton-
two “up” quarks and one “down” quark-they are held together by other particles called gluons.

2. Electrons- have a negative charge and are electrically attracted to the positively charged
protons.
- surrounds the atomic nucleus in pathways called orbitals. The inner orbitals
surrounding
the atom are spherical but the other orbitals are much more complicated.
- they were discovered by John Joseph Thompson.

An atoms electron configuration is the orbital description of the locations of the

electrons in an unexcited atom. Using the electron configuration and principles of physics,
chemists can predict an atoms properties, such as stability, boiling point and conductivity.
Typically, only the outermost electron shells matter in chemistry. The inner electron
shell notation is often truncated by replacing the long-hand orbital description with the symbol
for a noble gas in brackets. This method of notation vastly simplifies the description for large
molecules.
For example, the electron configuration for Beryllium (Be) is 1s2 2s2, but it is written
2
[He]2s . He is equivalent to all the electron orbitals in a helium atom. The letters, s,p,d, and f
designate the shape of the orbitals and the superscript gives the number of electrons in that
orbital.

3. Neutrons- are uncharged particles found within atomic nuclei. A neutron’s mass is slightly
larger than
that of a proton. Like protons, neutrons are also made of quarks-one “up” and two
“down”
quarks.
-they were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.

Atoms consist of electrons surrounding a nucleus that contains protons and neutrons.
Neutrons are neutral, but protons and electrons are electrically charged. Protons have a
relative charged of +1, while electrons have a relative charged of -1. The number of protons in
an atom is called its atomic number.

FUNDAMENTAL SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

Particle Symbol Charge Mass

Electron e- -1 0.0005486 amu

Proton p+ +1 1.007276 amu
Neutron n0 0 1.008665 amu

The number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom can be determined from a set of
simple rules.
 The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom is equal to the atomic number (Z).
 The number of electrons in a neutral atom is equal to the number of protons.
 The mass number of the atom (M) is equal to the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus.
 The number of neutrons is equal to the difference between the mass number of the
atom (M) and the atomic number (Z).

A
Z X

Where X = element
A = mass number – the number of protons + number of neutrons
-atomic number + number of neutrons
Z = atomic number – the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element.

Number of neutrons = A-Z

Ex. 199F = 19 – 9 = 10 neutrons

ISOTOPES – atoms which have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
-they have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
- number of electrons = number of protons

The number of neutrons in a nucleus determines the isotope of that element. For
example, Hydrogen has 3 known isotopes: Protium, Deuterium, and Tritium. Protium,
symbolized as 1H, is just ordinary hydrogen; it has one proton and one electron and no neutron.
Deuterium (D or 2H) has one proton, one electron and one neutron. Tritium (T or 3H) has one
proton, one electron, and two neutrons.
The number of neutrons in an atom can vary within small limits. For example, there are
3 kinds of Carbon; 12C, 13C, 14C. They have all the same number of protons, but the number of
neutrons varies.

P+ n0 mass number
C-12 6 6 12
C-13 6 7 13
C-14 6 8 14

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ENERGY LEVELS

2n2 where n = number of the energy level

Energy Level Maximum number of electrons

1 (K) 2(1)2 = 2
2 (L) 2(2)2 = 8
3 (M) 2(3)2 = 18
4 (N) 2(4)2 = 32
5 (O) 2(5)2 = 50

S FOR THE FIRST 5 ENERGY LEVELS

ENERGY LEVEL NO. OF SUBLEVELS DESIGNATION OF SUBLEVELS
1 1 1s
2 2 2s, 2p
3 3 3s, 3p, 3d
4 4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
5 5 5s, 5p, 5d, 5f, 5g

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ELECTRONS IN EACH SUBLEVEL OR SUBSHELL

SUBLEVEL (or SUBSHELL) MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ELECTRONS

s (sharp) 2
p (principal) 6
d (defuse) 10
f (fundamental) 14

*Each sublevel consists of a set of orbitals. Each orbitals represents an electron cloud.
Sublevel – the energy level of the electron of an atom are further divided in sublevels or
subshells.
-subdivision of an energy level in an atom; made up of set of orbitals.

Energy level Sublevel/subshell no. of orbitals max.no. of e- max.no.of e-

In sublevel in sublevel in energy level
( 2/ orbital )
1 s 1 2 2
2 s 1 2
P 3 6 8
3 s 1 2
P 3 6
d 5 10 18
4 s 1 2
P 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14 32
s=1 p=3 d=5 f=7 g=9
s orbital ( 1 orbital x 2 electrons = 2 )
p orbital ( 3 orbitals x 2 electrons = 6 )
d orbital ( 5 orbitals x 2 electrons = 10 )

Electron configuration – the distribution of electron of an atom or molecules in atomic or

molecular
orbitals.
Ex. 10Ne = 1s22s22p6

Occupancy Of Sublevels and orbitals

nlx where n = energy level, l = sublevel, x = number of electrons
ex. 18Ar = 1s22s22p63s23p6

Aufbau Order- the order of occupancy of sublevels

-the order in which electrons occupy orbitals in an atom.
Hund’s Rule – for any set of orbitals of equal energy, such as the set of 2p orbitals, it is found
that there
is one electron in each orbital before there is any pairing.
-when electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy, one electron occupies each
orbital before
there is any pairing.

ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

Periodic Table- a chart in which elements having similar chemical and physical properties are
grouped
together.
-arrange by increasing atomic number.

Periods – horizontal rows

Groups / Families – subgroups due to their similarities.

3 Categories of Periodic table

1.Metal – a good conductor of heat and electricity
- majority of known elements
2. Nonmetal – a poor conductor of heat and electricity
- 17 elements
3. Metalloid – has properties that are intermediate between metals and non-metals.
- 8 elements

Group IA – Alkali metals

Group IIA - Alkaline earth metals
Group IIIA – Boron family
Group IVA – Carbon family
Group VA – Nitrogen family
Group VIA – Oxygen family
Group VIIA – Halogen family

Ex.
1.Cl – representative element
2. Mn – transition element
3. Mg – representative element
4. Ar – noble gas
5. U – inner transition element

Dmitri Mendeleev – designed the arrangement of periodic table according to atomic mass.
Lothar Meyer – a German Chemist
-devised a classification of the elements into a table that accounted for the
periodic
variations in properties.
H.G.Moseley – determined the charge on the nucleus, he concluded that the elements should
be
arrange by increasing atomic number.
Hennig Brand – he discover the first element in the periodic table (Phosphorus)
Johan Dobereiner – he group the elements
A.E. Beguyer de Chancourtois – he was the first person to make use of atomic weight.
Glenn Seaborg – he discovered the transuranium elements.

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS FOR THE OUTERMOST ELECTRONS/VALENCE

ELECTRONS

1H = 1s2 1 – outermost energy level 2 – outermost electrons or valence

electrons
2 1
3 Li = 1s 2s 2 – outermost energy level 1 – outermost electrons or valence electrons

Valence electrons – the electrons in the outer energy level(s) are the ones that will be used in
forming
compounds.
Ex. Sodium (Na) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
= 1 valence electron
= Group 1A
= 1 unpaired electron
Magnesium (Mg) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
= 2 valence electrons
= Group IIA
= 0 unpaired electron
 Representative elements - the number of valence electrons corresponds to the group
number
 Transition elements – s and d electrons