DEVELOPMENT OF GREEN LEAF DETECTION AND

SMART SPRAYER ROBOT USING ARTIFICIAL

INTELLEGENCE

ABSTRACT
For the detection and prevention of disease of plants from getting spread, this paper discussed a
system using raspberry PI. For the image analysis, the k-means clustering algorithm was used. It
has many advantages for the use in big farms of crops and thus it automatically detects signs of
disease whenever they appear on leaves of the plant. In pharmaceutical research of leaf disease
detection is necessary and important topic for research because it has advantages in monitoring
crops in field at the form and thus it automatically detect symptoms of disease by image
processing by k-means clustering algorithm. The term disease means the type of damage tothe
plants. This paper provides the best method for detection of plant diseases using image
processing and alerting about the disease caused by sending email, SMS and displaying the name
of the disease on the monitor display of the owner of the system.To upgrade agricultural
products, automatic detection of disease symptoms is useful. The design and implementation of
these technologies which is totally automatic and it will significantly help in the chemical
application. It will reduce the cost required for the pesticides and other products.This will lead to
increasein productivity of the farming.
INTRODUCTION
Population increases, climate change, degradation and loss of arable land, and the increasing
appearance of new pests and diseases threaten the world’s food supply. Understanding how
plants respond to environmental and genetic perturbations is essential to accelerating the
improvement of crops and agriculture.High-throughput phenotyping provides an unprecedented
opportunity to study the physiological, developmental, and molecular mechanisms that govern
the dynamic behavior of plants. However, existing systems that allow highly automated
collection of basic phenotypic data for small numbers of plants in the greenhouse fall far short of
the need to examine and characterize thousands of plants under real world conditions. Building
systems that can collect multi-modal, multi-character data in real time in the field requires
integrating plant biology and crop science with robotic vision and computer engineering. These
systems must be accurate and reliable, and should provide richer information than the current
methods available for automated greenhouse or manual field phenotyping. By doing so, they will
help us to link plant genotypes as well as the molecular and eco-physiological responses with the
expression of specific phenotypes in response to the growing conditions.

In this paper, we present a robotic architecture automatic plant watering systemthat you can
build yourself in just a few hours. It is an Raspberry based automatic plant watering system that
uses a IR Sensor. India is well known for its agriculture production. Most of the of the
population is dependent on agriculture. Farmers have variety of options to cultivate crops in the
field. Still, the cultivating these crops for bestharvest and top quality of production is done in a
technical way. So the yield can be increased and quality can be improved by the use of
technology. Generally, whenever there is disease to a plant, we can say that leaves are the main
indicator of the disease caused to the plant. Mostly we can see the spots on the leaves of it due to
disease. However when the amount of disease to the plant is large then the whole leaf gets
covered by the disease spots.
LITERATURE SURVEY

1) TITLE- Plant Disease Detection Using Raspberry PI By K-means Clustering Algorithm

AUTHOR- Priyanka G. Shinde, Ajay K. Shinde, Ajinkya A. Shinde, Borate S. P.
For the detection and prevention of disease of plants from getting spread, this paper discussed a
system using raspberry PI. For the image analysis, the k-means clustering algorithm was used. It
has many advantages for the use in big farms of crops and thus it automatically detects signs of
disease whenever they appear on leaves of the plant. In pharmaceutical research of leaf disease
detection is necessary and important topic for researchbecause it has advantagesin
monitoringcrops in field at the form and thus it automatically detect symptoms of disease by
image processing by k-means clustering algorithm. The term disease means the type of damage
tothe plants. This paper provides the best method for detection of plant diseases using image
processing and alerting about the disease caused by sending email, SMS and displaying the name
of the disease on the monitor display of the owner of the system.To upgrade agricultural
products, automatic detection of disease symptoms is useful. The design and implementation of
these technologies which is totally automatic and it will significantlyhelp in the chemical
application. It will reduce the cost required for the pesticides and other products.This will lead to
increasein productivity of the farming.

Basically there are three main types of Leaf disease, they are Bacterial, Fungal and Viral. It is
amportant in plant disease detection to have the accuracy in the palnt disease detection but at the
same time the process should be of high speed. Work can be extended by the use of quadcopter
for the capturing of images of leaves of the different plants in the farm at field level. This system
can be connected to the server for further processing. The objective of this work is the detection,
classification of leaf diseases using image processing tools and all information about the disease
is sent to the farmer’s mobile phone through the GSM module. To increase the speed and
accuracy of detection as well as classification of leaf diseases we using Raspberry pi 3 model B
module. One more important benefit of this system is that it gives the name of the pesticide
required to use in order to prevent the disease form spreading.It providing exact name of
pesticide as per the disease, to save labor price by eliminating need of labor for regular
observation of plants to check whether it is affected by any disease or not . This system will
largely contribute in growth in the yield of the farms.

2) TITLE- PLANT PATHOLOGY DETECTION AND CONTROL USING RASPBERRY

PI
AUTHOR-T.Thamil Azhagi*1, K.Swetha1, M.Shravani1 & A.T.Madhavi2
The main objective of this paper is detection of diseases at the early stage. In this paper, we
mainly focus on image processing techniques. This includes a series of steps from capturing the
image of leaves to identifying the disease through the implementation in Raspberry PI.
Raspberry PI is used to interface the camera and the display device along which the data is stored
in the cloud. Here the main feature is that the crops in the field are continuously monitored and
the data is streamed lively. The captured images are analyzed by various steps like acquisition,
preprocessing, segmentation, clustering. This in turn reduces the need for labor in large farm
lands. Also the cost and efforts are reduced whereas the productivity is increased.

The output gives the information of the disease of the plant along with the control measures. This
way the health conditions of the crops are continuously monitored and necessary steps for the
prevention of disease are taken.

3) TITLE- PLANT MONITORING USING IMAGE PROCESSING, RASPBERRY PI &

IOT
AUTHOR- Prof. Bhavana Patil1,Mr. Hemant Panchal2, Mr. Shubham Yadav3 , Mr.
Arvind Singh4, Mr. Dinesh Patil5
In India, 70% of its people are in the Agriculture sector. The remaining 30% of people are an
inseparable part of this field. Because from agriculture, we get various raw materials and
especially crops, which serve as a staple food for people. But The crops and plantations get
destroyed mainly due to two major reasons, first reason is destruction by natural calamities such
as flood, earthquake, drought, famine, etc. and second reason is the destruction by the
pathogens.98% of the destruction is caused by the pathogens and 2% of the destruction happens
due to natural calamities. So the need for the plant disease detection was felt. The traditional
methods were inaccurate and not effective. So various researches in this field lead to inclusion of
image processing for accurate detection of disease by using plant leaf. Various spots, patterns on
plant leaf are useful in detecting the disease. Further advancement was use of digital image
processing for more accurate results. On referring various reputed IEEE, international conference
and international journal papers regarding this field, it was found that none of these suggest
remedy for curing the plant disease.

The accurate detection and classification of the plant disease is very important for the successful
cultivation of the crops, this can be done using digital image processing. In this project, the
detection as wells the remedy for curing it is achieved. This project utilizes GSM so as to send
the message to every kind of mobile handset. This project utilizes various image processing
techniques which provide accurate results.

4)TITLE- Leaf Disease Detection Using Raspberry Pi

AUTHOR-LAYA YESUDAS , SANTHIYA.S , PARIMALA.R , MOHAMMAD HARRIS

Green plants are very much important to the human environment; they form the basis for the
sustainability and long term health of environmental systems. Thus it is very important to grow healthy
plants. The plant disease could be cured if it is known in the earlier stage. In this paper, we have
proposed a system using raspberry pi to detect healthy and unhealthy plants & alerts the farmer by
sending email. We have used tensor flow tool for numerical computation. It can be used in an controlled
environment farms such that it detects the signs of disease whenever they appear on the leaves of the
plant.

The project deals with identifying the disease affected leaf. This is achieved through the Convolutional
Neural Network Algorithm. If the leaf is affected by disease then the information is shared through the
mail. This helps the farmer to find a solution without coming towards the field.
5) TITLE- Plant Leaf Identification and Disease Detection

AUTHOR- M.Padma Priya , A.Nancy Angel Rani , C.Prabavathi , R.Pradeepa , N.S.Yahini

Plant leaf identification and disease detection play an important role in both agriculture and
horticulture fields. Here leaves are considered for name identification and disease detection, as
they possess several features and most commonly the symptoms of any disease can be seen. The
leaf image is captured using web camera interfaced with raspberry pi 3 b+. SIFT algorithm is
used for extracting the features of the leaf.

The project presents a framework for plant leaf name identification and disease detection using
image processing techniques. The research has been undertaken and motivated in order to help
agriculture and horticulture fields. There are two modules in this project 1. Leaf name
identification pertained to which plant 2. Disease detection. Features are extracted and compared
using the SIFT algorithm.

6) TITLE- An efficient k-means clustering algorithm: analysis and implementation

AUTHOR-T. Kanungo ; D.M. Mount ; N.S. Netanyahu ; C.D. Piatko ; R. Silverman ; 
A.Y. Wu
In k-means clustering, we are given a set of n data points in d-dimensional space R/sup d/ and an
integer k and the problem is to determine a set of k points in Rd, called centers, so as to minimize
the mean squared distance from each data point to its nearest center. A popular heuristic for k-
means clustering is Lloyd's (1982) algorithm. We present a simple and efficient implementation
of Lloyd's k-means clustering algorithm, which we call the filtering algorithm. This algorithm is
easy to implement, requiring a kd-tree as the only major data structure. We establish the practical
efficiency of the filtering algorithm in two ways. First, we present a data-sensitive analysis of the
algorithm's running time, which shows that the algorithm runs faster as the separation between
clusters increases. Second, we present a number of empirical studies both on synthetically
generated data and on real data sets from applications in color quantization, data compression,
and image segmentation.
7)TITLE-Piperazinyl Oxazolidinone Antibacterial Agents Containing a Pyridine, Diazene,
or Triazene Heteroaromatic Ring

AUTHOR-Ford A., Robert

Oxazolidinones are a novel class of synthetic antibacterial agents active against gram-positive
organisms including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as well as selected anaerobic
organisms. Important representatives of this class include the morpholine derivative linezolid 2,
which is currently in phase III clinical trials, and the piperazine derivative eperezolid 3. As part
of an investigation of the structure−activity relationships of structurally related oxazolidinones,
we have prepared and evaluated the antibacterial properties of a series of piperazinyl
oxazolidinones in which the distal nitrogen of the piperazinyl ring is substituted with a six-
membered heteroaromatic ring. Compounds having MIC values ≤ 2 μg/mL vs selected gram-
positive pathogens were discovered among each of the pyridine, pyridazine, and pyrimidine
structural classes. Among these the cyanopyridine 17, the pyridazines 25 and 26, and the
pyrimidine 31 exhibited in vivo potency vs S. aureus comparable to that of linezolid.

8)TITLE- SMART AGRICULTURE FORMING SYSTEM

AUTHOR- PPM PRASAD1 , C.SUDHAKAR REDDY2
For the detection and prevention of disease of plants from getting spread, this paper proposed a
system using raspberry PI. For the image analysis, Conventional Neural Networks was used. It
has many advantages for the use in big farms of crops and thus it automatically detects signs of
disease whenever they appear on leaves of the plant. In pharmaceutical research of leaf disease
detection is necessary and important topic for research because it has advantages in monitoring
crops in field at the form and thus it automatically detect symptoms of disease by image
processing by CNN algorithm. The term disease means the type of damage to the plants. This
paper provides the best method for detection of plant diseases using image processing and
alerting about the disease caused by sending to IoT Server and displaying the name of the disease
and precautions on the monitor display of the owner of the system.. It will reduce the cost
required for the pesticides and other products. This will lead to increase in productivity of the
farming. The in parallel proposed system also monitor the environment parameters in the field
and also controls the watering based on moisture content.
9)TITLE-Implementation of RGB and Grayscale Images in Plant Leaves Disease Detection
AUTHOR-K. Padmavathi and K. Thangadurai
Background/Objectives: Digital image processing is used various fields for analyzing different
applications such as medical sciences, biological sciences. Various image types have been used to detect
plant diseases. This work is analyzed and compared two types of images such as Grayscale, RGB images
and the comparative result is given. Methods/Statistical Analysis: We examined and analyzed the
Grayscale and RGB images using image techniques such as pre processing, segmentation, clustering for
detecting leaves diseases, Results/Finding: In detecting the infected leaves, color becomes an important
feature to identify the disease intensity. We have considered Grayscale and RGB images and used median
filter for image enhancement and segmentation for extraction of the diseased portion which are used to
identify the disease level

10) TITLE-Plant Disease Detection Using Image Processing

AUTHOR-Sachin D. Khirade ; A.B. Patil
Identification of the plant diseases is the key to preventing the losses in the yield and quantity of
the agricultural product. The studies of the plant diseases mean the studies of visually observable
patterns seen on the plant. Health monitoring and disease detection on plant is very critical for
sustainable agriculture. It is very difficult to monitor the plant diseases manually. It requires
tremendous amount of work, expertize in the plant diseases, and also require the excessive
processing time. Hence, image processing is used for the detection of plant diseases. Disease
detection involves the steps like image acquisition, image pre-processing, image segmentation,
feature extraction and classification. This paper discussed the methods used for the detection of
plant diseases using their leaves images. This paper also discussed some segmentation and
feature extraction algorithm used in the plant disease detection.

LITERATURE GAP
Image-processing technique for Leaf & stem disease detection. The author used a set of leaf
images from Jordan’s Al-Ghor area. The five plant diseases namely: Early scorch, Ashen mold,
Late scorch, Cottony mold and Tiny whiteness is tested by image processing technique. In this
technique at starting, image acquisition is obtained and then K-Means clustering method is used
for segmentation. After that in feature extraction, CCM (Colour Co-occurrence Method) is used
for texture analysis of infected leaf and stem. Lastly paper presents Back propagation algorithm
for neural network in classification of plant diseases. Result of this image processing technique
shows accurate detection and classification of plant diseases with high precision around 93%.

SUMMARY OF WORK DONE

Image acquisition, pre processing of images, extraction of features, recognition and order of plant
infection are the essential strides for ailment discovery utilizing image Processing. High quality and
clarity of enhanced images compared to the original image The created handling plan comprises of four
primary stages as in The accompanying two stages are included progressively after the division stage. In
the initial step we recognize the mostly green hued pixels. Next, these pixels are conceal dependent on
explicit limit esteems that are processed utilizing Otsu's technique, at that point those for the most part
green pixels are veiled. The other extra advance is that the pixels with zeros red, green and blue
qualities and the pixels on the limits of the tainted group (object) were totally expelled. The trial results
exhibit that the proposed strategy is a powerful procedure for the location of plant leaves infections.
The created algorithms proficiency can effectively recognize and arrange the inspected illnesses [1]. The
primary colors of the color image are red, green and blue. Because of its range, it is hard to implement
the application using RGB. They therefore convert RGB to gray pictures. Detection of plant disease by
some automatic technique is beneficial as it reduces extensive monitoring work in large crop farms and
distinguishes the side effects of the illness itself at very early stages They presented a survey on different
techniques of classification [2]. Abdul bari et al used MATLAB in their paper to extract and recover
images. Digital camera is used to capture images here [3].
OBJECTIVE

The main objective of this paper is detection of diseases at the early stage. In this paper, we
mainly focus on image processing techniques. This includes a series of steps from capturing the
image of leaves to identifying the disease through the implementation in Raspberry PI.
Raspberry PI is used to interface the camera and the display device along which the data is stored
in the cloud. Here the main feature is that the crops in the field are continuously monitored and
the data is streamed lively. The captured images are analyzed by various steps like acquisition,
preprocessing, segmentation, clustering. This in turn reduces the need for labor in large farm
lands. Also the cost and efforts are reduced whereas the productivity is increased.

METHODOLOGY

System Development Models

System Development Model which can be refers as SDLC. It is a framework defining tasks
performed at each step in the software development process. It also consists of a detailed plan of
how to develop, maintain and replace specific software. There are few common SDLC models
such as waterfall model, v-shaped model, spiral model and prototype model will be evaluated.

Waterfall Model

Waterfall Model is a development model that will be proceeds in sequence manner. The project
moves methodically from one phase to next phase without overlapping. Thus, each phase is
finished before the next phase begins. This model also does not define the process to go back to
the previous phase to handle changes in requirement. This model is most suitable for projects
that have their requirements clear and well-defined.
V-Shaped Model

V-shaped model is an extension of the waterfall model but instead of going down sequentially,
the process steps are going upwards after implementation and coding phase. When this unique
approach is completed, it will form the V shape.
The difference between V-shaped model and Waterfall mode is that there is the early testing
phase in V-shaped model. The early testing phase is a stage where verification and validation
will be done to reduce errors and increase the chance of success over the waterfall model. This
model is most suitable for small projects that have their requirements clearly defined and known.

Spiral Model

Spiral model combines both elements of design and prototyping-in-stages. In an effort to

combine advantages of top-down and bottom-up concepts, spiral model combines the feature of
the prototyping model and the waterfall model to achieve that. Spiral model re-uses many of the
same phases in the waterfall model and it is separated by planning stages. It has risk assessment,
prototyping and simulation. Due to the combination of two models in it, this model is most
suitable for those large, expensive and complicated projects.

Prototype Model

Prototype model is a model that performs the analysis phase, design phase and implementation
phase concurrently. With user feedbacks, all these phases are performed repeatedly until the final
system is completed. By using this model, the client can get an “actual feel” of the system much
earlier instead of they have to wait for the final system to be completed. This allow any
misunderstanding of requirements, additional features and possible errors to be detected much
earlier, before the actually system is finalized. This model is most suitable for projects whose
requirements cannot be known in detail ahead of time.

Selected Model

After some evaluations and comparisons between waterfall model, v-shaped model, spiral model
and prototype model. The prototype model was selected for this project. This is due several
reasons such as project scale, system requirements and able to get prototype system ready early.
As this project is not a very large scale project, hence the prototype model is suitable. Besides,
this model also allows any changes or modification to be made which can reduces the chance of
failure. Due to system is for those farmers, they might not know their requirements clearly. By
using prototype model, any changes or addition of requirement can be done easily. Finally, as
this system is for those farmers, it is important to have system prototype to be ready early to get
user feedback to make changes or improvement.

First the coding should be done and dumped in the raspberry pi for the operations of the robot

The connection of the motor to the relay

Then we have to connect the connection between the relay and the raspberry pi and the IR sensor

The water pump is connected to relay

Overall system architecture .Here with the fixed webcam at the raspberry pi, where IR sensor is
attached and that is connected to the raspberry pi where it checks activation of IR sensor and
makes the camera to initiate and capture the images. If the plant is not green then motor of the
sprayer will be switched on.
ALGORITHM
1. The image is captured using the 21 megapixel camera module.

2. The captured image is pre-processed in the Raspberry PI zero board using Image processing
techniques that were discussed above.

3. The image analysis is done by following steps:

 Two images are compared and the mean square error between the images is calculated.  The
main condition is that the two images must have the same dimension.

 Minimize the errors until the two images become similar.

 The structural similarity is also calculated between the images.

 The lower range and the upper range colour is assigned to the variable.

 Then the image is converted into binary gray for corner detection.

 Assign the binary gray to 32 bit floating point.

 Assign the length of the dots.

 Corner colour is assigned to red BGR

 Find the significant colour in the image.

 Merge the masked image using AND operation.

 The images are converted into Gray scale.

4. The command window displays the output of the processed image indicating the name of the disease
along with the control measures.

5. The data about the plant disease is pushed into the cloud platform.

6. The results can be viewed in the mobile or any other display devices like projector, monitor or tablet.
7. The above actions are performed again in the same manner for the detection of any other disease.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

DC motor
L293D driver
circuit DC motor
Pi camera
Raspberry pi

IR sensor Relay Water pump

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

Hardware
1. Raspberry Pi
2. IR Sensor
3. Pi Camera
4. DC Motors
5. Driver Circuit
Software

1. Python
2. Raspberry OS
3. opencv

RASPBERRY PI

RASBERRY PI

The Raspberry Pi (/paɪ/) is a series of small single-board computers developed in the United

Kingdom by the Raspberry Pi Foundation to promote teaching of basic computer science in
schools and in developing countries.[6][7][8] The original model became far more popular than
anticipated,[9] selling outside its target market for uses such as robotics. It does not include
peripherals (such as keyboards and mice) or cases. However, some accessories have been
included in several official and unofficial bundles.[9]

The organisation behind the Raspberry Pi consists of two arms. The first two models were
developed by the Raspberry Pi Foundation. After the Pi Model B was released, the Foundation
set up Raspberry Pi Trading, with Eben Upton as CEO, to develop the third model, the B+.
Raspberry Pi Trading is responsible for developing the technology while the Foundation is an
educational charity to promote the teaching of basic computer science in schools and in
developing countries.

According to the Raspberry Pi Foundation, more than 5 million Raspberry Pis were sold by
February 2015, making it the best-selling British computer.[10] By November 2016 they had sold
11 million units,[11][12] and 12.5m by March 2017, making it the third best-selling "general
purpose computer".[13] In July 2017, sales reached nearly 15 million.[14] In March 2018, sales
reached 19 million.[15]

Most Pis are made in a Sony factory in Pencoed, Wales[16], while others are made in China and
Japan

Several generations of Raspberry Pis have been released. All models feature a Broadcom system
on a chip (SoC) with an integrated ARM-compatible central processing unit (CPU) and on-chip
graphics processing unit (GPU).

Processor speed ranges from 700 MHz to 1.4 GHz for the Pi 3 Model B+ or 1.5 GHz for the Pi 4;
on-board memory ranges from 256 MB to 1 GB random-access memory (RAM), with up to
4 GB available on the Pi 4. Secure Digital (SD) cards in MicroSDHC form factor (SDHC on
early models) are used to store the operating system and program memory. The boards have one
to five USB ports. For video output, HDMI and composite video are supported, with a standard
3.5 mm tip-ring-sleeve jack for audio output. Lower-level output is provided by a number
of GPIO pins, which support common protocols like I²C. The B-models have
an 8P8C Ethernet port and the Pi 3, Pi 4 and Pi Zero W have on-board Wi-
Fi 802.11n and Bluetooth. Prices range from US$5 to $55.

The first generation (Raspberry Pi 1 Model B) was released in February 2012, followed by the
simpler and cheaper Model A. In 2014, the Foundation released a board with an improved
design, Raspberry Pi 1 Model B+. These boards are approximately credit-card sized and
represent the standard mainline form-factor. Improved A+ and B+ models were released a year
later. A "Compute Module" was released in April 2014 for embedded applications.
The Raspberry Pi 2, which added more RAM, was released in February 2015.

A Raspberry Pi Zero with smaller size and reduced input/output (I/O) and general-purpose

input/output (GPIO) capabilities was released in November 2015 for US$5. On 28 February
2017, the Raspberry Pi Zero W was launched, a version of the Zero with Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
capabilities, for US$10.[18][19] On 12 January 2018, the Raspberry Pi Zero WH was launched, a
version of the Zero W with pre-soldered GPIO headers.[20]
Raspberry Pi 3 Model B was released in February 2016 with a 1.2 GHz 64-bit quad
core processor, on-board 802.11n Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and USB boot capabilities.[21] On Pi
Day 2018 the Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+ was launched with a faster 1.4 GHz processor and a
three-times faster gigabit Ethernet (throughput limited to ca. 300 Mbit/s by the internal USB 2.0
connection) or 2.4 / 5 GHz dual-band 802.11ac Wi-Fi (100 Mbit/s).[15] Other features are Power
over Ethernet (PoE) (with the add-on PoE HAT), USB boot and network boot (an SD card is no
longer required).

Raspberry Pi 4 Model B was released in June 2019[1] with a 1.5 GHz 64-bit quad core ARM
Cortex-A72 processor, on-board 802.11ac Wi-Fi, Bluetooth 5, full gigabit Ethernet (throughput
not limited), two USB 2.0 ports, two USB 3.0 ports, and dual monitor support (4K resolution).
The Pi 4 is also powered via a USB-C port, enabling additional power to be provided to
downstream peripherals, when used with an appropriate PSU. The Raspberry Pi 4 has a design
flaw where third-party e-marked USB cables, such as those used on Apple MacBooks,
incorrectly identify it and refuse to provide power. This is expected to be corrected in a future
board revision.[22][23] Tom's Hardware tested 14 different cables and found that 11 of them turned
on and powered the Pi without issue

Hardware

The Raspberry Pi hardware has evolved through several versions that feature variations
in memory capacity and peripheral-device support.

This block diagram describes Model B and B+; Model A, A+, and the Pi Zero are similar, but
lack the Ethernet and USB hub components. The Ethernet adapter is internally connected to an
additional USB port. In Model A, A+, and the Pi Zero, the USB port is connected directly to
the system on a chip (SoC). On the Pi 1 Model B+ and later models the USB/Ethernet chip
contains a five-port USB hub, of which four ports are available, while the Pi 1 Model B only
provides two. On the Pi Zero, the USB port is also connected directly to the SoC, but it uses
a micro USB (OTG) port. Unlike all other Pi models, the 40 pin GPIO connector is omitted on
the Pi Zero with solderable through holes only in the pin locations. The Pi Zero WH remedies
this.

Processor

The Raspberry Pi 2B uses a 32-bit 900 MHz quad-core ARM Cortex-A7 processor.

All SoCs used in Raspberry Pis are custom-developed under collaboration

of Broadcom and Raspberry Pi Foundation.

The Broadcom BCM2835 SoC used in the first generation Raspberry Pi[26] includes a
700 MHz ARM1176JZF-S processor, VideoCore IV graphics processing unit (GPU),[27] and
RAM. It has a level 1 (L1) cache of 16 KB and a level 2 (L2) cache of 128 KB. The level 2
cache is used primarily by the GPU. The SoC is stacked underneath the RAM chip, so only its
edge is visible. The ARM1176JZ(F)-S is the same CPU used in the original iPhone,[28] although
at a higher clock rate, and mated with a much faster GPU.

The earlier V1.1 model of the Raspberry Pi 2 used a Broadcom BCM2836 SoC with a
900 MHz 32-bit, quad-core ARM Cortex-A7 processor, with 256 KB shared L2 cache.[29] The
Raspberry Pi 2 V1.2 was upgraded to a Broadcom BCM2837 SoC with a 1.2 GHz 64-bit quad-
core ARM Cortex-A53 processor,[30] the same SoC which is used on the Raspberry Pi 3,
but underclocked (by default) to the same 900 MHz CPU clock speed as the V1.1. The
BCM2836 SoC is no longer in production as of late 2016.

The Raspberry Pi 3 Model B uses a Broadcom BCM2837 SoC with a 1.2 GHz 64-bit quad-
core ARM Cortex-A53 processor, with 512 KB shared L2 cache. The Model A+ and B+ are
1.4 GHz
The Raspberry Pi 4 uses a Broadcom BCM2711 SoC with a 1.5 GHz 64-bit quad-core ARM
Cortex-A72 processor, with 1MB shared L2 cache.

The Raspberry Pi Zero and Zero W use the same Broadcom BCM2835 SoC as the first
generation Raspberry Pi, although now running at 1 GHz CPU clock speed.

Performance

While operating at 700 MHz by default, the first generation Raspberry Pi provided a real-world
performance roughly equivalent to 0.041 GFLOPS.[37][38] On the CPU level the performance is
similar to a 300 MHz Pentium II of 1997–99. The GPU provides 1 Gpixel/s or 1.5 Gtexel/s of
graphics processing or 24 GFLOPS of general purpose computing performance. The graphical
capabilities of the Raspberry Pi are roughly equivalent to the performance of the Xbox of 2001.

Raspberry Pi 2 V1.1 included a quad-core Cortex-A7 CPU running at 900 MHz and 1 GB RAM.
It was described as 4–6 times more powerful than its predecessor. The GPU was identical to the
original.[29] In parallelised benchmarks, the Raspberry Pi 2 V1.1 could be up to 14 times faster
than a Raspberry Pi 1 Model B+.[39]

The Raspberry Pi 3, with a quad-core ARM Cortex-A53 processor, is described as having ten

times the performance of a Raspberry Pi 1.[40] Benchmarks showed the Raspberry Pi 3 to be
approximately 80% faster than the Raspberry Pi 2 in parallelised tasks.[41]

Overclocking[edit]

Most Raspberry Pi systems-on-chip could be overclocked to 800 MHz, and some to 1000 MHz.

There are reports the Raspberry Pi 2 can be similarly overclocked, in extreme cases, even to
1500 MHz (discarding all safety features and over-voltage limitations). In the Raspbian Linux
distro the overclocking options on boot can be done by a software command running "sudo raspi-
config" without voiding the warranty.[42] In those cases the Pi automatically shuts the
overclocking down if the chip temperature reaches 85 °C (185 °F), but it is possible to override
automatic over-voltage and overclocking settings (voiding the warranty); an appropriately
sized heat sink is needed to protect the chip from serious overheating.

Newer versions of the firmware contain the option to choose between five overclock ("turbo")
presets that when used, attempt to maximise the performance of the SoC without impairing the
lifetime of the board. This is done by monitoring the core temperature of the chip and the CPU
load, and dynamically adjusting clock speeds and the core voltage. When the demand is low on
the CPU or it is running too hot the performance is throttled, but if the CPU has much to do and
the chip's temperature is acceptable, performance is temporarily increased with clock speeds of
up to 1 GHz, depending on the board version and on which of the turbo settings is used.

The seven overclock presets are:

 none; 700 MHz ARM, 250 MHz core, 400 MHz SDRAM, 0 overvolting

 modest; 800 MHz ARM, 250 MHz core, 400 MHz SDRAM, 0 overvolting,
 medium; 900 MHz ARM, 250 MHz core, 450 MHz SDRAM, 2 overvolting,
 high; 950 MHz ARM, 250 MHz core, 450 MHz SDRAM, 6 overvolting,
 turbo; 1000 MHz ARM, 500 MHz core, 600 MHz SDRAM, 6 overvolting,
 Pi 2; 1000 MHz ARM, 500 MHz core, 500 MHz SDRAM, 2 overvolting,
 Pi 3; 1100 MHz ARM, 550 MHz core, 500 MHz SDRAM, 6 overvolting. In system information
the CPU speed will appear as 1200 MHz. When idling, speed lowers to 600 MHz.[42][43]

In the highest (turbo) preset the SDRAM clock was originally 500 MHz, but this was later
changed to 600 MHz because 500 MHz sometimes causes SD card corruption. Simultaneously
in high mode the core clock speed was lowered from 450 to 250 MHz, and in medium mode
from 333 to 250 MHz.

The CPU on the first and second generation Raspberry Pi board did not require cooling, such as a
heat sink or fan, even when overclocked, but the Raspberry Pi 3 may generate more heat when
overclocked.[44]

RAM[edit]

The early designs of the Raspberry Pi Model A and B boards included only 256 MB of random
access memory (RAM). Of this, the early beta Model B boards allocated 128 MB to the GPU by
default, leaving only 128 MB for the CPU.[45] On the early 256 MB releases of models A and B,
three different splits were possible. The default split was 192 MB for the CPU, which should be
sufficient for standalone 1080p video decoding, or for simple 3D processing. 224 MB was for
Linux processing only, with only a 1080p framebuffer, and was likely to fail for any video or 3D.
128 MB was for heavy 3D processing, possibly also with video decoding.[46] In comparison,
the Nokia 701 uses 128 MB for the Broadcom VideoCore IV.[47]

The later Model B with 512 MB RAM, was initially released with new standard memory split
files (arm256_start.elf, arm384_start.elf, arm496_start.elf) with 256 MB, 384 MB, and 496 MB
CPU RAM, and with 256 MB, 128 MB, and 16 MB video RAM, respectively. But about one
week later, the foundation released a new version of start.elf that could read a new entry in
config.txt (gpu_mem=xx) and could dynamically assign an amount of RAM (from 16 to 256 MB
in 8 MB steps) to the GPU, obsoleting the older method of splitting memory, and a single
start.elf worked the same for 256 MB and 512 MB Raspberry Pis.[48]

The Raspberry Pi 2 has 1 GB of RAM. The Raspberry Pi 3 has 1 GB of RAM in the B and B+
models, and 512 MB of RAM in the A+ model.[49][50][51] The Raspberry Pi Zero and Zero W have
512 MB of RAM.

The Raspberry Pi 4 has a choice of 1, 2 or 4 GB of RAM, set at time of manufacture.[52] The

Raspberry Pi 4 Model B Safety and User guide mentions "Raspberry Pi 4 Model B 1 GB, 2 GB,
4 GB + 8 GB variants" but the 8GB model was not available as of the 2019 launch.[53]

Networking[edit]

The Model A, A+ and Pi Zero have no Ethernet circuitry and are commonly connected to a
network using an external user-supplied USB Ethernet or Wi-Fi adapter. On the Model B and
B+ the Ethernet port is provided by a built-in USB Ethernet adapter using the SMSC LAN9514
chip.[54] The Raspberry Pi 3 and Pi Zero W (wireless) are equipped with 2.4 GHz
WiFi 802.11n (150 Mbit/s) and Bluetooth 4.1 (24 Mbit/s) based on the Broadcom
BCM43438 FullMAC chip with no official support for monitor mode but implemented through
unofficial firmware patching[55] and the Pi 3 also has a 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet port. The
Raspberry Pi 3B+ features dual-band IEEE 802.11b/g/n/ac WiFi, Bluetooth 4.2, and Gigabit
Ethernet (limited to approximately 300 Mbit/s by the USB 2.0 bus between it and the SoC). The
Raspberry Pi 4 has full gigabit Ethernet (throughput is not limited as it is not funnelled via the
USB chip.)
Special-purpose features[edit]

The Pi Zero can be used as a USB device or "USB gadget", plugged into another computer via a
USB port on another machine. It can be configured in multiple ways, for example to show up as
a serial device or an ethernet device.[56] Although originally requiring software patches, this was
added into the mainline Raspbian distribution in May 2016.[56]

The Pi 3 can boot from USB, such as from a flash drive.[57] Because of firmware limitations in
other models, the Pi 2B v1.2, 3A+, 3B, and 3B+ are the only boards that can do this.

Peripherals[edit]

The Model 2B boards incorporate four USB ports for connecting peripherals.

Although often pre-configured to operate as a headless computer, the Raspberry Pi may also
optionally be operated with any generic USB computer keyboard and mouse.[58] It may also be
used with USB storage, USB to MIDI converters, and virtually any other device/component with
USB capabilities, depending on the installed device drivers in the underlying operating system
(many of which are included by default).

Other peripherals can be attached through the various pins and connectors on the surface of the
Raspberry Pi.[59]
Video[edit]

The early Raspberry Pi 1 Model A, with an HDMI port and a standard RCA composite video port
for older displays

The video controller can generate standard modern TV resolutions, such as HD and Full HD, and
higher or lower monitor resolutions as well as older NTSC or PAL standard CRT TV resolutions.
As shipped (i.e., without custom overclocking) it can support the following resolutions:
640×350 EGA; 640×480 VGA; 800×600 SVGA; 1024×768 XGA; 1280×720 720p HDTV;
1280×768 WXGA variant; 1280×800 WXGA variant; 1280×1024 SXGA;
1366×768 WXGA variant; 1400×1050 SXGA+; 1600×1200 UXGA; 1680×1050 WXGA+;
1920×1080 1080p HDTV; 1920×1200 WUXGA.[60]

Higher resolutions, up to 2048×1152, may work[61][62] or even 3840×2160 at 15 Hz (too low a
frame rate for convincing video).[63] Allowing the highest resolutions does not imply that the
GPU can decode video formats at these resolutions; in fact, the Pis are known to not work
reliably for H.265 (at those high resolutions),[citation needed] commonly used for very high resolutions
(however, most common formats up to Full HD do work).

Although the Raspberry Pi 3 does not have H.265 decoding hardware, the CPU is more powerful
than its predecessors, potentially fast enough to allow the decoding of H.265-encoded videos in
software.[64] The GPU in the Raspberry Pi 3 runs at higher clock frequencies of 300 MHz or
400 MHz, compared to previous versions which ran at 250 MHz.[65]

The Raspberry Pis can also generate 576i and 480i composite video signals, as used on old-style

(CRT) TV screens and less-expensive monitors through standard connectors – either RCA or
3.5 mm phono connector depending on model. The television signal standards supported
are PAL-BGHID, PAL-M, PAL-N, NTSC and NTSC-J.[66]

Lack of real-time clock[edit]

None of the Raspberry Pi models have a built-in real-time clock. When booting, the time is set
either manually, or configured from a previously saved state at shutdown to provide relative
consistency for the file system. The Network Time Protocol is used to update the system time
when connected to a network.

A real-time hardware clock with battery backup, such as the DS1307, may be added.

3 OpenCv:

OpenCV [OpenCV] is an open source (see http://opensource.org) computer vision library

available from http://SourceForge.net/projects/opencvlibrary. Th e library is written in C and C+
+ and runs under Linux, Windows and Mac OS X. Th ere is active development on interfaces for
Python, Ruby, Matlab, and other languages. OpenCV was designed for computational efficiency
and with a strong focus on realtime applications. OpenCV is written in optimized C and can take
advantage of multicore processors. If you desire further automatic optimization on Intel
architectures [Intel], you can buy Intel’s Integrated Performance Primitives (IPP) libraries [IPP],
which consist of low-level optimized routines in many diff erent algorithmic areas. OpenCV
automatically uses the appropriate IPP library at runtime if that library is installed. One of
OpenCV’s goals is to provide a simple-to-use computer vision infrastructure that helps people
build fairly sophisticated vision applications quickly. The OpenCV library contains over 500
functions that span many areas in vision, including factory product inspection, medical imaging,
security, user interface, camera calibration, stereo vision, and robotics. Because computer vision
and machine learning oft en go hand-inhand, OpenCV also contains a full, general-purpose
Machine Learning Library (MLL). Th is sublibrary is focused on statistical pattern recognition
and clustering. Th e MLL is highly useful for the vision tasks that are at the core of OpenCV’s
mission, but it is general enough to be used for any machine learning problem
OpenCV has a modular structure, which means that the package includes several shared or static
libraries. The following modules are available:

 Core functionality (core) - a compact module defining basic data structures, including the
dense multi-dimensional array Mat and basic functions used by all other modules.
 Image Processing (imgproc) - an image processing module that includes linear and non-
linear image filtering, geometrical image transformations (resize, affine and perspective
warping, generic table-based remapping), color space conversion, histograms, and so on.
 Video Analysis (video) - a video analysis module that includes motion estimation,
background subtraction, and object tracking algorithms.
 Camera Calibration and 3D Reconstruction (calib3d) - basic multiple-view geometry
algorithms, single and stereo camera calibration, object pose estimation, stereo
correspondence algorithms, and elements of 3D reconstruction.
 2D Features Framework (features2d) - salient feature detectors, descriptors, and
descriptor matchers.
 Object Detection (objdetect) - detection of objects and instances of the predefined classes
(for example, faces, eyes, mugs, people, cars, and so on).
 High-level GUI (highgui) - an easy-to-use interface to simple UI capabilities.
 Video I/O (videoio) - an easy-to-use interface to video capturing and video codecs.
 ... some other helper modules, such as FLANN and Google test wrappers, Python
bindings, and others.

The further chapters of the document describe functionality of each module. But first, make sure
to get familiar with the common API concepts used thoroughly in the library.

Officially launched in 1999 the OpenCV project was initially an Intel Research initiative to
advance CPU-intensive applications, part of a series of projects including real-time ray
tracing and 3D display walls.[5] The main contributors to the project included a number of
optimization experts in Intel Russia, as well as Intel's Performance Library Team. In the early
days of OpenCV, the goals of the project were described as:
 Advance vision research by providing not only open but also optimized code for basic vision
infrastructure. No more reinventing the wheel.
 Disseminate vision knowledge by providing a common infrastructure that developers could
build on, so that code would be more readily readable and transferable.
 Advance vision-based commercial applications by making portable, performance-optimized
code available for free – with a license that did not require code to be open or free itself.

The first alpha version of OpenCV was released to the public at the IEEE Conference on
Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition in 2000, and five betas were released between 2001
and 2005. The first 1.0 version was released in 2006. A version 1.1 "pre-release" was released in
October 2008.

The second major release of the OpenCV was in October 2009. OpenCV 2 includes major
changes to the C++ interface, aiming at easier, more type-safe patterns, new functions, and better
implementations for existing ones in terms of performance (especially on multi-core systems).
Official releases now occur every six months[7] and development is now done by an independent
Russian team supported by commercial corporations.

In August 2012, support for OpenCV was taken over by a non-profit foundation OpenCV.org,
which maintains a developer[8] and user site.[9]

On May 2016, Intel signed an agreement to acquire Itseez,[10] a leading developer of OpenCV.[

IR SENSORS

An infrared detector is a detector that reacts to infrared (IR) radiation. The two main types of

detectors are thermal and photonic (photodetectors).

The thermal effects of the incident IR radiation can be followed through many temperature
dependent phenomena. Bolometers and microbolometers are based on changes in
resistance. Thermocouples and thermopiles use the thermoelectric effect. Golay cells follow
thermal expansion. In IR spectrometers the pyroelectric detectors are the most widespread.

The response time and sensitivity of photonic detectors can be much higher, but usually these
have to be cooled to cut thermal noise. The materials in these are semiconductors with narrow
band gaps. Incident IR photons can cause electronic excitations. In photoconductive detectors,
the resistivity of the detector element is monitored. Photovoltaic detectors contain a p-n
junction on which photoelectric current appears upon illumination.

An infrared detector is hybridized by connecting it to a readout integrated circuit with indium

bumps. This hybrid is known as a focal plane array.
DRIVER CIRCUIT
• It works on the concept of H-bridge. H-bridge is a circuit which allows the voltage to be
flown in either direction. As you know voltage need to change its direction for being able
to rotate the motor in clockwise or anticlockwise direction, Hence H-bridge IC are ideal
for driving a DC motor.

• In a single L293D chip there are two h-Bridge circuit inside the IC which can rotate two
dc motor independently. Due its size it is very much used in robotic application for
controlling DC motors. Given below is the pin diagram of a L293D motor controller.

• There are two Enable pins on l293d. Pin 1 and pin 9, for being able to drive the motor,
the pin 1 and 9 need to be high. For driving the motor with left H-bridge you need to
enable pin 1 to high. And for right H-Bridge you need to make the pin 9 to high. If
anyone of the either pin1 or pin9 goes low then the motor in the corresponding section
will suspend working. It’s like a switch.

L293D DRIVER
 • L293D Logic Table.

• Lets consider a Motor connected on left side output pins (pin 3,6). For rotating the motor
in clockwise direction the input pins has to be provided with Logic 1 and Logic 0.   

• • Pin 2 = Logic 1 and Pin 7 = Logic 0 | Clockwise Direction

• Pin 2 = Logic 0 and Pin 7 = Logic 1 | Anticlockwise Direction
• Pin 2 = Logic 0 and Pin 7 = Logic 0 | Idle [No rotation] [Hi-Impedance state]
• Pin 2 = Logic 1 and Pin 7 = Logic 1 | Idle [No rotation]

• In a very similar way the motor can also operate across input pin 15,10 for motor on the
right hand side.

RELAY

• A relay is similar to a switch, it is either open or closed.

• When the switch is open no current passes through the relay, the circuit is open, and the
load that is connected to the relay receives no power.

• When a relay is closed, the circuit is completed and current passes through the relay and
delivers power to the load.To open and close a relay an electromagnet is used.

• When the coil controlling the electromagnet is given a voltage, the electromagnet causes
the contacts in the relay to connect and transfer current through the relay.

•  

• COM- Common pin

• NC- Normally Closed, in which case NC is connected with COM when INT1 is set low
and disconnected when INT1 is high;

• NO- Normally Open, in which case NO is disconnected with COM1 when INT1 is set
low and connected when INT1 is high.
 • Terminal 2 is similar to terminal 1,except that the control port is INT2

• INT 1- Relay 1 control port

INT 2- Relay 2 control port

Dc motor :

A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical motors that converts direct

current electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the forces
produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism,
either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the direction of current in part of
the motor.

DC motors were the first form of motor widely used, as they could be powered from existing
direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be controlled over a
wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by changing the strength of current in its
field windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can
operate on direct current but is a lightweight brushed motor used for portable power tools and
appliances. Larger DC motors are currently used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and
hoists, and in drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made
replacement of DC motors with AC motors possible in many applications.

Electromagnetic motors

A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic field aligned with
the center of the coil. The direction and magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the coil can
be changed with the direction and magnitude of the current flowing through it.

A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and an armature with one or

more windings of insulated wire wrapped around a soft iron core that concentrates the magnetic
field. The windings usually have multiple turns around the core, and in large motors there can be
several parallel current paths. The ends of the wire winding are connected to a commutator. The
commutator allows each armature coil to be energized in turn and connects the rotating coils
with the external power supply through brushes. (Brushless DC motors have electronics that
switch the DC current to each coil on and off and have no brushes.)

The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size and what it's wrapped around dictate
the strength of the electromagnetic field created.

The sequence of turning a particular coil on or off dictates what direction the effective
electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on and off coils in sequence a rotating magnetic
field can be created. These rotating magnetic fields interact with the magnetic fields of the
magnets (permanent or electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor (stator) to create a
torque on the armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor designs the stator fields use
electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which allow greater control over the motor.
At high power levels, DC motors are almost always cooled using forced air.

Different number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are connected provide
different inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a DC motor can be
controlled by changing the voltage applied to the armature. The introduction of variable
resistance in the armature circuit or field circuit allowed speed control. Modern DC motors are
often controlled by power electronics systems which adjust the voltage by "chopping" the DC
current into on and off cycles which have an effective lower voltage.

Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often used in
traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. The DC motor was the mainstay of
electric traction drives on both electric and diesel-electric locomotives, street-cars/trams and
diesel electric drilling rigs for many years. The introduction of DC motors and an electrical
grid system to run machinery starting in the 1870s started a new second Industrial Revolution.
DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for the
first electric vehicles and today's hybrid cars and electric cars as well as driving a host
of cordless tools. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk
drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines. Large DC motors with
separately excited fields were generally used with winder drives for mine hoists, for high torque
as well as smooth speed control using thyristor drives. These are now replaced with large AC
motors with variable frequency drives.

If external mechanical power is applied to a DC motor it acts as a DC generator, a dynamo. This

feature is used to slow down and recharge batteries on hybrid and electric cars or to return
electricity back to the electric grid used on a street car or electric powered train line when they
slow down. This process is called regenerative braking on hybrid and electric cars. In diesel
electric locomotives they also use their DC motors as generators to slow down but dissipate the
energy in resistor stacks. Newer designs are adding large battery packs to recapture some of this
energy.

Brushed

Main article: Brushed DC electric motor

A brushed DC electric motor generating torque from DC power supply by using an internal
mechanical commutation. Stationary permanent magnets form the stator field. Torque is
produced by the principle that any current-carrying conductor placed within an external
magnetic field experiences a force, known as Lorentz force. In a motor, the magnitude of this
Lorentz force (a vector represented by the green arrow), and thus the output torque,is a
function for rotor angle, leading to a phenomenon known as torque ripple) Since this is a two-
pole motor, the commutator consists of a split ring, so that the current reverses each half turn (
180 degrees).

The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the motor
by using internal commutation, stationary magnets (permanent or electromagnets), and rotating
electromagnets.

Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple control
of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high intensity uses.
Maintenance involves regularly replacing the carbon brushes and springs which carry the electric
current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for
transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of the rotor
inside the motor.

Brushes are usually made of graphite or carbon, sometimes with added dispersed copper to
improve conductivity. In use, the soft brush material wears to fit the diameter of the commutator,
and continues to wear. A brush holder has a spring to maintain pressure on the brush as it
shortens. For brushes intended to carry more than an ampere or two, a flying lead will be molded
into the brush and connected to the motor terminals. Very small brushes may rely on sliding
contact with a metal brush holder to carry current into the brush, or may rely on a contact spring
pressing on the end of the brush. The brushes in very small, short-lived motors, such as are used
in toys, may be made of a folded strip of metal that contacts the commutator.

Brushless[edit]

Main articles: Brushless DC electric motor and Switched reluctance motor

Typical brushless DC motors use one or more permanent magnets in the rotor
and electromagnets on the motor housing for the stator. A motor controller converts DC to AC.
This design is mechanically simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the
complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. The motor
controller can sense the rotor's position via Hall effect sensors or similar devices and can
precisely control the timing, phase, etc., of the current in the rotor coils to optimize torque,
conserve power, regulate speed, and even apply some braking. Advantages of brushless motors
include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high efficiency. Disadvantages include high
initial cost, and more complicated motor speed controllers. Some such brushless motors are
sometimes referred to as "synchronous motors" although they have no external power supply to
be synchronized with, as would be the case with normal AC synchronous motors.

Uncommutated

Other types of DC motors require no commutation.

 Homopolar motor – A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis of rotation and
an electric current that at some point is not parallel to the magnetic field. The name
homopolar refers to the absence of polarity change. Homopolar motors necessarily have a
single-turn coil, which limits them to very low voltages. This has restricted the practical
application of this type of motor.
 Ball bearing motor – A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that consists of
two ball bearing-type bearings, with the inner races mounted on a common conductive
shaft, and the outer races connected to a high current, low voltage power supply. An
alternative construction fits the outer races inside a metal tube, while the inner races are
mounted on a shaft with a non-conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an insulating rod).
This method has the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel. The direction of rotation
is determined by the initial spin which is usually required to get it going.

Permanent magnet stators

Main article: Permanent-magnet electric motor

A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on PMs to provide
the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque. Compensating
windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under
load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are
convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most
larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could
not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to
obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and
difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.

To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made
with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With
their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with
all optimally designed singly fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors
resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure
starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically
links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.

Wound stators[edit]

A field coil may be connected in shunt, in series, or in compound with the armature of a DC
machine (motor or generator)

Main article: universal motor

See also: Excitation (magnetic)

There are three types of electrical connections between the stator and rotor possible for DC
electric motors: series, shunt/parallel and compound (various blends of series and shunt/parallel)
and each has unique speed/torque characteristics appropriate for different loading torque
profiles/signatures.[1]
Series connection[edit]

A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with a common D.C.

power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear function of load torque and armature
current; current is common to both the stator and rotor yielding current squared (I^2)
behavior[citation needed]. A series motor has very high starting torque and is commonly used for
starting high inertia loads, such as trains, elevators or hoists.[2] This speed/torque characteristic is
useful in applications such as dragline excavators, where the digging tool moves rapidly when
unloaded but slowly when carrying a heavy load.

A series motor should never be started at no load. With no mechanical load on the series motor,
the current is low, the counter-Electro motive force produced by the field winding is weak, and
so the armature must turn faster to produce sufficient counter-EMF to balance the supply
voltage. The motor can be damaged by overspeed. This is called a runaway condition.

Series motors called universal motors can be used on alternating current. Since the armature
voltage and the field direction reverse at the same time, torque continues to be produced in the
same direction. However they run at a lower speed with lower torque on AC supply when
compared to DC due to reactance voltage drop in AC which is not present in DC.[3]Since the
speed is not related to the line frequency, universal motors can develop higher-than-synchronous
speeds, making them lighter than induction motors of the same rated mechanical output. This is a
valuable characteristic for hand-held power tools. Universal motors for commercial utility are
usually of small capacity, not more than about 1 kW output. However, much larger universal
motors were used for electric locomotives, fed by special low-frequency traction power
networks to avoid problems with commutation under heavy and varying loads.

Shunt connection

A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or shunt with a common
D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed regulation even as the load varies, but
does not have the starting torque of a series DC motor.[4] It is typically used for industrial,
adjustable speed applications, such as machine tools, winding/unwinding machines and
tensioners.
Compound connection

A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings in a shunt and a series
combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series DC motor.[5] This motor is used
when both a high starting torque and good speed regulation is needed. The motor can be
connected in two arrangements: cumulatively or differentially. Cumulative compound motors
connect the series field to aid the shunt field, which provides higher starting torque but less speed
regulation. Differential compound DC motors have good speed regulation and are typically
operated at constant speed.

PYTHON

INTRODUCTION

Python is a widely used general-purpose, high level programming language. It was

initially designed by Guido van Rossum in 1991 and developed by Python Software Foundation.
It was mainly developed for emphasis on code readability, and its syntax allows programmers
to express concepts in fewer lines of code. Python is a programming language that lets you
work quickly and integrate systems more efficiently. It supports Object Oriented programming
approach to develop applications. It is simple and easy to learn and provides lots of high-level
data structures. Python is easy to learn yet powerful and versatile scripting language, which
makes it attractive for Application Development. Python's syntax and dynamic typing with its
interpreted nature make it an ideal language for scripting and rapid application development.
Python supports multiple programming pattern, including object-oriented, imperative, and
functional or procedural programming styles. Python is not intended to work in a particular
area, such as web programming. That is why it is known as multipurpose programming
language because it can be used with web, enterprise, 3D CAD, etc. We don't need to use data
types to declare variable because it is dynamically typed so we can write a=10 to assign an
integer value in an integer variable. Python makes the development and debugging fast
because there is no compilation step included in Python development, and edit-test-debug
cycle is very fast.

3.1 PYTHON FEATURES:

1. Easy to code:

Python is high level programming language. Python is very easy to learn language as compared
to other language like c, c#, python script, python etc. It is very easy to code in python language
and anybody can learn python basic in few hours or days. It is also developer-friendly language.

2. Free and Open Source:

Python language is freely available at official website and you can download it from the given
download link below click on the Download Python keyword.

Download Python

Since, it is open-source, this means that source code is also available to the public. So you can
download it as, use it as well as share it.

3. Object-Oriented Language:

One of the key features of python is Object-Oriented programming. Python supports object
oriented language and concepts of classes, objects encapsulation etc.

4. GUI Programming Support:

Graphical Users interfaces can be made using a module such as PyQt5, PyQt4, wxPython or Tk
in python.

PyQt5 is the most popular option for creating graphical apps with Python.

5. High-Level Language:

Python is a high-level language. When we write programs in python, we do not need to

remember the system architecture, nor do we need to manage the memory.

6. Extensible feature:

Python is a Extensible language. we can write our some python code into c or c++ language and
also we can compile that code in c/c++ language.

7. Python is Portable language:

Python language is also a portable language.for example, if we have python code for windows
and if we want to run this code on other platform such as Linux, Unix and Mac then we do not
need to change it, we can run this code on any platform.

8. Python is Integrated language:

Python is also an Integrated language because we can easily integrated python with other
language like c, c++ etc.

9. Interpreted Language:

Python is an Interpreted Language. because python code is executed line by line at a time. like
other language c, c++, python etc there is no need to compile python code this makes it easier
to debug our code. The source code of python is converted into an immediate form called
bytecode.
10. Large Standard Library:

Python has a large standard library which provides rich set of module and functions so you do
not have to write your own code for every single thing. There are many libraries present in
python for such as regular expressions, unit-testing, web browsers etc.

11. Dynamically Typed Language:

Python is dynamically-typed language. That means the type (for example- int, double, long etc)
for a variable is decided at run time not in advance. because of this feature we don’t need to
specify the type of variable

3.2 PYTHON APPLICATIONS:

Python is known for its general-purpose nature that makes it applicable in almost each domain
of software development. Python as a whole can be used in any sphere of development.

Here, we are specifing applications areas where python can be applied.

1) Web Applications

We can use Python to develop web applications. It provides libraries to handle internet
protocols such as HTML and XML, JSON, Email processing, request, beautifulSoup, Feedparser
etc. It also provides Frameworks such as Django, Pyramid, Flask etc to design and delelop web
based applications. Some important developments are: PythonWikiEngines, Pocoo,
PythonBlogSoftware etc.

2) Desktop GUI Applications

Python provides Tk GUI library to develop user interface in python based application. Some
other useful toolkits wxWidgets, Kivy, pyqt that are useable on several platforms. The Kivy is
popular for writing multitouch applications.

3) Software Development

Python is helpful for software development process. It works as a support language and can be
used for build control and management, testing etc.

4) Scientific and Numeric

Python is popular and widely used in scientific and numeric computing. Some useful library and
package are SciPy, Pandas, IPython etc. SciPy is group of packages of engineering, science and
mathematics.

5) Business Applications

Python is used to build Business applications like ERP and e-commerce systems. Tryton is a high
level application platform.

6) Console Based Application

We can use Python to develop console based applications. For example: IPython.

7) Audio or Video based Applications

Python is awesome to perform multiple tasks and can be used to develop multimedia
applications. Some of real applications are: TimPlayer, cplay etc.

8) 3D CAD Applications

To create CAD application Fandango is a real application which provides full features of CAD.

9) Enterprise Applications

Python can be used to create applications which can be used within an Enterprise or an
Organization. Some real time applications are: OpenErp, Tryton, Picalo etc.

10) Applications for Images

Using Python several application can be developed for image. Applications developed are:
VPython, Gogh, imgSeek etc.

3.3 Environment Setup:

Python is available for use with Windows, Linux, Mac OS as well as certain other platforms such
as IBM AS/400, iOS, Solaris, etc.

To install Python on your local machine, get a copy of the standard distribution of Python
software from https://www.python.org/downloads based on your operating system, hardware
architecture and version of your local machine.

Install Python on Windows:

To install Python on a Windows platform, you need to download the installer. A web-based
installer, executable installer and embeddable zip files are available to install Python on
Windows. Visit https://www.python.org/downloads/windows and download the installer based
on your local machine's hardware architecture.

The web-based installer needs an active internet connection. So, you can also download the
standalone executable installer. Visit https://www.python.org/downloads and click on
the Download Python 3.7.0 button as shown below. (3.7.0 is the latest version as of this
writing.)

Step 1

Fig: 3.1 Download Python Library

This will download python-3.7.0.exe for 32 bit. For the 64 bit installer, go
to https://www.python.org/downloads/windows and select the appropriate 64 bit installer, as
shown below.

Step 2
 Fig: 3.2 Download Python for Windows 64 bit

Download the Windows x86-64 executable installer and double click on it to start the python installation
wizard as shown below.

STEP 3
 Fig:
3.3 Python Installation Wizard

Installation is a simple wizard-based process. As you can see in the above figure, the default installation
folder will be C:\Users\{UserName}\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python37 for Python 3.7.0 64 bit.
Check the Add Python 3.7 to PATH checkbox, so that you can execute python scripts from any path. You
may choose the installation folder or feature by clicking on Customize installation.

STEP 4

FIG:3.4 Python Installation Wizard

STEP 5
 FIG:3.5
Python Installation Wizard

In Advanced Options, select the Install for all users option so that any user of your local machine can
execute Python scripts. Also, choose the installation folder to make a shorter path for Python executable
(something like C:\python37), keeping the rest of the choices to default and finally click on the Install
button.

STEP 6
 FIG:
3.6 Python Installation Wizard

After successful installation, you can start working with Python on your local machine.

Install Python on Linux

Most of Linux distributions come with Python already installed. However, the Python 2.x version is
incorporated in many of them. To check if Python 3.x is available, run the following command in the
Linux terminal:

$ which python3

If available, it will return the path to the Python3 executable as /usr/local/bin/python3. If not, install it
by following the procedure on Ubuntu Linux:

$ sudo apt-get update

$ sudo apt-get install python3.6

For other Linux distributions use the corresponding package managers, such as YUM for Red Hat,
aptitude for debian, DNF for Fedora, etc.

For installation on other platforms as well as installation from the source code, please refer to the
official documentation on python.org
To check whether Python installation is successful, open the command prompt window, type Python
and press ENTER. A Python Prompt comprising of three Greater Than symbols (>>>) should appear.

STEP 7

FIG:3.7 Python Shell on Windows

FUTURE SCOPE
LEG SHAPED

Legged robots are a type of mobile robot, which use articulated limbs, such as leg mechanisms,
to provide locomotion. They are more versatile than wheeled robots and can traverse many
different terrains, though these advantages require increased complexity and power consumption.
Legged robots often imitate legged animals, such as humans or insects, in an example
of biomimicry. Legged robots, or walking machines, are designed for locomotion on rough
terrain and require control of leg actuators to maintain balance, sensors to determine foot
placement and planning algorithms to determine the direction and speed of movement.[3][4] The
periodic contact of the legs of the robot with the ground is called the gait of the walker.

In order to maintain locomotion the center of gravity of the walker must be supported either
statically or dynamically. Static support is provided by ensuring the center of gravity is within
the support pattern formed by legs in contact with the ground. Dynamic support is provided by
keeping the trajectory of the center of gravity located so that it can be repositioned by forces
from one or more of its legs.

Bipedal or two-legged robots exhibit bipedal motion. As such, they face two primary problems:

1. stability control, which refers to a robot's balance, and

2. motion control, which refers to a robot's ability to move.
Stability control is particularly difficult for bipedal systems, which must maintain balance in the
forward-backward direction even at rest.[1] Some robots, especially toys, solve this problem with
large feet, which provide greater stability while reducing mobility. Alternatively, more advanced
systems use sensors such as accelerometers or gyroscopes to provide dynamic feedback in a
fashion that approximates a human being's balance.[1] Such sensors are also employed for motion
control and walking. The complexity of these tasks lends itself to machine learning.[2]

Simple bipedal motion can be approximated by a rolling polygon where the length of each side
matches that of a single step. As the step length grows shorter, the number of sides increases and
the motion approaches that of a circle. This connects bipedal motion to wheeled motion as a limit
of stride length.[2]

Two-legged robots include:

 Boston Dynamics' Atlas
 Toy robots such as QRIO and ASIMO.
 NASA's Valkyrie robot, intended to aid humans on Mars.[11]
 The ping-pong playing TOPIO robot.
ADVANTAGES
• Continuous monitoring of plant leaves health
• Time- to-time data analysis of each plant.
• Can reduce the death of a plant due to a disease by intime checking of the plant health.

CONCLUSION
• The proposed system has been introduced for keep monitoring the plants and sprinkle
water to them without any human interference. Since due to laziness and forgetting to
sprinkle water, they die. This problem arises mainly in summer, because in summer the
chances of plant withering is more.

• The above consists of camera which monitors and checks the plants condition through
its color. If the plant color is not the green, it moves towards to the plant through the help
of motors and sprinkle water through water pump. The above system is successfully
implemented and tested.

Future Scope
The present study deals with automatic disease detection of plant leaf of banana using
image processing tec hniques. It involves image acquisition, image preprocessing, image
segmentation, feature extraction and classification. Development of automatic detection system
using advanced computer technology such as image processing help to support the farmers in the
identification of diseases at an early or initial stage and provide useful information for its control.
The system would like to extend our work further on more plant disease detection.

Data mining technologies has been incorporated in the agriculture industry. This project
implements an innovation idea to identity the affected crops and provide remedy measures to the
agriculture industry. By the use of SVM-mean clustering algorithm, the infected region of the
leaf is segmented and analyzed. The image are fed to our application for the identification of
disease. It provides a good choice for agriculture community particularly in remote village. It
acts as an efficient system in terms of reducing clustering time and the area of infected region.
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