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CHAPTER 5
OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION
……………………………………………………………………………………………
Sub-topics
5.1 Layered Network Architecture
5.2 The OSI Reference Model
5.3 Communication between layers
5.4 Data encapsulation
5.5 Segmentation and re-assembly
……………………………………………………………………………………………
5.1 Layered Network Architecture
-Layered network architecture is the design of a communications network with
a set of layers each having protocols.
-A protocol is a formal set of rules and conventions that governs how computers
exchange information over a network medium. A protocol stack is a list of
protocols used by a system.
 See Peer-to-Peer communication between OSI horizontal layers later.

Why layered network architecture?

1. Modularity
-It reduces the complexity of the problem (task) ie a big task is split into
smaller ones that can be managed effectively.
-The network engineers can work on one network layer without being
concerned with what happens at another layer.
2. Standardization
-For heterogeneous devices (devices of different types) developed by various
manufacturers.
-To ensure interoperability of devices (operation between devices) on a
network, because of different data formats and data exchange methods.
3. Trouble shooting
-It provides a frame of reference that describes how components are
supposed to function.
Note:
 The layered model does not define or constrain an implementation; it provides
a framework.
 Implementations do not conform to the OSI reference model, but to the
standards developed from the OSI reference model principles.

Layer design issues

1. Peer-to-peer addressing ie identify senders and receivers.
2. Data transfer ie simplex, full-duplex or half-duplex.
3. Error control ie error detection and correction.
4. Flow control (congestion) ie faster sender versus slow receiver.
5. Multiplexing ie sending many messages over a single line.
6. Routing ie Finding the best possible route for sending messages.

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5.2 The OSI Reference Model

-The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model is composed of
7 layers; each layer specifying particular network functions.
- OSI is an abstract conceptual model (just a reference tool) ie it does not specify
implementation specific details.
-The model was developed by ISO (International Standards Organization) in
1984, and it is now considered the primary architectural model for inter-computer
communications.
-The OSI model divides the tasks into 7 smaller, more manageable task groups.
A task or group of tasks is then assigned to each of the 7 layers.
-Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that the tasks assigned to each layer
can be implemented independently.
-This enables the solutions offered by one layer to be updated without adversely
affecting the other layers.
 See General programming techniques.
The 7 OSI layers
They are grouped in 2 broad ways:
1. Upper Layers
2. Lower Layers

Upper Layers (Host Layers)

Lower Layers (Media Layers)

Remember: A P S / T / N D P
Upper Layers (Host layers)
-Consist of 4 layers: Application, Presentation, Session and Transport.
-Responsible for accurate data delivery between computers (hosts).
-They deal with application issues and are generally implemented only in
software.
Lower Layers (Media layers)
-Consist of 3 layers: Network, Data Link and Physical.
- Concerned with the actual packaging, addressing, routing and delivery of data.
-They work in hardware or firmware (software that runs on specific hardware
chips).
-Physical layer handles the bits; the data link layer deals with local networks and
the network layer handles routing between networks.

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Why International Standards for layered network?

1. Interconnection of computer systems in Open System Interconnection.
2. Reference tool for data communications between networked systems.
3. Understanding the function of each layer in data communication within
networks.
4. Vendors to design network products based on specifications of OSI model.
Communication between Systems

Sender transfers information to Receiver through the 7 OSI layers.

Sender side:
-The information is passed downwards along the 7 layers, until Layer 1
(Physical layer) is reached.
-First, application program (eg Web browser & e-mail) places the information
onto the Application layer and each layer then passes data and control
information (headers & trailers) to a layer below it.
-Eventually, at Layer 1 (Physical layer) the information is placed on the physical
medium and sent to the receiver.
Receiver side:
-The information is passed upwards along the 7 layers, until Layer 7
(Application layer) is eventually reached.
-First, the information is placed on the Physical layer, and each layer then passes
data and control information (headers & trailers) to the layer above it.
-Eventually, at layer 7 (Application layer) the information is passed to the receiver
application program to complete the communication process.
See Data Encapsulation later.

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Summary of OSI layer devices & protocols

OSI Name Device Common Protocols
Layer

7 Application HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, SNMP, Telnet

6 Presentation Proxy server JPEG, GIF, MPEG

5 Session Gateway RPC, NetBIOS

4 Transport TCP, UDP

3 Network Router, Gateway IP (ICMP, IGMP), ARP

2 Data Link Switch, Bridge WAN (Frame Relay, ATM, PPP, HDLC)

1 Hub, Repeater LAN (Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI)

Physical

Summary of OSI layer functions

Layer Functions
7 Application Defines applications used to process requests to access network services
(uses ports & sockets).

6 Presentation Formats data for Application layer

ie conversion, encryption/decryption & compression of data.
5 Session Establishes, manages and terminates sessions between layers.

4 Transport Defines type of connection establishment between hosts.

Acknowledgements (reliable & unreliable delivery).
Performs error correction before transmission.
3 Network Provides end-to-end logical addressing for routing packets
(uses IP addresses).
2 Data Link Provides access to media using physical addresses
(MAC addresses).
Provides error-free transfer of frames over physical layer
(may have error detection & correction).
1 Physical Transmission & reception of raw bits over physical medium
Provides encoding & decoding (specifies voltages for signals).

Layer 1 Physical layer

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-Supports the electrical or mechanical interface to the physical medium.

-Defines the media characteristics to transfer binary bits (1s & 0s)
ie voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, cable requirements
(physical data rates, maximum transmission distances), physical connectors and
interface specifications (number of pins).
-The layer implementations can be categorized as either LAN or WAN
specifications.
Some of the Physical Specifications
1. Cabling system components
2. Adapters that connect media to physical interfaces
3. Connector design and pin assignments
4. Hub & repeater specifications
5. Wireless system components
6. NIC (Network Interface Card)
Note:
 LAN protocols include Ethernet, Token Ring & FDDI
 Physical devices include NIC, hubs & repeaters.
 See for details:
Chapter 6 Physical Layer.
Chapter 8 Ethernet Standards.

Layer 2 Data Link layer

-It deals with delivery of frames (groups of bits), which contain control
information eg a header (with source & destination addresses) and checksum
(error detection bits).

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-The transfer of frames can be reliable or unreliable (no acknowledgement)

across a physical medium, depending on the protocol employed.
-Different Data Link layer specifications define different network and protocol
characteristics eg physical addressing (MAC addresses), network topology, error
notification, sequencing of frames and flow control.
-IEEE (Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers) subdivided the data link
layer into 2 sub-layers:
1. MAC (Media Access Control)
2. LLC (Logical Link Control)

MAC (Media Access Control)

-This is the lower sub-layer, which controls how a computer on the network gains
access to the physical medium ie it manages protocol access to the physical
medium.
Refer to CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) later.
-IEEE MAC specification defines MAC addresses, which enable multiple devices
to uniquely identify one another at the Data Link layer.

Functions of MAC sub-layer

1. Package bits into frames.
2. Physical addressing (used by switches).
3. Network topology specifications.
4. Frame synchronization ie marking start and end of frames.
 See Chapter 7 Data Link layer for details on MAC sub-layer.

LLC (Logical Link Control)

-This is the upper sub-layer, which manages communications between devices
over a single medium of the network.
-LLC is defined in the IEEE 802.2 specification and supports both connectionless
and connection-oriented services used by higher-layer protocols.

Functions of LLC sub-layer

1. Flow control (congestion) ie faster sender vs. slow receiver.
2. Requests for acknowledgement on sending frames.
3. Error notification ie after error checking.
Note:
 Protocols include Ethernet,Token ring, FDDI, HDLC & ATM.
 Physical devices on this layer include bridges, switches.

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Layer 3 Network layer

-It deals with packets which later become frames in the Data Link layer.
The terms frame and packet are sometimes used interchangeably.
-If a message is sent on a WAN, some of the packets may take a different path,
and be recombined at the destination.
-Network layer provides end-to-end logical addressing (using IP addresses).
-Provides switching and routing technologies, which create logical paths called
virtual circuits for packets to be routed across networks.

Some of the functions of network layer

1. Routing and forwarding packets ie by routers.
2. Logical addressing ie network addressing using IP addresses.
3. Internetworking ie communication of networks on the Internet.
4. Flow control ie faster sender versus slow receiver (congestion).
5. Packet sequencing ie each packet given a sequence number.
Note:
 Some of the protocols at network layer are:
IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
& RIP (Routing Information Protocol).
 Physical device functioning at this layer is a router.

Layer 4 Transport layer

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-It offers end-to-end communication between end devices through a network.

-It provides transparent transfer of data between end systems or hosts, and is
responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control.
-Generally, it is responsible for making sure that the data is delivered error-free
and in the proper sequence.
-Depending on the application employed, it offers either a reliable connection-
oriented or connectionless communications.
-It accepts data from the session layer and segments the data for transport
across the network.
-Flow control manages data transmission between devices so that the
transmitting device does not send more data than the receiving device can
process.
-Virtual circuits are established, maintained and terminated by Transport layer.

Some of the functions of Transport layer

1. Application and client identification.
2. Establishment and maintenance of both ends of virtual circuits
3. Data from session layer put into segments.
4. Require acknowledgement from receiver ie confirmation.
5. Data flow control to prevent memory overruns.
6. Error checking ie creating mechanisms for detecting errors.
7. Error recovery eg requesting that data be retransmitted.
8. Realignment of segmented data in the correct order.
9. Multiplexing ie single physical channel used several data.

Common protocols are:

 Connection-oriented TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
 Connectionless UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

Layer 5 Session layer

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-Establishes, manages and terminates communication sessions (connections).

-Sessions consist of service requests and responses that occur between
applications located in different network devices.
-After connection is started, it determines what protocols need to be used by
lower layers.
-It provides various services, including tracking the number of bytes that each
end of the session has acknowledged receiving from the other end of the
session.

Some of the functions of Session layer

1. Virtual connection between application entities.
2. Synchronization of data flow.
3. Acknowledgements of data received during a session.
4. Retransmission of data if it is not received by a device.
RPC (Remote Procedure Calls) is one of the Protocols used here.

Layer 6 Presentation layer

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-It is responsible for data formats ie how an application formats the data to be
sent out onto the network.
-The presentation layer basically allows an application to read (or understand)
the message.
-It takes data from application layer and translates it into a standard format.
-It provides a variety of coding and conversion functions that are applied to
application layer data.

-It uses the following:

 Data representation formats eg UNICODE, ANSI, EBCDIC, ASCII.
 Conversion of character (graphic image formats) eg JPG, GIF, MPEG.
 Data compression schemes and data encryption schemes.
Acronyms:
 EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)
 ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
 MPEG (Motion Picture Experts Group)

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 GIF (Graphics Interchange Format)

 JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
Note:
UNICODE is an international character (digits, letters, symbols etc) encoding
standard.
EBCDIC is an 8-bit character encoding used mainly on IBM computer OS.

Some of the functions of Presentation layer

1. Encryption and decryption of a message for security reasons.
2. Compression and expansion of a message for efficiency.
3. Graphics formatting.
4. Data translation ie content and system specific translation.

Layer 7 Application layer

-This is the OSI layer closest to the end user ie application layer and user interact
directly with the software application.
-It provides a user interface for the end user operating a device connected to
a network.
-This layer is what the user sees, in terms of loading an application
eg Web browser & e-mail.
-This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating
component. The application programs are above the OSI model layers.

Note:
 When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the
identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data
to transmit.
 When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide
whether sufficient network resources for the requested communication exist.
 In synchronizing communication, all communication between applications
requires cooperation that is managed by the application layer.

Protocols of Application layer are:

 File transfers FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

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 Browsing the World Wide Web HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
 Electronic mail handling
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) & POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3)

Some of the functions of Application layer

1. Identifying communication partners.
2. Determining resource availability
3. Synchronizing communication.
4. Network management

5.3 Communication between layers

The 2 types of communication:
1. Horizontal communication ie peer-to-peer using protocols
2. Vertical communication ie using interfaces between the 2 layers

-A given layer in the OSI model generally communicates with three other OSI
layers:
1. the layer directly above it
2. the layer directly below it
3. its peer layer in other networked computer systems.

-For example, the Data Link layer in System A communicates with

1. the Network Layer of System A
2. the Physical Layer of System A
3. the Data Link Layer of System B.

Horizontal layer communication

-Also known as peer-to-peer communication ie communication between
corresponding layers eg eg layer 3 in sender & layer 3 in receiver are peers.
-The layers use protocols to accomplish this communication. Protocol (set of
rules) implements the functions of one or more of the layers.
-This is the very heart of what networking is about eg enables Web browsers and
Web servers to communicate, email applications to exchange messages etc.

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See PDUs later.

Protocols can be classified as:
1. LAN protocols
Operate at the physical and data link layers of the OSI model and define
communication over the various LAN media.
2. WAN protocols
Operate at the lowest three layers of the OSI model and define
communication over the various wide-area media.
3. Routing protocols
They are network layer protocols that are responsible for exchanging
information between routers so that the routers can select the proper path for
network traffic.
4. Network protocols
They are the various upper-layer protocols that exist in a given protocol suite.

OR Classified as:
1. Connection-Oriented protocols
-First, a logical connection is established between the two devices.
-When transferring data is finished, the connection is broken.
2. Connectionless protocols
-These protocols do not establish a connection between devices.
-As soon as a device has data to send to another, it just sends it.
Note:
-Many protocols rely on others for operation eg many routing protocols use
network protocols to exchange information between routers.
-This concept of building upon the layers already in existence is the foundation of
the OSI model.

Vertical layer communication

-Refers to communication between two vertically adjacent layers.
-This is done using interfaces which provide services between layers.

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-The lower layers provide services to the upper layers using interfaces between
them eg layer 2 provides services to layer 3.
-The upper layer passes data and control information to the lower layer below it
eg data and control information from layer 3 to layer 2.
-The services provided by adjacent layers help layers communicate with their
peers.

Service primitives
-Also known as primitive services; are OSI Reference Model services.
-They were introduced by ISO and they do not specify implementation specific
details.
Compare with primitive data types in programming languages eg C language,
C++ and Java.

-The vertical communication between the layers is carried out by service

primitives.
-When one layer requires another layer to carry out a service it issues service
primitives through an interface.

-The service primitives are of 2 main types (actions or events), and they are 4:
1. request 2. indication 3. response 4. confirm

Procedure definitions
Interface Type Interface Type
CONNECT.request Action
P CONNECT.indication Event
R CONNECT.response Action
CONNECT.confirm Event O
DATA.request Action T
O DATA.indication Event

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C DATA.request Action
DATA.indication Event O
DISCONNECT.request Action L
DISCONNECT.indication Action
Actions
CONNECT.request ie Action indicating establishing a connection.
CONNECT.response ie Action indicating acceptance of a request.
DISCONNECT.request ie Action indicating the connection to be closed.
DATA.request ie Action for sending data.

Events
CONNECT.indication ie Event notifying connection establishment is in progress.
CONNECT.confirm ie Event notifying that the connection has been established.
DISCONNECT.indication ie Event is notifying that the connection is closed.
DATA.indication ie Event is notifying that data can be read from the connection .
Note: In programming dot operator. refers to implementation of a function.
Comparison with telephone system
1. CONNECT.request ie Caller dials a number.
2. CONNECT.indication ie Phone of caller rings.
3. CONNECT.response ie Voice of caller heard, usually “Hello”.
4. CONNECT.confirm ie Caller talks back ie “Hello” Then conversation starts.
5. DISCONNECT.request ie Caller hangs up.

Note: DATA.request and DATA.indication imply sending SMS or voice mail.

The 3 basic elements in layer services

1. Service user (upper layer protocol).
2. Service provider (lower layer protocol).
3. SAP (Service Access Point).

-Service user (upper layer protocol) requests for a service from service provider
(lower layer protocol). A layer can provide services to multiple service users.
-SAP (Service Access Point) is a conceptual location at which one layer can
request the services of another layer.

-For example, Network Layer and Data Link Layer interface:

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5.4 Data encapsulation

-Data encapsulation is a process of taking a PDU (Protocol Data Unit) and
attaching a set of protocol header and trailer of the layer.
-PDU (Protocol Data Unit) refers to a complete information unit with control
information that implements the protocol at a given layer.
-The peer-to-peer (horizontal) communication is done in PDU, which consists of
the layer's header, trailer and data (encapsulated).
-Control information refers to specific format that implements the features and
requirements of the protocol in the peer-to-peer (horizontal) communication.

-At every layer (except Physical Layer) PDUs are sent between corresponding
protocols on the two systems.
-Each PDU has control data (specific format that implements the features and
requirements of the protocol.
-When a PDU is passed down to a lower layer, it becomes the data of that layer
ie SDU (PDU of the upper layer).
SDU (Service Data Unit) refers to PDU of the upper layer ie the upper layer’s
PDU is the lower layer’s SDU.
-The role of the lower layer is to transport the SDU, by placing it into its own PDU
format ie attaching the SDU with its own header and trailer.

PDUs include:
1. Segment at Transport layer.
2. Packet at Network layer.
3. Frame at Data Link layer.
4. Bit at physical layer.

Data Link Layer frame

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The header and trailer contain control information intended for the Data Link
layer protocol in the destination system. Data from upper layer is encapsulated in
the Data Link layer header and trailer.

Network Layer packet

Its source and destination is Network Layer entities. The header and trailer
contain control information intended for the Network Layer entity in the
destination system. Data from upper-layer entities is encapsulated in the Network
Layer header and trailer.

Note:
 The term datagram usually refers to packet whose source and destination are
Network Layer protocols that use connectionless network service eg IP
datagram using IP (Internet Protocol).
 The term segment usually refers to an information unit whose source and
destination are Transport Layer protocols.
 A message is information unit whose source and destination protocols exist
above the Network Layer (often at the Application Layer).
 Physical Layer does not have any information unit, instead raw data called bits.
 Headers, trailers and data are relative concepts, depending on the layer that
analyzes the information unit.

Data Encapsulation on sending the message

Refer to the diagram of peer-to-peer (horizontal) communication.
1. At the Application layer user information is converted into data for
transmission on the network. Control information to the peer layer in the

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receiver end is put in the header and trailer. The PDU is then passed down to
the presentation layer.
2. Similarly the Presentation layer and the Session layers attach headers and
trailers containing control information intended for the next lower layers.
3. At the Transportation layer data is converted into segments and a reliable
or unreliable connection is set up between the source and destination devices
using connection oriented and connectionless protocols (eg IP).
4. At the Network layer segments are converted into packets or datagrams
using a logical address (IP address).
5. At the Data Link layer packets (datagrams) are converted into frames for
transmission on the local network. MAC (Media Access Control) addresses or
Ethernet addresses (commonly used to uniquely identify hosts on a local
network segment).
6. At the Physical layer frames are converted into bytes and bits, and a digital
encoding and signaling method (clocking) is used. The PDU is transmitted
through the network medium to the physical layer in the receiver.

Note:
The message unit increases in size as each next layer attaches its own header
and trailer containing control information to be used by its peer layer in the
receiver.

Data Encapsulation on receiving the message

1. At the Physical layer of the receiver the information unit is passes to the Data
Link layer.
2. At the Data Link layer the control information contained in the header read.
The header and the trailer are then removed, and the remainder of the
information unit is passed to the Network layer.
3. Similarly, each layer performs the same actions ie the layer reads the header
and trailer from its peer layer, strips it off, and passes the remaining
information unit to the next upper layer.
4. At the Application layer same actions are performed and then the data is
passed to the receiver’s software application in exactly the same form in
which it was transmitted by the application in the sender.
5. The network layering and data encapsulation process appears to be
cumbersome but it is a critical architecture concept which makes network
communication modular and manageable.

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MAC header Encapsulation

-The Data Link layer receives the packets from the Network layer and placing
them on the network medium such as cable or wireless media.
-The Data Link layer encapsulates each packet in a frame, and the MAC header
carries the source Mac address and destination Mac address.
-If the device is on a different network, then the frame is sent to a router to be
routed through the Internet.
Physical Layer Encapsulation
-Once the frame gets to the destination network, a new frame is used to get the
packet to the destination host. To put this frame on the network, it must first be
put into a digital signal.
-Since a frame is really a logical group of 1s and 0s, the Physical layer is
responsible for encapsulating these digits into a digital signal, which is read by
devices on the same local network.

5.5 Segmentation and Re-assembly (SAR)

-Segmentation is the term used to describe the process of breaking (chopping)
streams of data into smaller units (chunks) called segments, before transmission
across a network.
-The segments are referred to as PDUs (Protocol Data Units). These PDUs are
encapsulated into packets. Packets can be sent along more than one path to the
destination.
-The packets are later reassembled into the proper order at the receiving end of
the communication network.

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Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP

OSI Reference model
-SAR is performed in the Transport layer at both ends. A transport protocol
determines the size of the smallest maximum PDU supported by any of the
networks, and segments the packets accordingly.
-The Transport layer segments the large amounts of data it sends over the
network into smaller pieces on the sender side, and then reassembles them on
the destination machine.
TCP/IP
-Segmentation is known as fragmentation in TCP/IP. For example, TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) breaks an e-mail into a segments, encapsulates
the segment with remote and local TCP port numbers and then delivers the
completed PDU is from TCP to IP (Internet Protocol) to be stamped with a
sequence number, source and destination addresses added and a checksum
calculated.
Advantages
1. Specified packet size restrictions
Messages segmented to suit the requirements of the next OSI layer.
2. Reliability and speed
It increases both the reliability and the speed at which data can travel across
a network. Packets can travel across a packet switched network without
slowing down a communications channel.
3. Multiple conversations between different systems can share a single
communications link. If any single packet is lost, it can be retransmitted
instead of having to start the entire conversation all over again.
Note:
 Segmentation is necessary because today's communication systems use
packet switched communication eg SAR is used for ATM (Asynchronous
Transfer Mode) communication.
 Segmentation is similar conceptually to the fragmentation function of the
Network layer ie the Network layer fragments messages to fit the limits of the
Data Link layer.

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