Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Immunoassays: A, B B A A, C A, B A, B
Immunoassays: A, B B A A, C A, B A, B
Immunoassays: A, B B A A, C A, B A, B
a Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of East Anglia, Norfolk, United Kingdom
b Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Immunology, Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital, Norfolk, United Kingdom
c Department of Virology, Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital, Norfolk, United Kingdom
ABSTRACT In the initial stages of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
(SARS-CoV-2) COVID-19 pandemic, a plethora of new serology tests were developed and
introduced to the global market. Many were not evaluated rigorously, and there is a sig-
nificant lack of concordance in results across methods. To enable meaningful clinical
decisions to be made, robustly evaluated, quantitative serology methods are needed.
These should be harmonized to a primary reference material, allowing for the compari-
son of trial data and improved clinical decision making. A comprehensive evaluation of
the new Abbott IgG II anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG method was undertaken using CLSI-based
protocols. Two different candidate primary reference materials and verification panels
were assessed with a goal to move toward harmonization. The Abbott IgG II method
performed well across a wide range of parameters with excellent imprecision (,3.5%)
and was linear throughout the positive range (tested to 38,365 AU/ml). The sensitivity
S evere acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has swept the globe
at an alarming rate, with a reported 90 million cases and 1.9 million deaths by the
1-year anniversary of the first death from this pandemic (1) and increasing to 119 mil-
open-access article distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International license.
Address correspondence to Emma English,
lion cumulative cases and .2.6 million deaths by the middle of March 2021 (2). In this emma.english@uea.ac.uk.
time, there has been an unprecedented global effort to identify new diagnostic tests, Received 5 February 2021
treatments, and, more recently, vaccines against the virus and the associated disease, Returned for modification 25 February 2021
Accepted 18 June 2021
COVID-19.
Accepted manuscript posted online
The development and delivery of a range of vaccines against the virus is under way, 14 July 2021
with several already approved for use and others in late-stage clinical trials (3). Although Published 18 August 2021
there are several different approaches to the design of these vaccines, a common factor
is the use of the spike proteins, in the form of the attenuated whole virus, or portions of
the spike protein such as the receptor binding domain or through the use of nucleic
acids directed to the synthesis of the spike protein.
In the United Kingdom, a national immunization program has been launched, with
a tiered system of invitations to receive the vaccine dependent on risk of a negative
outcome from the disease (4). While there is trial data for each of the vaccines in use,
there are limited data regarding the quantitative changes in antibody concentrations
over time following vaccination. With the introduction of a national immunization pro-
gram, it will be important to understand the antibody response to immunization in
terms of development, peak concentration, and decline over time to assess efficacy of
the vaccination delivery. To do this, two elements are required: a robust quantitative
SARS-CoV-2 IgG method, which is directed against the spike protein, and a commuta-
ble standard or reference material to allow comparison of results across different meth-
ods and thus different trials or immunization programs (5).
This study evaluated several assay performance criteria (such as precision and sensi-
tivity) using recognized and standardized evaluation protocols (EPs) for the new
Abbott SARS-CoV-2 IgG II Quant method on the Alinity i system (Abbott Diagnostics,
Chicago, IL, USA) and explored the different materials available that may form the basis
of a candidate international reference standard for harmonization programs (6).
A concordance analysis was undertaken comparing the Abbott quantitative method with 3 other
SARS-CoV-2 IgG immunoassay methods: (i) Epitope Diagnostics Inc. (EDI, San Diego, CA, USA) performed
an automated Agility enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (Dynex Technologies, Chantilly, VA,
USA), (ii) Abbott Diagnostics (Maidenhead, UK) utilized a qualitative method on the Alinity i analyzer,
and (iii) DiaSorin (Dartford, UK) utilized the Liaison XL analyzer.
New variant samples. As the pandemic progresses, new variants of the virus emerge, raising concern
that the mutations in these variants may render immunoassays ineffective, as the antigenic changes that
arise may no longer represent the antigenic regions of the reagents in the assay. The main SARS CoV-2 lin-
eage circulating in the autumn of 2020 in the United Kingdom was B.1.177 (the Spanish lineage).
However, since January 2021, the “UK variant” (VOC 202012/V1 or B1.1.7) has become the predominant vi-
rus in the United Kingdom (9). Furthermore, by the beginning of March 2021, there have been in total 266
confirmed and probable cases of a “South Africa” variant (VOC 202012/V2 (B.1.351). These new variants
have several mutations in different parts of SARS CoV-2 genome, with some within the receptor binding
domain increasing the virus transmissibility. The RBD of the “UK” (VOC 202012/V1 or B1.1.7) strain, which is
the predominant virus in the United Kingdom, contains mutation N501Y in the RBD domain of the spike
protein among 15 other mutations in other genome areas. This variant has, since January 2021, acquired
another RBD mutation, E484K, in addition to the variant-defining mutations, which resulted in its designa-
tion as VOC 202102/02 (B1.1.7 cluster with E484K). E484K is currently the mutation with most evidence of
causing antigenic change (10). The RBD of the “South Africa” (VOC 202012/V2 or B.1.351) variant contains
an RBD K417N mutation in subsets of isolates in addition to the E484K and N501Y RBD mutations.
Viruses containing the above-described mutations are not very similar to the predominant virus
(B.1.177) in circulation in the summer and autumn of 2020.
We analyzed samples from patients proven to have the VOC 202012/0V1 (UK) strain, which is now a
predominant virus in the United Kingodm, as well as one imported case of the VOC 202012/V2 (South
Africa) strain.
CLSI EP-9 (trueness). Although a small number of assays are marketed as quantitative methods, there
are no standardized reporting units, making method comparisons difficult. It was considered inappropriate
to evaluate trueness using a standard CLSI EP-9 protocol. See the section below for further discussion.
Identifying potential standards and reference materials. To progress the harmonization of SARS-
CoV-2 Ig immunoassay methods, a certified reference material (CRM) is needed. Several candidate stand-
ard materials were evaluated on each of the four methods described above. Three different materials
were obtained from the National Institute for Biological Standards and Control (NIBSC) and assayed.
One was a CE-marked verification panel of 37 samples (NIBSC code 20/B770). Each sample
consisted of 0.3 ml of human plasma containing the bacterial growth inhibitor Bronidox at 0.05%
(wt/vol). Twenty-three samples were convalescent plasma packs known to be anti-SARS-CoV-2
positive, and the remaining 14 were detailed as negative.
The second was a CE-marked “working standard” (NIBSC code 20/162) intended for use as a
diagnostic calibrant to monitor the sensitivity of assays. The standard consisted of convalescent
plasma positive for anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies pooled from three different donors. Frozen liquid
RESULTS
CLSI EP-5 and EP-15 imprecision. Table S1 in the supplemental material shows the
performance of a negative and two positive QC samples using the CLSI EP-15-based
protocol. The mean value of the negative sample was very low (3.4 AU/ml) and outside
the analytical measurement range, hence the high CV at that level; however, the SD
value was low (0.7), inferring good performance. The imprecision of the positive QC
materials was low (3.0% and 3.3% total CV).
The imprecision data based on CLSI EP-5 is as follows. There was a high CV in the
negative samples (CV, 64%; mean, 2.7 AU/ml; SD, 1.74 AU/ml), but the more relevant
FIG 1 Linearity of method over the complete working range of the Abbott IgG II assay using a range
of dilutions of a high positive (mean, 38,365 AU/ml) in the Abbott diluent. Dash-dot line indicates the
identity line. The darker dotted line represents the 95% likelihood asymmetrical CI of the slope.
total CV in each of the three positive samples remained below 3.5%, with 2.9%, 3.3%,
and 3.4% for pool 1 (mean, 71 AU/ml; SD, 2.09 AU/ml), pool 2 (mean, 283 AU/ml; SD,
9.3 AU/ml), and pool 3 (mean, 2,428 AU/ml; SD, 83.4 AU/ml), respectively.
CLSI EP-6 linearity. CLSI states, for EP-6, that goals for linearity should be derived
from goals for bias and should be less than or equal to these goals. Fig. 1 shows the linear-
ity of a diluted sample over the working range of the assay, it is linear up to 38,365 AU/ml
as tested (manufacturer claim is 40,000 AU/ml). This was the highest patient sample value
available measured neat that was under 40,000 AU/ml and was acceptable, as this high-
value sample was within 5% of the upper limit. Table S2 details the percent difference
from the target values for each dilution. Linear fitting was performed and showed a slope
of 1.004 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.9923 to 1.017), with an r2 of 0.9992. The model
was tested and returned a P value of ,0.001, indicating nondeviation from linearity.
Limit of quantitation and limit of detection. The means and the CVs (%) of the
samples for the LOQ were 3.8 AU/ml (59.3%), 18.1 AU/ml (13.6%), 30.4 AU/ml (5.4%),
36.9 AU/ml (3.4%), and 52.2 AU/ml (3.9%). The LOQ was estimated as the lowest concen-
tration with a 20% CV. Using a four-parameter logistic (4-PL) curve fit, the LOQ was calcu-
lated at 15.4 AU/ml. As defined in CLSI EP-17, LOD is determined by utilizing both the
measured LOB (0.1 AU/ml) (lower limit of blank) and test replicates of a sample known to
TABLE 1 Summary of the sensitivity, specificity, and cross-reactivity samples of Abbott IgG II quantitative anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG method
No. of samples
SARS-CoV-2 SARS-CoV-2
Group Total IgG positive IgG negative Result (% [95% CI])
SARS-CoV-2-positive samples
All time points 143 131 12 91.6 (85.8–95.6)
.14 days 57 56 1 98.3 (90.6–100.0)
FIG 2 Cohen’s kappa concordance analysis of the assays and overall (all samples included)
agreement of results given as percent. Equivocal results were considered negative.
Specificity and sensitivity. Table 1 also details the sensitivity and specificity of the
method with analysis of SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR-positive samples at all time points and at
.14 days post-confirmatory test. The data show that the method has a sensitivity of
91.6% in all time points and 98.3% at .14 days and a specificity of 99.4%.
The analysis of assay concordance revealed a mixed pattern of agreement, with the
highest between the Abbott quantitative method (IgG II) and the Abbott qualitative
method, with a Cohen’s kappa of 0.965 and agreement of 98.4%, and the poorest
between the DiaSorin and other methods (Cohen’s kappa of 0.930, agreement of
96.7% between the Abbott quantitative and the DiaSorin methods) (see Fig. 2).
New variant samples. The results clearly show that the Abbott IgG II method
detects the original strain of SARS-CoV-2 as well as two new variants of concern, the
VOC 202012/V1 (UK) strain and the VOC 202012/V2 (South Africa) strain. Fig. 3 shows a
time course for a subset of 4 different patients, charting the increase in antibody levels
post-confirmatory RT-PCR.
FIG 3 Representative examples of the quantitative immune response in three different variants of the
SARS-CoV-2 virus, including the “UK” and “South Africa” variants. The days post-PCR do not necessarily
correlate to the day of onset of symptoms or the day of hospitalization.
set to a normalizing value of 1. Thus, the results of the positive samples for each
method were divided by the highest value obtained by that method for any of the pos-
itive 23 samples. So, if the highest positive values were 50 and 23 for two methods, all
positive samples were divided by 50 for the first method and by 23 for the second
method. This provided all values as a ratio of the highest value obtained for any sam-
ple on an individual method. This should demonstrate if the magnitudes of positive
response compare between methods (see Fig. S1). Fig. 1 shows that methods which
use spike proteins as the assay antigen produced similar results. Methods that used
the nucleocapsid antigen were similar. However, there is a lack of agreement between
these two method types (spike Ag versus nucleocapsid Ag).
The analysis of the NIBSC working standard (NIBSC code 20/162) and quality control 1
(NIBSC code 20/B764) samples generated mean values of 14,072 AU/ml and 296.6 AU/ml,
respectively, on the Abbott IgG II method, as means from triplicates. This is significantly
different from the arbitrary “1,000 U” assigned to the working standard. It should be
noted that no volume was detailed in the unit assignment. The dilution of the NIBSC
20/162 working standard proved linear. The slope was 0.9981 (95% CI, 0.9836 to 1.013),
with an r2 of 0.9997. The model test showed no deviation from the linear model, with a P
value of 0.2500. The percent difference from expected is detailed in Table S4; the range
was 4.6% to 9.7% difference to a value of 20 AU/ml on dilution.
The Technopath series proved to be linear when measured by the quantitative
method; this was expected, as the samples represent a dilution series. Although the dilu-
ent was not described, it does not appear to have had an impact on the linearity of the
dilution series. The range of values obtained were 5.6 AU/ml for the negative and 147.5 to
4,098 AU/ml for the positive samples. Figure 4 shows comparison graphs of the values
obtained with the Abbott IgG II versus those with different methods (DiaSorin Liaison XL,
EDI, Abbott IgG [qual]). The other methods are clearly calibrated toward the negative/posi-
tive threshold, and were not linear using this material. Figure 5 shows the dilution of
NIBSC working standard 20/162 using the Abbott diluent.
DISCUSSION
Quantitative SARS-CoV-2 IgG II method evaluation. The focus of many method
evaluations to date has been on the diagnostic accuracy of the assay; does it correctly
FIG 5 Dilution of NIBSC working standard 20/162 using the Abbott diluent. Dash-dot line indicates
the identity line. The darker dotted line represents the 95% likelihood asymmetrical CI of the slope.
response in different patient samples. Those methods which detect antibodies directed
against the spike protein appear to have greater concordance with each other than
those that detect the nucleocapsid. Some of this may be due to the calibration of the
methods, with only the Abbott IgG II quantitative method being linear so far. The
materials currently available as candidate primary reference materials show consider-
able variation across methods, and the preparation and performance of these materials
are poorly described. Without steps to improve the quality of these reference materials,
including a description of the antibody populations within the reference material (i.e.,
predominantly nucleocapsid or spike protein recognition), the scientific community is
likely to encounter similar pitfalls to those that previous attempts to harmonize serol-
ogy methods have experienced.
Conclusions. It is clear to see that there is a long road ahead to achieve harmonization
of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody methods, and urgent action is needed to ensure that manu-
facturers and regulatory bodies work synergistically toward the goal of harmonization.
The Abbott IgG II method performed well in this evaluation and is the only method
tested that shows linearity over a wide concentration range and potential external cali-
bration materials. It is suitable for future studies investigating the clinical response to
natural infection, which are urgently needed.
SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
Supplemental material is available online only.
SUPPLEMENTAL FILE 1, PDF file, 0.2 MB.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Myra Del Rosario and Martyn Hammond for technical advice. We also
acknowledge Abbott Diagnostics (Chicago, IL, USA) for the supply of the reagents
required to undertake this study.
REFERENCES
1. Worldometer. 2021. COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic. Dover, DE, USA. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 6:CD013652. https://doi.org/10.1002/
https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/. Accessed 10 January 14651858.CD013652.
2021. 12. Lisboa Bastos M, Tavaziva G, Abidi SK, Campbell JR, Haraoui L-P, Johnston
20. De Bièvre P. 2012. The 2012 International Vocabulary of Metrology: 23. ISO. 2009. In vitro diagnostic medical devices. Measurement of quantities
“VIM”. Accred Qual Assur 17:231–232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00769 in samples of biological origin. Requirements for certified reference mate-
-012-0885-3. rials and the content of supporting documentation. ISO 15194. ISO, Lon-
21. English E, Lenters-Westra E. 2018. HbA1c method performance: the great don, United Kingdom.
success story of global standardization. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 55:408–419. 24. Dimech W, Panagiotopoulos L, Francis B, Laven N, Marler J, Dickeson D,
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408363.2018.1480591. Panayotou T, Wilson K, Wootten R, Dax EM. 2008. Evaluation of eight anti-
22. Hoelzel W, Miedema K. 1996. Development of a reference system for the rubella virus immunoglobulin g immunoassays that report results in
international standardization of HbA1c/glycohemoglobin determina- international units per milliliter. J Clin Microbiol 46:1955–1960. https://doi
tions. J Int Fed Clin Chem 8:62–64. 6–7. .org/10.1128/JCM.00231-08.