Signature Redacted

Ai
Sustainable Packaging Approaches

for Current Waste Challenges
by
Karen Cheng
B.S. in Industrial Design

Georgia Institute of Technology, 2014
Submitted to the Integrated Design and Management Program

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

AT THE
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
June 2019
2019 Karen Cheng. All rights reserved.
The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and to distribute

publicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole
or in part in any medium now known or hereafter created.
Signature of Author:
Signature redacted
Karen Cheng
Integrated Design and Management Program
May 14, 2019
Certified by:
Steven Eppinger
General Motors LGO Professor of Management
Professor of Management Science and Innovation
Thesis Supervisor
Accepted by: Signature redacted

Matthew S. Kr ssy
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTEI
OF TECHNOLOGY Executive Dire tor
Integrated Design and Management Prog am
JUN 2 7 2019
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2
Sustainable Packaging Approaches
for Current Waste Challenges
by
Karen Cheng
Submitted to the Integrated Design and Management Program

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Engineering and Management
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Abstract
Packaging plays an essential role in protecting a product from damage, attracting

consumers to purchase a product, and facilitating storage and consumption. Yet its appreciation
and value is quickly eroded once the product is purchased and/or consumed and the package
becomes waste. With the passing of China's National Sword policy in 2018, post-consumer
materials recycling markets are threatened and resources are not being recovered due to high
contamination rates. The development of new packaging material has surged in recent years but
has not corresponded with development of the necessary recycling infrastructure. Consumers
want to recycle but are confused about how to most effectively do so. Packaging continues to
consume our finite resources and pollute our terrestrial and marine environments.
This research takes a systems approach to understanding today's emerging waste
challenges and identifies key obstacles that society should collectively solve. High impact
opportunity areas include alignment amongst all key stakeholders, establishing standardized
signage and labels, increasing consumer education, and tackling difficult-to-recycle materials
through scaling up technology, enacting policy, providing materials alternatives with corresponding
infrastructure, or redesigning packaging.
Thesis Supervisor: Steven Eppinger

Title: General Motors LGO Professor of Management
Professor of Management Science and Innovation
3
4
Acknowledgments
I express my sincerest gratitude to:
- Professor Steven Eppinger for his guidance, mentorship, and insights that pushed me to dive
deeper into my passion for sustainable design
- Matt Kressy who gave me the privilege of joining his program
- My IDM cohort who continuously inspire me
- Jack Shen Jr. for his support, patience, and love
- My parents, Mei Chan Cheng and Hiu Yu Cheng Lam, as well as my brother, Kevin
Cheng, for everything. I dedicate this thesis to them.
5
6
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
1.1 Background and Motivation.......................................................................... 9
1 .2 O ve rv iew ................................................................................................. . . 11
2. Context
2.1 History of Packaging & its Role on Branding......................................................12
2.2 Three Categories of Packaging...................................................................... 12
2.3 Three Categories of Waste...........................................................................13
2 .4 The C irc ular E cono m y .................................................................................... 14
2.5 Reduce & Reuse First................................................................................. 16
2.6 Recycle & Compost Second............................................................................ 16
3. Problem Space
3.1 Recycling Contamination in the United States.................................................... 19
3.2 Case Study: Contamination at MIT..................................................................21
3.3 Food and Liquid Contamination......................................................................24
3 .4 P lastics C onfusio n ................................................................................... . . 25
3.5 Bioplastics Confusion................................................................................. 27
3.6 Lack of Commercial Composting Facilities........................................................29
3.7 Consumer Behavior................................................................................... 29
3 .8 G reen D ot S ystem ..................................................................................... . . 30
4. Packaging Innovations
4.1 Innovations in Packaging Products.................................................................. 32
4.2 Innovations in Packaging Systems.................................................................. 36
5. High Impact Opportunity Areas
5.1 Alignment Amongst all Key Stakeholders.......................................................... 43
5.2 Establish Standardized Signage and Labels...................................................... 44
5.3 Increase Consumer Education......................................................................... 47
5.4 Tackle Difficult-to-Recycle Packaging Materials.....................................................48
6. Conclusion
6 .1 T he R o le of D esigners...................................................................................... . 59
6 .2 F u tu re W o rk ........................................................................................................ 60
7 . B ib lio g ra p h y .............................................................................................................. 61
7
8
1. Introduction
1.1 Background and Motivation
"Packaging is the visible excess of contemporary consumption. It is what is left over, surplus,
discarded on the way to the objects that we desire... It is carefully designed, but designed to have
no value, to be disposable, to be waste... it is ephemeral, but it gets in the way; we need it, but it
offends us when it is out of place; we require it but simultaneously are disgusted by it."
(Fisher &Shipton, 2010)
Packaging plays an essential role in protecting a product from damage, attracting
consumers to purchase a product, and facilitating storage and consumption. It is one of the things
that consumers see first and can promote a brand image that differentiates a product from its
competitors in retail. Unfortunately, the appreciation and value of packaging is quickly eroded once
the package is used up and transitions to its role as waste. Packaging and containers are the
largest segment of municipal solid waste by product category (US EPA, 2014).
Every year, at least 8 million tons of plastics pollute the oceans, equivalent to dumping one
garbage truck's worth of content into the ocean every minute; this figure is projected to increase to
four per minute by 2050 if no action is taken (World Economic Forum, Ellen MacArthur Foundation
and McKinsey & Company, 2016). Plastics do not biodegrade and continue to contaminate our
oceans, marine life, and our food supply. In a study of 102 marine turtles, representing all seven
species and sampled from three ocean basins, the presence of microplastics was present in every
single turtle (Duncan et al., 2019). Whales are washing ashore dead with over 60 pounds of waste
found clogging their intestines and stomach (Haag, 2018). Only 9% of discarded plastics are
9
recycled globally while 12% are incinerated and the rest are buried in landfills or polluting our
natural environment (Geyer, Jambeck, & Law, 2017). Plastics' largest application is packaging
which comprises 26% of its total volume (World Economic Forum, Ellen MacArthur Foundation and
McKinsey & Company, 2016).
To make matters worse, recycling contamination is at an all-time high in the United States.
In 1989, many cities introduced single-stream recycling which allowed Americans to throw all of
their recyclables into one bin. This increased the convenience of recycling and decreased recycling
collection costs. However, roughly 1 in 4 items placed in recycling containers are not recyclable,
significantly increasing the cost to process them (Nwaogu, 2018). This is especially problematic
since China, one of the world's largest importers of recyclable waste, declared that it will reject
shipments that are more than 0.5% impure (Albeck-Ripka, 2018a). To put things in perspective,
Recology in San Francisco, which is arguably the most advanced recycling facility in the US, has
the lowest bale contamination rate at a rate of 5% --- but that still ten times China's acceptable
contamination rate (Moffitt, 2018).
Prior to the ban, many countries relied on sending their recyclables to China where
contamination standards were low and pricing was competitive. In the 1990s, China gladly
purchased recyclables from other nations as it was transitioning to becoming the world's leading
manufacturer. Unfortunately, low quality waste accelerated China's growing health and
environmental problems when imported waste started to enter the oceans and added 10-13% to
the country's own domestic waste (Parker & Elliott, 2018). To address these concerns, China
announced its National Sword Policy in 2018 and proclaimed that it will stop buying 24 types of
waste, including recycled plastics and assorted paper. Waste managers are now scrambling to find
new buyers for materials, and entire batches of contaminated bales are being sent to the landfill
instead.
10
The recycling crisis triggered by China's ban can lead to better solutions for managing
packaging waste. The development of new packaging material has surged but is often
disconnected from the development of the corresponding infrastructure to process them. If
supposedly sustainable packaging is not being recovered for its materials when consumers
dispose improperly, its intended full environmental benefits will not be realized. What are the
systems and considerations that need to be in place to fully support innovative packaging design
and the circular economy?
1.2 Overview
The purpose of this thesis is to take a systems approach to understanding today's
emerging waste challenges and then identify key obstacles that society should collectively solve.
To gain a comprehensive understanding of this complex landscape, I consulted research articles,
books, and sustainability leaders at universities, global packaging corporations, and national waste
management facilities.
The focus of this thesis is on post-consumer primary and secondary packaging waste
challenges in the United States mainly, although elements of this thesis can be applied to other
regions as well.
11
2. Context
2.1 History of Packaging & its Role on Branding
Before the late 19th century when industrially manufactured and packaged goods became
readily available, shopkeepers used materials such as brown paper, waxed paper, cloth, and string
to packaged goods (Fisher & Shipton, 2010). As goods were traded, packaging needed to also
protect, transport, and identify the goods. The first merchandise to use printed designs is recorded
in the mid 16th century (Klimchuk & Krasovec, 2006). Brand names appeared along with modern
consumption in the late 18th and early 19th centuries during a time when food was frequently
contaminated with poisonous substances (Coley, 2005). Branding on packaging evolved from its
purpose in identifying the owner of a product to being a sign of quality that consumers can trust
(Fisher & Shipton, 2010).
Packaging establishes product and brand identity. It has specific dimensions to fit onto
standardized retail shelves and transportation containers through distribution networks. It
competes for space and attention at point of sale. Examples of recognizable packaging with strong
brand imagery include the Toblerone chocolate bar and the classic glass Coca-Cola bottle.
2.2 Three Categories of Packaging
All packaging materials can be categorized into three groups: primary, secondary, and
tertiary. Primary packaging is packaging that is in contact with the goods purchased by
consumers. Common materials used for primary packaging include paper or pulp, glass, metals,
and plastics. An example of primary packaging is a medicine bottle that contains and protects the
liquid as well as assists consumers in dispensing out the contents. Secondary packaging includes
larger packaging such as the boxes that are used to carry the primary packaged goods. For this
12
medicine bottle example, this would be the box that protects the bottle, markets the product, and
prevents theft. Tertiary packaging refers to packaging that assists in transporting large quantities of
goods, such as wooden pallets and plastic wrapping. This also includes the corrugated boxes
used to transport the secondary medicine boxes.
Secondary and tertiary packaging materials often have less material variation, making them
easier to collect and sort for recycling or reuse. Primary packaging materials, on the other hand,
are normally mixed, contaminated, or often damaged and pose challenges in recycling or reuse
(Davis &Song, 2006).
Sales (example)
.....
Ln ... 111
Primary I
L Secondary I | Tertiary
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Packaging (The Consumer Goods Forum, 2011)
2.3 Three Categories of Waste
Waste can be grouped into three categories: post-industrial, pre-consumer, and
post-consumer waste. Post-industrial waste is factory waste that was generated during the
manufacturing process such as scraps, overruns, trims, and other processing waste.
Pre-consumer waste is factory waste generated from completed products such as misprinted or
defective products. Post-consumer waste is waste generated after a product is purchased and/or
used. This is the type of waste that most consumers directly handle by disposing in the garbage
can or the recycling bin ("Recycling Terms & Definitions," 2019). The focus of this thesis is on
post-consumer waste.
13
2.4 The Circular Economy
A proposed framework that addresses minimizing waste and the consumption of finite
resources is the circular economy. The circular economy is restorative and regenerative by design
(Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2015). It aims to design out waste and pollution while keeping
product and materials in continuous use. Waste and pollution are consequences of decisions
made at the design stage where most of the environmental impacts are determined (Ellen
MacArthur Foundation, 2017).
The circular economy can be further defined into two flows: the biological flow and the
technical flow. The biological flow is designed to safely re-enter the biosphere (through composting
and anaerobic digestion) and the technical flow is designed to circulate at high quality (through
reusing, repairing, remanufacturing, and recycling) without entering the biosphere. Shifting to a
circular economy could generate a USD 706 billion economic opportunity, a significant proportion
attributed to packaging (World Economic Forum, Ellen MacArthur Foundation and McKinsey
&
Company, 2016).
A linear economy, by contrast, uses natural resources and materials without concern for its
environmental impacts. A linear economy utilizes supply chains that embody the
"take-make-waste" model where consumers discard products permanently and contribute to the
world's rising carbon emissions. This is not to be confused with linear reduction strategies which
include lightweighting and reducing packaging material. An example of a linear reduction strategy is
making plastic water bottles thinner to utilize less plastic. Research indicates that consumers are
more positive toward packaging designs that follow a circular design strategy compared to linear
reduction design strategies (Steenis, van der Lans, van Herpen, &van Trijp, 2018).
14
The key takeaway for sustainable packaging strategies that exhibit a circular economy is to
ensure that their materials are successfully recovered at the end of their useful life to supply inputs
for the biological or industrial flows.
OUTLINE OF A CIRCULAR ECONOMY
Preserve and enhance

natural capital by controlling
Renewables 0 A Finite materials
finite stocks and balancing
renewable resource flows Regenerate Substitute materials Virtualise Restore
ReSOLVE levers: regenerate,
virtualise, exchange Renewables flow management Stock management
Far g/collection'
)arts manufacturer
PRINCIPLE Biochemical
feedstock Product manufacturer
2
Optimise resource yields
Regeneration Recycle
Service provider |os

by circulating products,
components and materials rem ufacture
in use at the highest utility
at all times In both technical
and biological cycles Reus /redistr e
ReSOLVE levers: regenerate,
share, optimise, loop Biogas Cascades Maintal /prol g
e. Collec tion Collection
Extraction of
biochemical
2
feedstock
PRINCIPLE
3
Foster system effectiveness
Minimise systematic
leakage and negative
by revealing and designing externalities
out negative externalities 1. Hunntig and fishig
All ReSOLVE levers 2. Can take both post-harvest and post-convumer wasteas an Input
Source Ellen MacArthur Foundation. SUN. and Mcl~lnsey Canter for
Gusinoss and Enthonmant; Drawing from aungarta Mconougi6
Cradle to Cradle (C2C).
Outline of the Circular Economy

(World Economic Forum, Ellen MacArthur Foundation and McKinsey & Company, 2016)
15
2.5 Reduce & Reuse First
The phrase "reduce, reuse, recycle" is the hierarchy of steps taken to increase
sustainability. Reducing our consumption is the most effective way to decrease waste. A key part
of reducing is refusing to take an item in the first place, such as refusing to take a plastic straw or a
plastic bag. Zink and Geyer propose that scholars and policymakers focus on finding and
implementing ways to reduce the amount of material produced rather than focusing on disposal
diversion targets (2018). The researchers assert that recycling can delay but not prevent existing
end-of-life material from reaching final disposal and that the only way to reduce the amount of
material that is landfilled or incinerated is to reduce the amount that is produced in the first place by
displacing primary production (Zink & Geyer, 2018). Source reduction occurs at the manufacturing
level when companies design packaging that consumes less resources and limits production
pollutants.
Reuse is closely related to reduce and implies using an object for something other than its
original purpose, whether the object is being reused or repurposed. By reusing packaging, it plays
a role in consumers' lives that is more in common with other objects that don't lose utility after a
single use (Fisher & Shipton, 2010). Fisher and Shipton encourage open designs that encourage
reuse beyond designers' intentions rather than imposing a specific reuse. Examples of this kind of
packaging reuse include using a plastic drink bottle as a vase or a beer can as a camping stove.
2.6 Recycle & Compost Second
Recycling
Recycling is the process of recovering material from waste and converting the waste into
reusable material. It is one of the most prevalent recovery pathways for packaging. Recycling is not
only fundamental to our environmental future by reducing raw material extraction and production, it
16
also helps generate jobs and build competitive manufacturing industries. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that recycling and reuse in the United States accounted for
757,000 jobs, $36.6 billion in wages, and $6.7 billion in tax revenues in 2007 (US EPA, 2018b).
94% of the U.S. population has access to recycling programs, 73% of whom have access
to curbside recycling -- and for those who do have curbside service, 90% are not required to sort
their recyclable goods because single-stream collection is offered (Gendell, 2016). Single-stream
recycling takes the task of sorting off of residents and passes it onto a material recovery facility,
also known as a MRF. At the MRF, recyclables are sorted by employees and machinery before
being baled and sold to facilities that break down the materials, process them, and sell them to
manufacturers.
The EPA reported that in 2015, 262 million tons of municipal solid waste was generated in
the United States. Of that waste, 34.7% were recycled and composted, 12.8% was combusted
with energy recovery, and 52.5% was landfilled (US EPA, 2018a). Packaging and containers
comprised 21.4% of total landfilling in 2015 (US EPA, 2017).
Composting
The Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science defines composting as the slow natural decay of
dead organic matter that occurs when microorganisms decompose and break down the matter
into smaller compounds usable by plants (2018). The breakdown product is called humus, a dark
brown and spongy substance that increases the fertility of the soil (Bradshaw-Rouse, 2018).
Decomposition is carried out by microorganisms (mesophilic and thermophilic), including bacteria,
fungi, and actinomycetes that use the organic matter as a food source and generate CO2 and
humus as a result (Kale et al., 2007). Composting relies on the makeup, surface area, volume,
moisture, aeration, and temperature of the compost pile (Kale et al., 2007). Microorganisms use
17
.1
carbon for energy and nitrogen for building cell structures, and a 30:1 carbon-to-nitrogen ratio is
ideal for fast composting (Bradshaw-Rouse, 2018; Kale et al., 2007). The process can take from a
range of six months to two years to complete, depending on the conditions (Bradshaw-Rouse,
2018).
As pointed out by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, compostable packaging is preferred
over biodegradable packaging since the term 'biodegradable' is very broad and has no legal
enforcement whereas the term 'compostable' is clearly defined (2016). For a product to be marked
as 'compostable,' it must meet certification standards and break down in specified time frames.
Unless an item defines the environment and time frame to decompose back into soil, the term
'biodegradable' can be misleading. Biodegradable simply means that a product will break down
into carbon dioxide, water, and biomass within some time period. Compostable items are
biodegradable, but biodegradable items are not always compostable. Compostable items offer the
added benefit of releasing nutrients into the soil when they break down.
xitI
Attention Customers
weT INemWa a&%0 bWI b!M e Qassotuesal m din~ha Owpew4 n
PONM lop cifwtkb rielumaw s w~scompesl m iweewwcmft
pro is A * 1 &v #& m% i Pinwim ~ ~ avgsn 10 a
Text: "Attention Customers. We have been informed by Golden Gate Disposal &Recycling that the present
formulation of Taterware cutlery has not been found to be compostable in the commercial compost program
at Jepson Prairie Organics where our compost is currently being sent. The product is not presently
acceptable in the San Francisco composting program or in its recycling program. So we are asking that you
please consider the Taterware cutlery LANDFILL at this time..." (worldcentric.org)
18
3. Problem Space
3.1 Recycling Contamination in the United States
Sorting requirements vary city to city and state to state. For example, the city of
Cambridge, MA prohibits milk and juice cartons in its recycling bins (City of Cambridge, MA, 2019).
Yet twenty-five minutes away, the city of Lexington, MA considers milk and juice cartons as one of
its top five most wanted recyclables (Lexington, MA, 2018). Non-standardized recycling rules
cause confusion at the bin, increasing contamination rates and plummeting commodity markets as
a result. Casella Waste Systems, Inc., a waste management system servicing the New England
area, fears that if contamination rates continue to rise, "demand for recycled commodities will
dwindle and recycling could become unavailable to most homes and businesses" ("Sustainability
Report I Casella Resource Solutions," 2018). China's policy changes resulted in a 90% drop in
market value for mixed paper and a 63% drop in the value of the traditional recycling stream
("Sustainability Report I Casella Resource Solutions," 2018).
100%
100%
79.3% 81.4%
75% 72.0%
62.1% 61.2%
50%
33.1%
25%
16.9%
0%-
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2013
As a percentage of 2011 levels; through June30th, 2018
Recycling Markets Plummet: This chart depicts trends in Casella's Average Commodity Revenue (ACR) per ton, which is
what they paid for their sorted and processed recycled commodities, less the related processing, residue, and
transportation costs. (Casella 2018 Sustainability Report)
19
Paper, glass, and trash comprise % of Casella's current recycling mix, but there is not
enough demand for mixed paper and glass in the marketplace. Glass is expensive to process, and
some municipalities have begun to exclude glass from recycling because it is not an economically
viable option. Trash does not belong in the recycling bin yet individual loads can have
contamination levels that are as high as 25-50% at Casella ("Sustainability Report I Casella
Resource Solutions," 2018).
In addition to the degradation of recyclable material and the increase in disposal costs,
impacts of contaminants include risks to employee safety, damage to machinery, and facility
shutdowns. Contamination drives an overall decline in the efficiency and efficacy of recycling
systems, and the entire industry is dealing with its threat ("Sustainability Report ICasella Resource
Solutions," 2018). Communities from Douglas County, Oregon to Hancock, Maine have cut back
or halted their recycling programs entirely while others, like Philadelphia, Pennsylvania are
incinerating at least half of their recycling (Katz, 2019).
38%
12%
2%
Y12006 E20iS
Percentages Reflect Outbound MRF Tonnage, updated through June 2018

(Casella Waste Systems)
20
Plastic Bags Jamming Recycling Machinery (Casella Waste Systems)
"Wish-cycling" occurs when aspirational and well-intentioned recyclers throw items into the
recycling bin, hoping everything will get sorted out at the recycling facility. Unfortunately, this
causes contamination. Consequences from aspirational recycling have led to the use of the phase
"when in doubt, throw it out." It's just as important to leave contaminants out of recycling as it is
important to collect recyclables.
3.2 Case Study: Contamination at MIT
Casella Waste System services Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). MIT's Office
of Recycling and Materials Management frequently conducts waste audits to examine the campus'
recycling contamination levels. During the university's audit on April 22, 2019, two custodians
examined a weekend's worth of recycling to check for common contaminants based on what is
accepted at Casella. One custodian would tear open each bag to scan the items while the second
custodian recorded the type of contaminants present, if any. Out of the 200 bags analyzed that
21
afternoon, 188 bags (89.5%) were contaminated with an average of three contaminants present
per bag.
The highest offenders were coffee cups and food waste, found in 40.5% and 40% of the
bags respectively. The next top offenders were liquids and paper towels, both with a rate of
36.5%. Some bags contained perfectly good recyclable plastics and paper that had to be entirely
tossed out due to being drenched in food waste and liquids, a prime example of how
contaminants can ruin a batch of otherwise perfectly acceptable recyclables.
Left: A weekend's worth of recyclables collected around campus.

Right: Audit setup with one custodian examining each bag and another recording the presence of contaminants
22
Examples of bags that were so contaminated with food and liquid waste that they had to be completely
tossed out even though they contained recyclable materials as well.
Audit Sheet used to Track Contaminants
23
Contaminant Rate Contaminant Rate
O Clean 10.5% Gloves 4.5%
0.00% Lab Plastic 7.5%

Binders
Black Bags 4.5% Liquid 36.5%
Black Plastic 18.0% Milk Cartons 3.0%
Brown Bottles 0.00% Padded

Envelopes 4.5%
.Candy/Chip
Wrappers 20.0%
200 Paper Towels 36.5%
Catering Trays 2.5% Pizza Boxes 4.0%
Coffee Cups 40.5% Shredding 4.0%
Catering Trays 2.5% Styrofoam (EPS) 6.5%
Food Residue 40.0% Utensils 21.0%
Contamination Rates from MIT's 4/22/19 Waste Audit

*Rate is the fraction of collected bags containing each contaminant
3.3 Food and Liquid Contamination
Food and liquid residue are common recycling contaminants that are especially concerning
for paper recycling because they seep into otherwise good paper and cardboard when recyclables
are all placed together. During the recycling process, sorted paper products are shredded and
then mixed with water and chemicals to break down the paper fibers to create a pulp slurry. Oil or
grease that is mixed in with the pulp prevents the paper fibers from separating properly during the
pulping process. This ultimately causes paper and cardboard to lose its quality and ability to be
24
recycled (McNatt, 2016). Oil causes splotchy or patchy cardboard and can even create holes in
newly produced recycled cardboard.
3.4 Plastics Confusion
U
I WATER AND SOFT DRINK BOTTLES, SALAD DOMES,
BISCIT TRAYS, SALAD DRESSING AND PEANUT
BUTTER CONTAINERS
PET
W-
MILK BOTTLES, FREEZER BAGS, DIP TUBS, CRINKLY SHOPPING
L 2 BAGS, ICE CREAM CONTAINERS, JUICE BOTTLES, SHAMPOO,
HE
U CHEMICAL AND DETERGENT BOTTLES
3 COSMETIC CONTAINERS, COMMERCIAL CLING WRAP
PVC
- B- Cuuma mCAWn. - WA
LDPE
5
A \ MIC-WAVE DIS-S, ICE CII TUBB, POTATO
CEiP BAW, AND DIP TUES
pp
CD CASES, WAYER STATION CUPS, PLASTIC CUlLERY,

flOTATION 'COWAL GLASAW, VIDE CAS
PA
PS
EPS
V9 FOAMED POLYSTYTES NOT DR CUPS NANERE
TAKE-AWAY CLADISHS POAlED NET TRAYS.
PROTECTIVE PACKAGIS FOR PRAOLE ITES
WAM COOLEN BOTTLES, RMEXIEt PIKS,

IRLMI-NATERIAL PACKAKIS
Recyclability Key
Widely accepted in recycling streams
Often recyclable, but not always
. Almost never recyclable

(but check with local recycling facility)
Plastic Resin Types, theirApplications in Packaging, and their Recydability
(Image adapted from World Economic Forum,
Ellen MacArthur Foundation and McKinsey &Company, 2016)
25
AW 1
Plastic containers and bottles often have a "chasing arrows" triangle with a number ranging
from 1 to 7 inside the triangle. This symbol, however, does not signify that the product is
recyclable. The numbers are Resin Identification Codes that simply identify the type of plastic used
in manufacturing the product, not whether it will be accepted for recycling in a community. This
can be especially confusing since the triangle looks very similar to the well-recognized recycling
symbol, the mobius loop.
"Chasing Arrows" Resin Identification Code Mobius Loop on Recycling Bin

(Sustainable Packaging Coalition) (Getty Images)
The Resin Identification Code (RIC) was originally developed in 1988 to establish a
consistent, uniform coding system that can be applied worldwide (ASTM International, 2013). The
RIC system was first adopted in 2010 as ASTM standard D761 1 /D761 1 M to update and maintain
the RIC system and account for society's changing needs as well as advancements in plastics.
Among the major revisions to ASTM D761 1 is an attempt to avoid recycling confusion by changing
the "chasing arrows" symbol to a solid equilateral triangle (ASTM International, 2013).
Unfortunately, the original symbol is still widely used.
Equilateral Triangle
A2 Resin Identification Number
HDPE Abbreviated Term for Polymeric Material
Updated Resin Identification Codes (ASTM D761 1)
26
3.5 Bioplastics Confusion
The use of bioplastics as a packaging material has been on the rise but is a common
source of confusion. Bioplastics are either bio-based plastics that are produced from biomass and
renewable resources (e.g. corn, sugarcane, cellulose) or plastics that are produced from fossil fuels
and can be degraded by microorganisms (Tokiwa, Calabia, Ugwu, & Aiba, 2009). Bio-based does
not necessarily mean biodegradable, although some bioplastics are both bio-based and
biodegradable, like PLA which has gained traction as a material choice for compostable cups. The
European Bioplastics organization categorizes the most common types of bioplastics below.
Global production capacities of bioplastics 2018

(by material type)
0 Other .% 7.2% PBAT

(bio-based/
non-biodegradable) 4.6% PBS
9.5% 10.3% PLA

0 PE
1.4% PHA
Non ..-- Biodegradable 0 PET 26.6%
biodegradable 18.2% Starch blends 0
* PA 1..1.6% Total.
Conventional 2 P million 1.5% Other 0
0.0% tonnes (biodegradable)
plastics * PP*
0 PEF* 0.0%
e.g. PE, PP, PET
* PTT 9.2%
Bio-based/non-biodegradable Biodegradable
56.8% 43.2%
Fossil-based
Types of Bioplastics and their Production (European Bioplastics, nova-Institute 2018)
As mentioned previously, the term "biodegradability" is ambiguous unless the breakdown
environment and time conditions are specified. For the bioplastics that are certified compostable,
their biodegradation relies on specific environmental conditions such as medium pH, moisture and
oxygen contents, temperature, and structure and composition of the biopolymer or biocomposite
(Emadian, Onay, & Demirel, 2017).
27
To make matters even more confusing, some bioplastics are actually only recyclable such
as bio-PET. And some bioplastics are technically both recyclable and industrially compostable,
such as PLA and PHA, if the right infrastructure is in place. On the other hand, starch-blends
bioplastics are only industrially compostable (World Economic Forum, Ellen MacArthur Foundation
and McKinsey & Company, 2016). If these compostable bioplastics get mistaken as regular plastic
and end up in a recycling stream that does not support bioplastics, they can contaminate entire
batches of good quality recycled plastic and send them to the landfill. Separate systems need to
be in place to discard bioplastics properly.
ORIGIN EXAMPLES OF MATERIALS POTENTIAL CIRCULAR AFTER-USE

M
AND ICAION OPTIONS(F SYSTEMS IN PLACE)'
RENEWABLY
SOURCED: 010-BA.SED
OR GREEMHOUSE
-E,-P-
PEI PET (CHEMICALLY
GAS-ASEDIDENTICAL TO FOSSIL-BASED)
VLV
1 athway sown 4we ttetil (technical) possiblllh Actual racyclAbirtty and campostabity an
(pends t irastructure in place Incineration/energy
ke-s
recovery and landfill pathwvays not show (possible with all plastics). lilone omposting not shown eithier (OR~i~ uptake today)
2 Recyclable' is used here as short-hand for mec lable' The alternative, chemical recycling, is not applied at scale today and has - with today's
technologies - typically significant economic and eniromenallitain
3 Some fossil-based plastics are industrially compostable (e.g. PSAT. BASF EcoFeK). They are not represented on this chart since they are not used at scale
4 Al thermoplastics can theoretically be melted and recycled; though, in practice, only PLA is recycled in sanall volumes
5 Starch-bends cannot be recycled because of the varoty of composItions of the blends
Plastic Sources and Circular After-use Pathways

(World Economic Forum, Ellen MacArthur Foundation and McKinsey & Company, 2016)
28
3.6 Lack of Commercial Composting Facilities
Although there are many compostable food packaging innovations, there are only about
108 industrial or municipal food composting facilities in the United States and are not all verified to
have the infrastructure and willingness to process compostable packaging with post-consumer
food waste (NatureWorks LLC, 2007). The composting process requires oxygen. When
compostable packaging end up in the landfill, it does not 'compost' because most landfills are
anaerobic spaces within the ground.
There are conflicting verdicts on what happens to compostable products that end up in
landfills. One study indicates that compostable bioplastic PLA breaks down anaerobically but
releases methane gas, a greenhouse gas that is 23 times more potent than carbon dioxide (Krause
& Townsend, 2016) while another study concludes that PLA does not break down at all in the
landfill and therefore will not generate a significant amount of methane (Kolstad, Vink, De Wilde,
&
Debeer, 2012). While compostable packaging can be sustainable alternatives, they are only truly
better for the environment if processed correctly.
3.7 Consumer Behavior
The 2015 Nielsen Global Corporate Sustainability Report found that customers are
increasingly willing to pay more for sustainability ("Global Sustainability Report," 2015). The study
polled 30,000 consumers in 60 countries and reported that 66% of consumers indicated that they
are willing to pay more for environmentally responsible brands, an increase from 55% reported
from 2014. However, there tends to be discrepancy between attitude and actual behavior --
surveys indicate that only 1%-5% actually purchase greener products (O'Rourke & Ringer, 2016).
Haws et. al defined green consumption values as the tendency to express the value of
environmental protection through one's purchases and consumption behaviors (2014). Through
29
their research, they demonstrated that green consumption values are correlated with the tendency
to use both environmental and financial resources wisely. This is portrayed through frugality, value
and price consciousness, consumer spending self-control, use innovativeness, and product
retention tendency. Marketers should emphasize a value-conscious focus when positioning
environmentally friendly products to reach consumers who have these values (Haws, Winterich,
&
Naylor, 2014).
Martinho, Pires, Portela, and Fonseca compared two groups of consumers--one that
places importance on sustainable packaging and another that regards such packaging as
unimportant--to identify factors that affect product purchase decisions with respect to sustainable
packaging (2015). Results from an online questionnaire of 215 respondents show statistically
significant differences in level of environmental awareness and in demographic characteristics as
well in the ratings of product and packaging features relating to purchase action. However, price
was not statistically different between the two groups, suggesting that the consumers who place
importance on sustainable packaging need to have the price feature fulfilled just like the consumers
who place little importance on sustainable packaging. Martinho et al. concluded that price of a
product is the main aspect that must be considered to make sustainable packaging influence the
consumers' choice (2015). Further research is needed to understand the determinants of disposal
and recycling behavior.
3.8 Green Dot System
When infrastructure and policy are more discretely defined, behavior change can occur
such as the case in Germany. Germany is the current world leader in recycling with a rate of over
66% (Brassaw, 2017). Using a systems approach, their waste management success is attributed
to two main factors: strong government policy and its citizens embracing recycling. Manufacturers
30
are required to take responsibility for recycling their product packaging after consumers dispose it.
They also pay a fee to acquire a green dot that is placed on the outside of the packaging indicating
that the packaging must be accepted by recyclers. In addition to the Green Dot system, Germany
also requires that its citizens sort their trash and recyclables into 5-6 different colored bins. Over
the years, these policies have increased Germany's recycling rate and built a culture of recycling
among citizens (Brassaw, 2017).
REFUSE
YELLOW REFUSE
GLASS
ALL COLORS BAG
GELBER RESTMULL
GLAS SACK
Different Colored Bins in Germany. There is often a 6th brown bin for composting (Bissell, 2015)
31
4. Packaging Innovations
This section highlights recent packaging innovations and demonstrates how many industries are
considering sustainable packaging.
4.1 Innovations in Packaging Products
Puma's Clever Little Bag
(fuseproject.com)
Fuseproject partnered with PUMA to reduce their packaging footprint by replacing
traditional shoeboxes with a die-cut cardboard structure and a reusable, non-woven polypropylene
polyester bag. The cardboard structure supports secured stacking and requires no additional
printing or assembly. The bag is stitched from heat and protects shoes from dust and dirt during
storage and shipping. To conceive this design, fuseproject documented and mapped PUMA's
entire supply chain to identify opportunities for improvement while ensuring minimal to no changes
to existing infrastructure.
The Clever Little Bag uses less packaging and reduces water, energy, and diesel
consumption from manufacturing alone by more than 60% per year ("Clever Little Bag
-
fuseproject," 2010). The package's paper material is reduced by 65% while the reusable bag's
32
handle conveniently integrates with the cardboard structure to eliminate the need for an additional
plastic bag to carry the product. Puma's Clever Little Bag won 13 design and innovation awards
and serves as a model example of how a design considered both the beginning and the end life
cycles of the packaging. Waste was designed out of the system through reducing the type and
volume of materials used as well as reducing the resources involved in their manufacturing and
transportation. The final two components are recyclable at their end of use.
Ecovative's Mushroom Packaging
IL4.44,
(mushroompackaging.com)
33
Ecovative Design developed Mushroom Packaging that provides an alternative to
expanded polystyrene (EPS) packaging. It is made from mycelium (the 'roots' of mushrooms) and
agricultural byproducts that cannot be used for food or feed. Mycelium acts like a glue and can be
custom molded into different shapes and sizes. This packaging innovation offers the same benefits
as traditional foams but is also 100% home compostable without needing any special equipment
("Mushroom Packaging," 2019).
Ecovative Design works with regional farmers to source their non-food agricultural waste.
This production process involves 'growth trays' made out of PET plastic that are created by
thermoforming over a solid form to create the desired molded shape. The growth trays are then
filled with a mixture of agricultural feedstock, flour, and mycelium that are then sealed to grow for 9
days total. During this time, the mycelium digests the agricultural by-product without needing any
light or water. After 4 days, parts of the mold are taken out and left to grow for another 2 days to
establish a layer of overgrowth. The final stage involves drying out the parts to prevent future
growth and prevent the development of any spores or allergens ("Mushroom Packaging," 2019).
The Mushroom Packaging received the Cradle to Cradle Gold certification for its
achievements in material health, material reutilization, renewable energy and carbon management,
water stewardship, and social fairness ("Mushroom Material - Cradle to Cradle Certified," 2018).
The packaging is an example of 'up-cycling' for turning waste materials from one process into
valuable raw materials in another process. Ecovative Design used life cycle analysis to optimize
their manufacturing systems for lower energy consumption and C02 emissions (Sustainability
Guide, 2018). The packaging has been used to protect Dell's hard drives, Keap's candles, and
Merck Forest's maple syrup. It is an innovative solution that is just as lightweight, strong, and
durable as its less sustainable, petroleum-based EPS alternative.
34
Replenish
TL~ R- t UCII,
""hA
r'P1 /\
MESS
'
rep~ni
Jr
(myreplenish.com)
Replenish designed a universal 'packaging platform' for liquid concentrates, a reusable
bottle that attaches to a refillable concentrate pod. A typical bottle of cleaner is 90% water and less
than 10% of actual active ingredients (Replenish, 2019). This creates an inefficiency in how the
product is sold, increasing unnecessary shipping costs and packaging waste.
To use Replenish's modular bottle design, a consumer turns the bottle over and squeezes
the lower refill pod attachment into a measuring cup that is inside the reusable bottle. The
consumer then returns the bottle upright again and fills the rest of the bottle with water. One refill
pod produces the equivalent of 6 bottles of cleaner product. The result of this design is a reduction
in energy, plastic waste, and carbon dioxide by 80-90% compared to single-use bottles that
35
transport large volumes of water (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017a). All components are
recyclable, and the refill system can be adapted to be used in most packaged liquid goods such as
hand soap and beverages. Replenish is now collaborating with Amazon to launch cleaning
products that dramatically reduce shipping costs. Replenish is an example of an innovative
packaging that encourages environmental responsibility through reuse.
4.2 Innovations in Packaging Systems
How2Recycle labels
Indi rd Tellscos how to pepa

thepakacomponet Compefo reyln
IRinme Tray I
ldentiftft ndWIteraye of
pacuIrscomvonent 0
W Cho
HOW2RECYCLE WEBSITE
Provides informationonthe
lAflel& additional recyclio
PACKAGING COIVPONENT
The speeific pan of the paca
reerence bythe latll PAPER PLASTIC
0
al cMamunes
Breakdown of the How2Recycle Label (climatecolab.org)
How2Recycle® began as a project from the Sustainable Packaging Coalition with the
objective to provide "clear, well-understood, and nationally harmonized recycling labels" that
enable consumers not only to recycle more but also more accurately ("About H2R
-
How2Recycle," 2019). The labels advise on how to prepare each component of a package for
recycling, inform consumers if they need to check locally to see if their local program accepts the
material, and include an URL where consumers can find more information online ("How2Recycle,"
2018). The labels also identify components that should not recycled to reduce contamination in the
36
recycling stream. The labeling system is compliant with the Federal Trade Commission Green
Guides, guides that ensure avoidance of misleading environmental claims.
W~j recce I
al unMu0-1MA
Widely Recycled Sometimes Recycled Not Yet Recycled Store Drop-off
At least 60% of Arnericans Between 60% olid 20% of Either lee than 20% of Anyone who live reow a
can recycle tisl package at Arnericarna can recycle this Ameicans can recycle this Store that accepts plastk
cextade recycling or package at cuttbalde recy. package. or. ht couid caue bags and wraps for rucyclin9
drop-off recycling. cding or drop-ff recycliog. a problem in a recyclng can take tis packaging to
Ch*ck yor local prograrn. facility. that store anid recycle i
there.
Left: Different Recycling Scenarios (climatecolab.org) Right: Label on a Cereal Box (How2Recycle)
54% of consumers are changing their recycling behavior as a direct result of How2Recycle
and 82% report learning more about recycling in a 2018 consumer survey report (Edington, 2018).
The How2Recycle team also works with its member companies to directly provide
recommendations for packaging design improvements. How2Recycle motivates companies to
meet their corporate recyclability goals.
The How2Recycle program currently works with over 75 corporate members, cumulatively
representing over 500 brands. The program was awarded a DuPont Packaging Silver Award in
2017 and was awarded Finalist at MIT Climate CoLab's competition "Shifting Attitudes and
Behaviors Around Climate Change" in 2018 ("About H2R - How2Recycle," 2019; "How2Recycle,"
2018). By taking the guesswork out of recycling and providing transparency, How2Recycle can
increase the circulation of high quality recycled material.
37
Amazon's Frustration-Free Packaging Program
Amazon is the world's largest online retailer. To combat all the packaging waste that goes
hand-in-hand with e-commerce, Amazon works directly with manufacturers to offer customers
frustration-free packaging. Products under this program use recyclable packaging that is designed
to be easier to open and to ship to customers without the need for an additional outer shipping
box. Since the program's launch in November 2008, Amazon has eliminated 458,000 tons of
packaging material and avoided 1 billion shipping boxes (Karlinsky, 2019).
This program complements the different role that packaging plays for e-commerce
compared to traditional brick-and-mortar stores. Brands no longer have the pressure of side-by-
side comparisons like they have when their products are displayed on shelves. This provides the
opportunity to design packaging with sustainability and optimization at the forefront in order to
reduce depletion of resources and to create a better customer experience.
Frustration-Free Packaging Traditional Packaging
Easy to Open Difficult to Open

Un awno inre 4': sec Unwnacong bie 11m
4 100% Recyclable & Not Fully Recyclable

&
Less Packaging Waste More Packaging Waste

Protective Packaging Standard Packagi
ar nestred desr Not designed for e-commert
Packaginr
)
Frustration-Free Packaging for a Fisher-Price toy (cpcstrategy)
38
Amazon's Frustration Free Packaging program encourages the development of new
packaging innovations. For example, Amazon collaborated with Procter and Gamble (P&G) to
redesign their iconic orange Tide detergent bottles. The teams introduced the Tide Eco-Box, a box
that serves as its own shipping container and contains a detergent formula that uses 30% less
water. Inside the box is a sealed bag of the concentrated liquid detergent. A perforated cardboard
flap is peeled off to reveal the dosing cup and twist tap. The box includes a pull-out stand to raise
the height of the box for easier dispensing.
The Tide Eco-Box uses 60% less plastic and is 4 pounds lighter than the traditional bottle
version (Karlinsky, 2019).The box eliminated the need for secondary packaging waste that is used
to ship a large plastic bottle. Because the size and shelf impression of an e-commerce product is
not relevant, the engineers were able to re-mix the detergent formula to make it more concentrated
and thus reduce its weight. The boxed design also allows for more product to fit on delivery trucks,
putting fewer trucks on the road. The Tide Eco-box represents working with the challenges that
e-commerce presents but still reducing the overall impact on the environment.
T(d -
Tide Eco-box (Jordan Stead)
39
Unpackaged
(beunpackaged. com)
Unpackaged's mission is "to reduce packaging waste by developing systems that enable
businesses and individuals to reuse and refill; and campaign for policy change" ("Unpackaged
-
About Us," 2018). Customers who enter an Unpackaged store can fill their reusable containers
with organic wholefoods and eco-cleaners, weigh their containers, and then pay. Unpackaged
offers products such as cereals grains, dried fruit, nuts, seeds, and eco-friendly household
cleaners.
Customers can bring their own containers such as Tupperware, ice cream tubs, or glass
jars, but Unpackaged also sells a range of different sized reusable jars if customers forget their
containers. The stores have a self-service weighing scale that tare, or remove, the weight of any
container. They provide labels for jars that peel off and on easily so that customers can still clean
their containers and not have to weigh the jars again during their future visits. Unpackaged
encourages reduction in food waste by allowing customers to take exactly what they need.
40
Loop
VS VS
HAAGEN-DAZS ICE CREAM CREST MOUTHWASH
PANTENE SHAMPOO AND CONDITIONER QUAKER CRUESLI CHOCOLATE
Traditional Packaging vs. Loop's Packaging (CNN & Loop)
Loop is a pilot zero-waste delivery system and circular shopping platform that uses
durable, reusable packaging in place of single-use, disposable packaging. The key idea behind
Loop is to have consumers borrow their packaging, instead of owning it and likely discarding it.
The platform is set to launch in May 2019.
Loop offers consumers an alternative to recycling. Everyday essentials such as mouthwash
and deodorant will be delivered in a tote that stores the emptied containers. The tote eliminates
single use shipping materials such as cardboard boxes and ice packs. When ready, consumers
can schedule a free pick-up from their homes. Loop will automatically replenish the products that
were sent back thereby creating a "subscription model that manages itself." Each emptied
packaging is cleaned and sanitized for reuse, eliminating the need for consumers having to wash
41
their containers as they would for traditional recyclables. Loop packages are made out of materials
like stainless steel, aluminum, and engineered plastic ("Loop," 2019).
Some of the world's largest consumer goods companies, such as Procter & Gamble,
Unilever, Nestle, and PepsiCo, are partnering with Loop to hopefully limit future waste. Partners are
experimenting first in New York and Paris with plans to expand to other cities in late 2019 and
2020. Loop challenges manufacturers to retain ownership of their packaging by collecting and
reusing it. Under this system, the company can count their packaging as longer-term assets on
their balance sheets and depreciate them over time. Eight of the ten companies mentioned in the
Greenpeace report of worst plastic polluters (Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives, 2019) are
Loop partners. Partner companies have to pay low six figures to participate in Loop and are asked
to design packages that can survive at least 100 reuses. The betacycle pilot will confirm if at least
10 reuses of one package will be better for the environment compared to the single-use alternative.
Loop conducted life cycle analyses to estimate the environmental impact of different scenarios
(Wiener-Bronner, 2019).
Prices for one of Loop's 300 products are comparable to what they would be at a nearby
store except that customers also put down a fully refundable deposit for each package in addition
to the regular cost. Buying five to seven items qualifies for free shipping, but Loop is also hoping to
expand to store shelves. With already many national brands backing Loop and the official launch
coming soon, the true test will be getting buy-in from consumers and having them alter their
regular consumption behavior. After the initial trial period, Loop will be analyzing its data and
adjusting its process for greater efficiency and effectiveness as well as measuring the true
environmental impact of its system.
42
5. High Impact Opportunity Areas
This section identifies key obstacles that society should collectively solve to tackle today's
emerging waste challenges.
5.1 Alignment amongst all key stakeholders to adopt universal packaging design guidelines along
with standardized collection requirements and sorting capabilities
Manufacturers, consumer goods companies, and designers need to work with
policymakers and MRFs to set standardized packaging guidelines that ensure a circular economy
of high quality material. Policymakers can define regulations that stimulate innovation and drive up
the market for recycled material. They can enact Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) policies
that incentivize producers to promote packaging designs that uphold materials management goals.
Companies and manufacturers can influence the type of products and materials they put to
market. Cities can set up infrastructure that support the recovery of materials. And designers can
work directly with the MRFs and processing facilities to guarantee that their innovations are
properly handled during its end of use.
Collection requirements and sorting capability currently vary from city to city. Regional
standardized machinery and infrastructure will ensure consistency and eliminate confusion at the
recycling bin. Currently, what a local program accepts depends on a number of factors including
its sorting technology and if there is an end buyer for specific materials. The success of a circular
economy is dependent on creating an end market for recycled materials that continuously feed
back into the creation of new packaging.
Standards can motivate and facilitate innovation by establishing a common framework for
which to approach challenges. New innovations can achieve a greater reach through shared goals
43
and best practices. As the value for after-use materials increases, there will be an economic
incentive to build up recycling and composting infrastructure to collect and recover higher quality
materials. Demand will provide motivation for MRFs and municipalities to work together. Setting up
universal global collection infrastructure can be difficult, especially in developing countries where
informal, decentralized waste management systems are in place, but driving up the value for
recycled materials will increase the likelihood that they stay in the collection system.
The onus of recycling and composting can't solely rest on consumers and MRFs.
Designers need to prioritize launching material and packaging designs that support collection and
sorting infrastructure. Any new materials that are introduced must to be easily recognizable by
consumers and sorting facilities. Both manufacturers and designers have to take up responsibility
for the packaging that they're putting into the market. When all the stakeholders are aligned to
work together to increase the end markets for recycled content, packaging is more likely to be
collected and recovered rather than pollute our land and oceans. While this transition to
standardization takes place, the presence of clear signage and consumer education is even more
critical.
5.2 Establish Standardized Signage and Labels
Just as we have standardized signage for highways, schools, and sidewalk crossings, we
should have standardized signage for recycling and composting. Uniform signage ensures
consistent action from the people who encounter them by taking the guesswork out of recycling
and composting correctly. The current process relies on individual businesses, municipalities,
schools, airports, etc. to take it upon themselves to label their bins which has resulted in tons of
variations in signage. If even recycling enthusiasts are confused about what goes into the bins,
recycling and composting will not live up to their entire potential.
44
Disregarded Bin Signage (Recup)
Recycle Across America (RAA) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to creating "the world's
first and only society-wide standardized labeling system for recycling bins to make it easier for
people to begin to recycle right, wherever they might be" (Recycle Across America, 2019b). The
organization carefully selected color schemes and wording based on common public
understanding and future trends in recycling. For example, when deciding on the label for mixing
recyclables such as glass, plastic, aluminum, and paper in one bin, RAA chose the term "Mixed
Recycling" as opposed to Commingled, Single Stream, and Single Sort. This decision was based
on what was easily understood by the general public as well as the number of times the term has
been referenced online (8 million references for the term 'mixed recycling' compared to the 53,000
references for the term 'commingled') (Recycle Across America, 2019a).
The standardized labels are copyright protected to prevent people from modifying the
labels and undermining their effectiveness but are available for sale on the RAA website. Nearly 9
million standardized labels are in use, and RAA reports increased recycling levels and lower
45
contamination in bins that use their labels. For example, once Orlando Public K-1 2 schools began
using the labels, the school districts recycling levels increased 90% from previous years, saving
$370,000 in trash hauling fees (Porter, 2018).
Because there are still many variations of sorting requirements across the country, RAA
currently offers 28 different sets of labels. For example, RAA presents different sets of labels for
communities where glass and paper have to be collected separately from cans and plastics
compared to communities where mixed recycling is allowed. It also provides separate composting
labels for communities that accept compostable products versus those that only allow food waste.
Standardized labels would be even more effective if standardized sorting requirements were in
place, as mentioned in the previous section.
As a society, we should work towards universal recycling and composting requirements
and signage. Having the same bins and sorting rules at home, at work, and in public spaces could
lead to less confusion and contamination at the bin. All the key stakeholders should coordinate at
the regional level to establish universal guidelines for both packaging design and after-use
processes to guarantee that high quality materials stay in the circular economy and closed loop.
4'r
AI~I
ExmpeofStnarizdLaelOtin(Rclross America)
46
5.3 Increase Consumer Education
Consumer education is critical. Consumers are in the unique position of influencing both
the demand and supply when they choose to buy recycled content and then recycle or compost
properly. The recycling and composting journey begins with the consumer. By increasing
consumer education, we can convert people who don't recycle as well as help those who get
confused to sort properly. The previous steps of standardizing requirements and signage both aid
in increasing consumer education.
To tackle contamination and increase recycling education, the cities of Atlanta, Denver, and
Chicago collaborated with The Recycling Partnership to launch a "Feet on the Street" public
service and educational campaign on July 24, 2017 with the goal of increasing the quantity and
quality of recyclables ("A Push to Recycle Correctly Pays Off in Atlanta, Denver and Chicago,"
2019). In addition to residents receiving direct mailings about what belongs and doesn't belongs in
their recycling carts, city employees walked each of the targeted recycling routes to "tip and tag."
Contaminated carts received an "oops" tag that highlighted the types of contaminants present in
their carts, and the cart's recyclables were not collected until corrected. Results of the pilot
revealed strong improvements in each city -- 57% contamination reduction in Atlanta, 30%
reduction in Chicago, and 25% reduction in Denver ("A Push to Recycle Correctly Pays Off in
Atlanta, Denver and Chicago," 2019). The pilot programs educated consumers and encouraged
recycling behaviors that produced evident results.
47
RECYCLE MORE OF THESE:
CANS GLASS
Aluminum and Steel Bottles and Jars
empty and rinse empty and rinse
PLEASE LEAVE THESE ITEMS OUTI
PAPER
Mail, Boxes, Cardboard, Food and Cartons
flatten
00
Do Not Bag Recyclables No Plastic Bags
(no garbage) (return to retail)
No Food or Liould No Electronics

(empty all containers) (drop-off only)
PLASTICS
Botes end Containers
empty and replace cap
No Talngiers. No Tanks. Wood.
Cords. Hoses or Plasic Furniture
@00
Chains or Metal
CORRECT THIS AND WE

WILL COLLECT NEXT TIME.
wA 31aand concerns. Call

relgate d questions
311 or go online at
FOR MORE INFO

wWW.atlantagagOv/mcycI1ng www.atlantaga.gov/recyc1lng
Oops Tags (atlantaga.gov/recycling)
5.4 Tackle Difficult-to-Recycle Packaging Materials that Interfere with Sorting and Collection
It's necessary to assess the full life cycle of a package to accurately understand the
sustainability pros and cons of the packaging. This includes taking into account the environmental
and social impacts over its entire life cycle phase: analyzing how much energy is needed to extract
raw resources, comparing greenhouse gas impacts from its manufacturing, understanding
48
transportation effects, and what happens at the package's end-of-use (disposal, recycling, or other
recovery). In the following subsections, I present opportunity areas where we can improve specific
packaging products through scaling up technology, enacting policy, providing materials
alternatives with corresponding infrastructure, or redesigning the packaging . There are trade-offs
with every decision, and a deep analysis should be conducted to determine the most effective
course of action.
Multilayer Flexible Packaging - Opportunity to Scale up Technology
PEStructrall Color without Dye r Pigmernt
Utuuare Laye
PE-RernforradP
lLmryLye
HE4hon Crseho PE
(henkel-diagrams. com)
Multilayer flexible packaging, also sometimes called 'composite packaging,' is widely used
for the preservation and distribution of pharmaceuticals, food, beverages, and other consumer
products. This type of packaging is popular because of its light weight and protective
characteristics that keep out light, air, and moisture. Multilayer flexible packaging reduces shipping
costs, takes up minimum shelf space, and is graphics friendly. This packaging typical includes
49
multiple layers such as a print layer for graphics, a structural layer to prevent tearing, adhesive
layers to combine polymers, a barrier layer to prevent oxygen and moisture from entering, and seal
layer to close the packaging. Its complex structure makes it very difficult to recycle. Currently, there
has not been a suitable alternative for multilayered packaging.
However, rather than simply substituting this packaging, we can invest in the infrastructure
needed to recycle it. Researchers from Lithuania and Egypt have developed a process that uses
an ultrasonic treatment and a switchable hydrophilicity solvent (a solvent that switches from
hydrophobic to hydrophilic) to separate the layers (Mumladze et al., 2018). The researchers were
able to successfully separate layers from common multi-layer packages such as chips, chocolate
bars, ice cream, and ground coffee packaging with a recycling success rate of 99%. Similarly,
DSM Engineering Plastics and German recycling company APK have also invested in a technology
they coined 'newcycling' that is capable of recovering "high-quality re-granulates with properties
close to virgin plastics," from complex mixtures and multi-layer composites ("DSM, APK to work on
recycling multilayer food packaging films," 2018). The technology is there, but we need to scale it.
Coffee Cups / Disposable Paper Cups - Opportunity to Scale up Infrastructure
An estimated 50 billion paper coffee cups are thrown away every year in the United States
alone ("Single Use Coffee Cup Reduction," 2018). These cups are designed for one-time use, and
most facilities do not accept them for recycling. This is because disposable paper cups contain a
polyethylene lining, a lining that keeps drinks warm and prevents leakage but is also difficult to
separate in the recycling stream. The problem is not that these cups can't physically be recycled.
The main issue is that facilities often don't have the means to properly recycle them.
In 2018, Starbucks sent 25 million excess paper cups to the paper mill Sustana in
Wisconsin to prove that paper coffee cups can be recycled cost-effectively (Peters, 2018). At the
50
mill, the cups were mixed with water and ground into a pulp with a seven-foot-tall corkscrew that
separated the plastic linings. The fibers were screened and washed to complete the separation
process. The sheets were then sent to Westrock, a packaging company, to be made into
paperboard. During the final stage, the paperboards were then sent to a third company, Seda, to
shape them into cups and print Starbucks logos on them.
Used or not, it is actually not more expensive to recycle paper cups than it is to recycle
other paper (Peters, 2018). The biggest challenge is aggregating enough coffee cups to make the
process efficient because equipment does have to modified to process these cups specifically.
Only a handful of cities, including San Francisco, Seattle, New York City, Washington D.C., and
Denver recycle paper cups. Most other facilities that do not have the same capabilities advise
against introducing paper cups into recycling streams where they can end up contaminating other
recyclable items and result in even more material ending up in the landfill.
Starbucks, McDonalds, and other Closed Loop partners launched the NextGen Cup
challenge to encourage sustainable cup solutions that answer the question "How might we design
the next generation fiber cup to be recoverable on a global scale, while maintaining the
performance standards we know and trust?" ("Announcing the NextGen Cup Challenge Winners,"
2019). The winners presented solutions for new cup liners, new materials, and reusable cup
service models. Many of the winners presented cups that are recyclable and/or compostable.
However, the success of these solutions still depend on having the correct infrastructure and
consumer education in place to implement and scale these solutions.
In fact, McDonalds has already launched compostable cups at some of its stores. One
store in Cambridge, MA provides compostable cups with fine print stating "This cup is
compostable in commercial facilities. Such facilities may not exist in your area. This cup is not
designed for use in home compost piles." This compostable cup design does not reach its full
51
environmental potential especially since this store does not provide a separate compost bin and
that most facilities in the Massachusetts area do not accept compostable foodware products.
Again, this circles back to the same problem of the lack of corresponding infrastructure to support
new sustainable designs.
Compostable Cups Provided at a McDonalds in Cambridge, MA
There is debate as to whether it is better to recycle or to compost paper cups. There are
life cycle analyses comparing disposable cups using climate change with global warming potential
(GWP) as its impact category indicator. Franklin Associates rated the GWP of paperboard cups
with PLA lining (compostable) above the ones with polyethylene lining (recyclable), meaning that
52
the PLA lining contributes less to global warming impact (Franklin Associates, 2011; van der Harst
& Potting, 2013) . However, the researchers made a decision to base their analysis only on landfill
and incineration as disposal methods because recycling and composting of these cups do not
occur often (Franklin Associates, 2006). Van der Harst and Potting compared ten peer-reviewed life
cycle analyses of disposable cups, including the research conducted by Franklin Associates, and
concluded that none of the cup materials rank consistently as more environmentally friendly than
the others (2013).
While composting eliminates the resources needed to break down the paper and
manufacture it back into fresh paper, paper is removed the system from ever being used again.
Recycling recovers paper and offsets depletion of virgin trees needed for production. Both
recycling and composting have a cost, an impact, and a trade-off, thus deeper analysis would
need to be conducted to determine the best option for disposable paper cups. Once that best
option is determined, increased and standardized infrastructure capabilities and consumer
education will help ensure its success.
Food containers - Opportunity to Explore Material Choices
Food containers come in many forms, many of which are difficult to recycle. Takeout
boxes, for example, often contain a waxed coating that renders the containers not recyclable.
Styrofoam/EPS, black food trays, and greasy paper takeout boxes should be thrown in the trash.
Plastic clamshell packaging and paper bags can be recycled as long as they do not contain any
food or liquid traces.
Because food waste contamination is such a huge issue for single stream recycling, the
containers need to be fairly clean or gently rinsed before getting tossed into the recycling bin.
Ensuring clean containers in public spaces can be difficult because it would require that consumers
53
wipe or wash their containers before disposing. For packaging that is highly disposable with high
risk of introducing food contamination into the recycling stream, industrially compostable
packaging should be adopted along with the corresponding composting infrastructure and
consumer education. Compostable packaging that already contains food contents can help return
nutrients back to the soil as compost as opposed to being a non-recyclable waste that fill up our
landfills. Restaurants and food businesses should opt for reusable plates and cutlery whenever
possible for dine-in services.
Plastic Utensils & Straws - Opportunity to Dive Deeper
Plastic utensils have varying rates of acceptance at MRFs. Like paper cups, they are
technically recyclable, but most facilities do not accept them. The majority of utensils are made out
of polystyrene (#6 plastic), a plastic commonly used in its expanded form as foam (commercially
known as Styrofoam). Some cities are so concerned that consumers will put expanded polystyrene
foam (EPS) in their bins that they rather not accept the #6 plastic at all.
Utensils can also be made out of PET (#1 plastic) or polypropylene (#5 plastic). These
plastics may have larger recycling markets, but there is no way for consumers to identify the plastic
resins without referring to the utensils' original secondary packaging. Individual utensils are not
usually marked. Unfortunately, even if a recycling program does accept all plastics, the shape of
plastic forks and knives tend to jam machinery in the MRF and is often considered a contaminant
in the recycling steam (Granger, 2018).
Straws are similarly difficult to recycle. Like plastic utensils, they are used for a very short
period of time and then tossed away. Straws are made out of polypropylene (#5 plastic), but many
recycling programs do not accept straws due to their small size and light weight. Straws tend to fall
through the cracks of conveyor belts or jam machinery at recycling facilities. An estimated 500
54
million straws are used in the United States every day (Bailey, 2016). Straws received a bad
reputation after a viral video of scientists pulling one out from a sea turtle's nose brought attention
to straws' pervasiveness in our environment (Lee, 2018).
On July 1, 2018, Seattle became the first major US city to ban single-use plastic straws
and utensils in the food service industry (Wu, 2018). Many other cities have started to follow suit.
Starbucks also announced that it will phase out plastic straws by 2020 and have started by
redesigning its lids to make it easier for customers to drink cold beverages without a straw
(Warnick, 2019). Critics, however, argue that eliminating straws completely is neglectful to those
with disabilities who may need straws.
Whether we tackle single-use plastics through bans, material exploration, or inventing
processing technologies that can perhaps aggregate smaller plastics together during sorting, our
choices should bring awareness to the environmental consequences of using single-use plastics.
Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) - Opportunity to Enact Policy
Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) is often used for disposable food packaging such as take out
containers and hot beverage cups as well as for shipment protection such as 'packaging peanuts'
and cushioning foam. While technically recyclable, very few areas around the world collect EPS for
recycling due to its low density and bulky nature that renders it costly to collect and transport. EPS
is also often contaminated since a major application of the material is food-related.
More than 70 cities in the United States have enforced bans or have set dates for bans on
EPS packaging, including San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington D.C. ("Polystyrene Ordinances,"
2017; World Economic Forum, Ellen MacArthur Foundation and McKinsey & Company, 2016).
These bans led to an increase in the usage of material alternatives such as paper and cardboard
for take-out food containers, Ecovative's Mushroom Packaging in place of EPS foam, and
55
ExpandOs' paper pyramids in place of packing peanuts. This is an example of how policy
enactment led to the gradual replacement of a difficult-to-recycle material and inspired subsequent
packaging innovation.
It's Time to Think about the Box - Opportunity to Redesign
ABI Research forecasts e-commerce share of total retail sales will reach 25% by 2025 (ABI
Research, 2017). However, the convenience of online shopping and fast shipping is not without its
consequences. Corrugated cardboard use jumped 8%, according to the American Forest & Paper
Association. Prices for raw materials used to make boxes, known as old corrugated containers
(OCC), have surged at $149 a ton in 2017 compared to $85 a ton the year before (Feiner, 2017).
This price increase can be attributed to the supply of the material dropping while the demand is
going up (Feiner, 2017). One way to relieve the pressure on rising prices is to further increase the
recycling rate of corrugated boxes.
Fortunately, corrugated boxes are recycled more than any other packaging material with
92% of the boxes recycled in 2015 (US EPA, 2017). Unfortunately, this rate decreased to 88.8% in
2017 even though domestic consumption increased 3.5% compared to the previous year (Weise,
2018). Recycling cardboard is beneficial because it requires only 75% of the energy used to make
new cardboard and lessens emission of sulfur dioxide produced when compared to making pulp
from trees (Earth911, 2019). Recycling 1 ton of cardboard also eliminates 9 cubic yards of landfill
space (Earth911, 2019).
The recycling best practice for cardboard is to flatten the boxes to optimize the space in
the recycling bins and trucks which allows more room for recycling and promotes ease of handling
and transportation by waste management. Breaking down the box helps keeps the cardboard dry
and free from contamination, also preventing other materials from being trapped in it as the box
56
travels through the sorting process. Shrink or bubble wrap that is left inside the boxes can jam the
recycling machines. Additional packaging such as the ice packs that come with meal kits pose
further challenges for MRFs.
It's time for designers to start thinking about the box. The box should be
redesigned to reduce the pain point of having to flatten it down for easier storage
or disposal. The current traditional design requires consumers to slice through
packing tape to free up the four flaps on the top and bottom of the box in order
to collapse the box. These additional steps often lead to consumers just piling
up their boxes on doorsteps and curbs. The box needs to be re-engineered to
collapse easily after use without compromising its structural integrity and without
requiring too much effort on the part of consumers.
Steps to Flatten a Box (RoadRunner Smarter Recycling)
Standard Dielines for an E-commerce box (The Consumer Goods Forum)
57
A box that easily folds into a smaller footprint ensures effective recycling and can
encourage reuse by making the box easy to store to be used later. Designers can perhaps also
explore how tabs can be used to secure the structure and eliminate the need for tape. Maybe
shipping labels can be designed in such a way so that they separate automatically when
consumers open their boxes. The ideal corrugated box can flatten easily and provides protection
with less packaging while staying robust and cost-effective.
58
6. Conclusion
6.1 The Role of Designers
The concept of sustainable development was first defined by The World Commission on
Environment and Development in 1987 and is one that is often referenced: Sustainable
development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs.
Designers have the obligation to be responsible for their designs and the impact of their
work. As policy, infrastructure, and materials evolve, designers must quickly adapt and be
proactive in developing packaging that not only can be recovered for reuse in new products but
also limits environmental footprint. The role of a designer is to consider the entire life cycle of the
packaging while still in the design stage. When implementing new packaging designs, designers
should ask themselves the following questions:
1) How can we design waste out of the system? How can we choose the best materials,
reduce the volume of materials used, reduce resources consumed during manufacturing
and transportation, and ensure that our designs are properly handled at their end of use?
a) Is our packaging designed to work with the current recovery infrastructure? Will the
package easily be collected and transported? Will a MRF or composting facility be
able to sort it properly? Can we make packaging cost-effective to recover?
b) Do consumers understand how to dispose the packaging? How can we reduce
contamination risk in our recycling or composting streams? How can we prevent
packaging from polluting our terrestrial and marine environments? Is it easy and
clear how to responsibly dispose the packaging?
59
c) How can we make recycled content look beautiful and aesthetic? How can we
drive up the demand for recycled material, and support the circular economy? How
can we ensure that sustainable design becomes the norm, rather than a transient
fad?
2) What are the trade-offs of our decisions? How can we adopt a systems design approach
to fully understand the entire impact of our design choices compared to their alternatives?
3) How can we evolve the role of packaging? Must packaging be instantly discarded once the
product is opened? What if we can give our packaging a second life? What other purposes
can the packaging fulfill?
6.2 Future Work
The context of this thesis is primarily on waste challenges from the United States. For future
work, I recommend analyzing how varying global infrastructure and policy can influence the global
standardization of packaging and labeling guidelines as well as sorting and collection requirements.
While consumer behavior and psychology was lightly covered in this thesis, I also recommend
conducting pilots and experiments to understand determinants of disposal behavior.
My hope is that my thesis provides a comprehensive scope of the complex waste
landscape so that it can be less daunting to understand and that future work can build upon this
thesis to make the landscape less confusing for all.
60
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Ai

Sustainable Packaging Approaches

B.S. in Industrial Design

Submitted to the Integrated Design and Management Program

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

2019 Karen Cheng. All rights reserved.

The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and to distribute

Accepted by: Signature redacted

Submitted to the Integrated Design and Management Program

at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Packaging plays an essential role in protecting a product from damage, attracting

Thesis Supervisor: Steven Eppinger

I express my sincerest gratitude to:

(Fisher &Shipton, 2010)

Packaging plays an essential role in protecting a product from damage, attracting

McKinsey & Company, 2016).

contamination rate (Moffitt, 2018).

disconnected from the development of the corresponding infrastructure to process them. If

and the circular economy?

The purpose of this thesis is to take a systems approach to understanding today's

To gain a comprehensive understanding of this complex landscape, I consulted research articles,

(Fisher & Shipton, 2010).

standardized retail shelves and transportation containers through distribution networks. It

2.2 Three Categories of Packaging

used to transport the secondary medicine boxes.

(Davis &Song, 2006).

2.3 Three Categories of Waste

Waste can be grouped into three categories: post-industrial, pre-consumer, and

MacArthur Foundation, 2017).

for the biological or industrial flows.

OUTLINE OF A CIRCULAR ECONOMY

Preserve and enhance

Service provider |os

e. Collec tion Collection

Outline of the Circular Economy

2.6 Recycle & Compost Second

comprised 21.4% of total landfilling in 2015 (US EPA, 2017).

Decomposition is carried out by microorganisms (mesophilic and thermophilic), including bacteria,

As pointed out by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, compostable packaging is preferred

("Sustainability Report I Casella Resource Solutions," 2018).

As a percentage of 2011 levels; through June30th, 2018

Resource Solutions," 2018).

incinerating at least half of their recycling (Katz, 2019).

Percentages Reflect Outbound MRF Tonnage, updated through June 2018

important to collect recyclables.

3.2 Case Study: Contamination at MIT

contaminants can ruin a batch of otherwise perfectly acceptable recyclables.

Left: A weekend's worth of recyclables collected around campus.

Audit Sheet used to Track Contaminants

O Clean 10.5% Gloves 4.5%

0.00% Lab Plastic 7.5%

Black Plastic 18.0% Milk Cartons 3.0%

Brown Bottles 0.00% Padded

Catering Trays 2.5% Pizza Boxes 4.0%

Coffee Cups 40.5% Shredding 4.0%

Catering Trays 2.5% Styrofoam (EPS) 6.5%

Food Residue 40.0% Utensils 21.0%

Contamination Rates from MIT's 4/22/19 Waste Audit