CH 9

External incompressible viscous flows
(CHE F212)
Sundari R
BITS Pilani Instructor
K K Birla Goa Campus
Outline
PART A – Forces on submerged bodies: Drag and Lift

PART B – Boundary layer theory
PART C – Flow past immersed bodies
2
8/21/2021 Sundari R BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Introduction
• External flows
• Flow situation in which an object is completely surrounded by the fluid
• Flow over body immersed in an unbounded fluid
• Aerodynamics – External flows involving air as the fluid medium
A body immersed in a moving fluid experiences a

resultant force due to the interaction between the body
and the fluid surrounding it 3
PART A - Forces on a submerged object
4
External flow characteristics
• When a body moves through a fluid, due to the solid-fluid interactions, different forces
develop at the solid-fluid interface
• These forces can be expressed in terms of stresses
• Wall shear stresses on the body, 𝜏𝑤 – due to viscous effects
• Normal stresses, p - due to pressure
• Both 𝜏𝑤 and p vary in magnitude and direction along the surface
• Rather than the detailed distribution of 𝜏𝑤 and p, the resultant force distribution in a certain
direction is what is required!
5
External flow characteristics
• The resultant force in the direction of upstream velocity – Drag, D

• The resultant force in the direction normal to the upstream velocity – Lift, L
How to evaluate drag and lift forces?

Pressure and shear stress distribution on an air foil
6
Drag and Lift
To compute drag and lift forces, we take a small area element, obtain the x and y component
forces over this small area and integrate
Pressure and shear forces on a small element

of the body
𝑑𝐹𝑥 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 + (𝜏𝑤 𝑑𝐴) sin 𝜃
Similarly,
𝑑𝐹𝑦 = − 𝑝𝑑𝐴 sin 𝜃 + (𝜏𝑤 𝑑𝐴) cos 𝜃
7
Drag and Lift
• The net forces in the x and y directions are
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔, 𝐷 = න 𝑑𝐹𝑥 = න 𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝜏𝑤 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴

Form/pressure drag Shear/skin friction drag
Pressure and shear forces on a small element

𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡, 𝐿 = න 𝑑𝐹𝑦 = − න 𝑝 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝜏𝑤 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 of the body
• Thus, both pressure and shear stress distribution contribute to the lift and drag forces for an
arbitrary object.
• To calculate the lift and drag, we should have a knowledge of the pressure and shear stress
distributions, in addition to the shape and orientation of the body 8
Problem 1: Drag and Lift
Air at standard conditions flows past a flat plate as is indicated in the Figure. In case (a)
the plate is parallel to the upstream flow, and in case (b) it is perpendicular to the
upstream flow. The pressure and shear stress distributions on the surface are as
indicated. Determine the drag and lift forces for the two cases.
9
10
11
12
13
Problem 1: Drag and Lift- Key inferences
1. For a streamlined body, case(a), where the flat plate is parallel to the flow direction,
1. There is no lift generated
2. The drag force is due to the contribution of shear stresses alone
3. The drag force is small
2. For a blunt body, case(b), where the flat plate is perpendicular to the flow direction,
1. There is no lift generated
2. The drag force is entirely due to the pressure difference between the front and back portions
3. The drag force is high!
3. If the flat plate is oriented at an angle to the flow, then both pressure and shear stresses
contribute to the lift and drag forces
14
Friction/ shear drag
1. It is that part of the drag that is due directly to the shear stress, 𝜏𝑤 , on the object
2. Indicated by the factor 𝜏𝑤 sin θ, friction drag depends both on the magnitude of shear
stress and the orientation of the object
3. As the viscosity of most common fluids is small, the contribution of the shear force to
the overall drag on a body is often quite small
4. This means at low Re or for highly streamlined bodies, the contribution of skin friction
drag to total drag is higher!
15
Pressure/ form drag
1. It is that part of the drag that is due directly to the pressure, p, on an object
2. It is also called form drag because of its strong dependency on the shape or form of the
object
3. For large Re, the pressure drag coefficient is independent of Re
4. For small Re, the pressure drag coefficient is proportional to 1/Re
16
Streamlined bodies
• Body whose surface coincides with the streamlines, when the body is placed in a flow
• Flow separation will occur only at the rear part of the body, and hence, the pressure drag
is low
• Total drag is entirely contributed by shear drag
• A body may be streamlined at low velocities, may not be so at higher velocities
Flow past an airfoil
Zero angle of attack , no flow separation 5o angle of attack, flow separation occurs 17
Bluff/blunt bodies
• Body whose surface doesn’t coincide with the streamlines, when the body is placed in a
flow
• Flow separation occurs resulting in the formation of large wakes
• Pressure drag is very much higher than the skin friction drag
18
Drag and Lift
1. It is very difficult to obtain the pressure and shear stress distributions for all bodies.
2. Hence, one cannot use the expressions obtained earlier to compute drag and lift
3. An alternative is to determine drag and lift for a body moving in a fluid of density ρ and
velocity U
𝜌𝑈 2
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴
2
𝜌𝑈 2 Frontal area
𝐹𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 𝐴
2
Where 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐶𝐿 are the coefficient of drag and lift respectively

Planform area 19
Importance of drag and lift
Where is drag beneficial? When is drag disadvantageous?
Skydivers landing airplane landing Moving automobile

airplane flying
Where is lift force required?
Dimples in golf ball 20

Problem 2 – Calculation of drag
A truck having a projected area of 6.5 m2 travelling at 70 km/hr has a total resistance of 2000 N. Of
this, 20 % is due to rolling friction and 10 % is due to surface friction. The rest is due to form drag.
Taking the density of air as 1.25 kg/m3, determine the coefficient of form drag.
21
Problem 2 contd.
22
Problem 3 – Calculation of drag
A man weighing 882.9 N descends to the ground from an airplane with the help of a parachute
against the resistance of air. The parachute is hemispherical and comes down with a velocity of 20
m/s. The drag coefficient is 0.5 and the density of air is 1.25 kg/m3. Find the diameter of the
parachute.
23
Problem 3 contd.
24
PART B - Boundary Layer Theory
25
Origin of Boundary layer theory
D’Alembert’s Paradox:
• For incompressible and inviscid potential flow –
the drag force is zero on a body moving with
constant velocity relative to the fluid
Flow past a circular cylinder
• However, experiments always revealed a finite
drag experienced by the cylinder in a moving The drag on an object in an
inviscid fluid is zero, but the
fluid! drag on an object in a fluid
Theory suggests a symmetric
with vanishingly small (but
• There was a contradiction between experiments nonzero) viscosity is not zero!
pressure distribution as opposed
to experiments!
and theoretical prediction of forces acting on a
Symmetric pressure distribution and zero viscosity
the object
indicates zero force exerted on the object!
27
Origin of Boundary layer theory
• The theories based on inviscid assumption did not match with experimental observation!
• In 1904, Ludwig Prandtl came up with the idea of boundary layer, after which the role of viscosity in
the steady fluid motion was understood and d’Alembert’s paradox explained
• Although the Navier-Stokes equations were developed in the 1800’s, the theoretical treatment for
viscous flows was difficult due to the mathematical difficulty in solving this equation
• Prandtl showed that many viscous flows can be analyzed by dividing the flow into two regions, one
close to solid boundaries (where visocus effects are important), the other covering the rest of the
flow (where the fluid behaves as if it were inviscid).
• The boundary-layer concept provided the link that had been missing between theory and practice
28
Boundary layer
29
Characteristics of flow past an object
• External flows past an object encompasses a wide variety of fluid mechanics phenomena
• The flow characteristics depend very strongly on the size and orientation of the body, speed, and fluid
properties.
𝜌𝑈𝑙
• 𝑅𝑒 = is an important dimensionless number for external flows.
𝜇
• The Re typically varies between 10-109 for external flows. If Re > 100, the flow is dominated by inertia and
Re < 1 indicates a flow dominated by viscous forces.
• Low Re flows: small dirt particles settling down in a river, an object moving through a highly viscous liquid
• To illustrate the flow characteristics past streamlined and blunt objects as a function of Re, we consider
two cases
(a) flow past a flat plate (b) flow past a cylinder
30
Flow over a flat plate –Streamlined body
The region in which viscous effects are important

The viscous effects are felt far from the becomes smaller in all directions except downstream
object in all directions
Actual fluid viscosity is the same

throughout; only the relative
importance of the viscous effects is
The viscous effects are felt only within
different within or outside of the the boundary layer
boundary layer
31
Flow over circular cylinder – blunt body
• Flow looses its upstream to downstream symmetry

• The viscous effects are felt over a larger portion of the flow field
• Flow separation happens!
• Streamlines are symmetric about the center of the cylinder
• Boundary layer develops where viscous effects are important

• Formation of irregular unsteady wake region!
32
Problem 4
It is desired to experimentally determine the various characteristics of flow past a car as shown in the figure.
The following tests could be carried out: (a) flow of glycerin past a scale model that is 34-mm tall, 100-mm
long, and 40-mm wide at a velocity of 20 mm/s, (b) air flow past the same scale model at the same velocity, or
(c) airflow past the actual car, which is 1.7-m tall, 5-m long, and 2-m wide, at a velocity 25 m/s. The kinematic
viscosity of air and glycerin respectively are 1.46 x 10-5 m2/s and 1.19 x 10-3 m2/s.
Would the flow characteristics for these three situations be similar? Explain
33
Problem 4 contd.
34
Boundary layer theory - flow over a flat plate
• Simplistic case to understand the concept of boundary layer.

• If the surface was curved, the flow becomes complex – non-zero pressure gradient exists
• Boundary layer is a thin region close to the surface of the body where the viscous effects of the fluid are
significant and outside the layer, the fluid behave essentially inviscid.
• The velocity changes across the boundary layer changes until it reaches 99% of the free stream velocity at the
edge of the boundary layer.
• For a finite length plate, the plate length ℓ, can be used as
𝑈𝜌ℓ
the characteristic length to define Re. 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
• The transition from a laminar boundary layer to a turbulent

boundary layer occurs at a critical value of the Reynolds
𝛿𝑙𝑎𝑚 ∝ 𝑅𝑒 −1/2 𝛿𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 ∝ 𝑅𝑒 −1/5
number, on the order of 2 x 105 – 3 x 106 35
u∞ u∞
u boundary layer
y
x Thin flat plate
36
37
38
39
Blasius solution- boundary layer thickness
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
• 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐢𝐭𝐲: + =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
• 𝐁𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬: 𝑢 = 𝑣 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 0, 𝑢 → 𝑈 𝑎𝑠 𝑦 → ∞
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
• 𝐗 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝜐 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝑈 1/2 1
• Defining a similarity variable 𝜂 = 𝑦 and the stream function 𝜓 = 𝑈𝜐𝑥 𝑓(𝜂) 2
𝜐𝑥
• The governing equations become 2𝑓 ′′′ + 𝑓𝑓 ′ = 0 with boundary conditions 𝑓 = 𝑓 ′ = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝜂 = 0, 𝑓 ′ →

1 𝑎𝑠 𝜂 → ∞
𝑢
• Numerically integrating the above expression, we get = 𝑓(𝜂)
𝑈
𝑢
• From the solution it is found that when = 0.99, 𝜂 =5
𝑈
• Thus the boundary layer thickness is got as 𝛿 5

=
𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑥
40
Boundary layer theory - analysis
• Boundary layer thickness 𝜹: distance from the plate at which the fluid velocity is within 99 % of the upstream
velocity 𝛿 = 𝑦 where 𝑢 = 0.99𝑈 ∞
• Boundary layer displacement thickness, δ*: the distance the plate would be moved so that the loss of mass
flux (due to reduction in uniform flow area) is equivalent to the loss the boundary layer causes
• If 𝑏 is the plate width, we equate the deficit flow rate( due to the boundary layer) in the shaded region as
∞ ∞ 𝑢
𝛿 ∗ 𝑏𝜌𝑈 = ‫׬‬0 𝜌 𝑈 − 𝑢 𝑏 𝑑𝑦 or 𝛿 ∗ = ‫׬‬0 1− 𝑑𝑦
𝑈 41
Boundary layer theory - analysis
∞ 𝑢
• Boundary layer displacement thickness, δ*: 𝛿 ∗ = ‫׬‬0 1− 𝑑𝑦
𝑈
• Represents the outward displacement of the streamlines caused by the viscous effects on the plate
• Boundary layer momentum thickness, 𝜣: distance the plate would be moved so that the loss of momentum
flux is equivalent to the loss the boundary layer actually causes.
• used to calculate the drag force experienced by an object.
• It represents the deficit in momentum flux for the actual boundary layer flow on a plate of width b
• We now do a momentum integral analysis to obtain the expression for drag
42
Momentum Integral Analysis
43
44
Von Karman Momentum Integral Equation
45
Problem 5 – momentum integral analysis
For the velocity profile for a laminar boundary layer,
𝑢 3𝑦 1 𝑦 3
= −
𝑈∞ 2 𝛿 2 𝛿
Determine the boundary layer thickness, shear stress, drag force and coefficient of drag in terms of Re
46
47
48
49
50
Momentum integral analysis
51
Flow characteristics for a non-zero pressure gradient
• We looked at the boundary layer over a flat plate where the pressure is a constant throughout the fluid.
• When a fluid flows past any object that is curved, the pressure is not uniform
• If the Re is large, relatively thin boundary layer is formed over the object.
• In this layer, the pressure gradient along the flow direction is non-zero, however that in the direction normal to
the surface is negligibly small.
• This non-zero pressure gradient is due to the variation in the free stream velocity
• The flow characteristics within and outside the boundary layer is highly dependent on the pressure gradient!
52
Favorable pressure gradient
• Favorable pressure gradient is one in which the pressure

𝜕𝑝
decreases in the flow direction 𝜕𝑥 < 0
• It is called favorable because it tends to overcome the slowing

of fluid particles caused by friction in the boundary layer.
• This pressure gradient arises when the freestream velocity U is
increasing with x
X- Momentum equation
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 For a converging section, 𝑑𝑥> 0 or 𝑑𝑥 < 0
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 =− +𝜇 +
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2 𝑢
At the channel wall, 𝑢 = 𝑣 = 0 This implies <0
𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜇 = ቚ − ቚ
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑦+∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
Applying the finite difference formula, <0 Or, 𝑑𝑦ቚ < 𝑑𝑦ቚ
∆𝑦 𝑦+∆𝑦 𝑦 53
Zero pressure gradient
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝
For flows between two flat plate, 𝑑𝑥 = 0 or 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕2 𝑢
This implies 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
ቚ − ቚ
𝑑𝑦 𝑦+∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
Applying the finite difference formula, =0
∆𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
Or, 𝑑𝑦ቚ = 𝑑𝑦ቚ
𝑦+∆𝑦 𝑦
Indicates a linear profile near the wall
For uniform flow over a flat plate, the flow never separates
54
Adverse pressure gradient
• An adverse pressure gradient is one in which pressure increases in

𝜕𝑝
the flow direction 𝜕𝑥 > 0;
• The fluid particles in the boundary-layer to slow down at a greater

rate than that due to boundary-layer friction alone.
• If the adverse pressure gradient is severe enough, the fluid particles
in the boundary layer will actually be brought to rest. Flow
separation may occur.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 ቚ − ቚ
For flows between two flat plate, < 0 or >0 𝑑𝑦 𝑦+∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Applying the finite difference formula, >0
∆𝑦
𝜕2 𝑢
This implies >0
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
Or, 𝑑𝑦ቚ > 𝑑𝑦ቚ
𝑦+∆𝑦 𝑦
55
Results from the Potential flow theory
Results from the Boundary layer theory
56
• Favorable pressure gradient from A to C and adverse

pressure gradient from C
• Due to viscous effects in the boundary layer, the fluid
particle experiences a loss of energy as it flows along
• The fluid particle doesn’t have enough energy to move
against the increasing pressure from C to F at the rear end
of the cylinder.
• The fluid flows against the increasing pressure as far as it
can, at which point the boundary layer separates from
(lifts off) the surface - Boundary layer separation
57
PART C - Flow past immersed bodies
58
Drag and Lift- a revisit
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔, 𝐷 = න 𝑑𝐹𝑥 = න 𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝜏𝑤 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴
𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡, 𝐿 = න 𝑑𝐹𝑦 = − න 𝑝 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝜏𝑤 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴
Alternately,
𝜌𝑈 2
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴
2
Frontal area
𝜌𝑈 2
𝐹𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 𝐴
2
Where 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐶𝐿 are the coefficient of drag and lift respectively

Planform area 59
Drag on a sphere - Stoke’s solution
• Consider the flow of a real fluid past a solid sphere
• For Re up to 0.2, G G Stokes developed an expression for the total drag on a sphere
immersed in a flowing fluid
𝐷𝑢𝜌
• 𝐹𝐷 = 3𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑈 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒 = < 0.2
𝜇
• Where µ, D and U are the viscosity of the fluid, diameter of the sphere and fluid
velocity respectively
• Out of the total drag, 2/3rd is contributed by shear drag and 1/3rd due to form drag
• 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔, 𝐹𝐷,𝑓 = 2𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑈
• 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔, 𝐹𝐷,𝑝 = 𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑈
60
Drag on a sphere - Stoke’s solution
Determination of drag coefficient
From Stoke’s derviation: 𝐹𝐷 = 3𝜋𝜇𝐷𝑈
𝜌𝑈 2
From a dimensional analysis: 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴
2
𝜋𝐷2
Substituting for A, the projected area as 𝐴 =
4
Equating the two expressions, we get,

Re CD
24𝜇 24 0.2- 5 24
1+
3
Oseen’s formula
𝐶𝐷 = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒 < 0.2 Stoke’s Law 𝑅𝑒 16 𝑅𝑒
𝜌𝑈𝐷 𝑅𝑒
5 - 1000 0.4
103 - 105 0.5
> 105 0.2
61
Drag on a sphere –Terminal settling velocity
• Maximum constant velocity of the falling body

• When a body is allowed to fall from rest, it’s velocity increases due to acceleration due to gravity
• With increase in velocity, the upward drag force, which resists the motion of the body also increases
• A stage is reached when the upward drag force is equal to the weight of the falling body. The net
force acting on the body is zero and the body travels with a constant velocity – terminal settling
velocity
• 𝑊 = 𝐹𝐷 + 𝐹𝐵 where W, 𝐹𝐷 , 𝐹𝐵 are the weight of the body, drag and buoyant forces respectively
62
Problem 2 - Drag on a sphere
A metallic ball of diameter 0.002 m drops in a fluid of specific gravity 0.95 and viscosity 15 poise. The
density of the ball is 12000 kg/m3. Find
1. The drag force exerted by the fluid on the metallic ball
2. The skin friction drag and the pressure drag
3. The terminal velocity of the ball falling in the fluid
63
Problem 2 - Drag on a sphere
64
Flow through packed bed
65
• Liquid/gas flow through a bed of solids
• Present analysis: flow of a single fluid phase through a column of stationary solid particles
• Actual or real packed beds are randomly packed with irregular size particles
• The flow–path of a fluid though the packed bed is tortuous.
• For the theoretical analysis to calculate pressure–drop, actual flow channels are replaced with
parallel cylindrical conduits of constant cross–section, whose total surface area and void
volume match those of the bed
• Particles are assumed to be of the same size and shape having constant sphericity, 𝜙𝑠 .
6
ൗ𝐷𝑝 𝑠𝑝
𝜙𝑠 = 𝑠𝑝 ൗ𝑣𝑝 is the surface-volume ratio of the particle whose nominal size is Dp
ൗ𝑣𝑝
66
• The resistance to the flow of fluid through the voids in a bed of solid is due to the resultant of the total
drag of all particles in the bed
• Ergun equation: The empirical correlation to evaluate pressure drop in a packed bed , for the entire range
of flow rates, is obtained by assuming viscous losses and kinetic energy losses are additive
2
Δ𝑃 150𝑉ത𝑜 𝜇 1 − 𝜀 2
1.75𝜌𝑉ത𝑜 1 − 𝜀
= +
𝐿 𝜙𝑠 2 𝐷𝑝 2 𝜀 3 𝜙𝑠 𝐷𝑝 𝜀 3
𝐿 - length of the channel

𝑉ത𝑜 - superficial / empty tower velocity
𝜀 – external void fraction of the bed
Δ𝑃- pressure drop
(1- 𝜀) – volume fraction of particles in the bed
𝜇, 𝜌 – viscosity and density of the fluid
𝐷𝑝 - particle diameter
67
• Kozeny Karman equation: applicable for laminar flows where 𝑅𝑒𝑝 < 1
Δ𝑃 150𝑉ത𝑜 𝜇 1 − 𝜀 2
=
𝐿 𝜙𝑠 2 𝐷𝑝 2 𝜀 3
• Blake Plummer equation: applicable when flow rate is higher , i.e., when 𝑅𝑒𝑝 > 1000
2
Δ𝑃 1.75𝜌𝑉ത𝑜 1 − 𝜀
=
𝐿 𝜙𝑠 𝐷𝑝 𝜀 3
• Drag force, 𝐹𝐷 = ∆𝑃 𝑆𝑜 𝜀
Where 𝑆𝑜 is the cross-sectional area of the packed bed
68
Summary
PART A – Forces on submerged bodies: Drag and Lift

PART B – Boundary layer theory
PART C – Flow past immersed bodies
69

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CH 9

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External incompressible viscous flows

PART A – Forces on submerged bodies: Drag and Lift

A body immersed in a moving fluid experiences a

• The resultant force in the direction of upstream velocity – Drag, D

How to evaluate drag and lift forces?

Pressure and shear forces on a small element

𝑑𝐹𝑦 = − 𝑝𝑑𝐴 sin 𝜃 + (𝜏𝑤 𝑑𝐴) cos 𝜃

𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔, 𝐷 = න 𝑑𝐹𝑥 = න 𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝜏𝑤 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴

Pressure and shear forces on a small element

Where 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐶𝐿 are the coefficient of drag and lift respectively

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Where is lift force required?

Dimples in golf ball 20

The region in which viscous effects are important

Actual fluid viscosity is the same

• Flow looses its upstream to downstream symmetry

• Boundary layer develops where viscous effects are important

• Simplistic case to understand the concept of boundary layer.

• The transition from a laminar boundary layer to a turbulent

• The governing equations become 2𝑓 ′′′ + 𝑓𝑓 ′ = 0 with boundary conditions 𝑓 = 𝑓 ′ = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝜂 = 0, 𝑓 ′ →

• Thus the boundary layer thickness is got as 𝛿 5

Von Karman Momentum Integral Equation

• Favorable pressure gradient is one in which the pressure

• It is called favorable because it tends to overcome the slowing

Indicates a linear profile near the wall

• An adverse pressure gradient is one in which pressure increases in

• The fluid particles in the boundary-layer to slow down at a greater

Results from the Potential flow theory

Results from the Boundary layer theory

• Favorable pressure gradient from A to C and adverse

𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔, 𝐷 = න 𝑑𝐹𝑥 = න 𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝜏𝑤 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴

𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡, 𝐿 = න 𝑑𝐹𝑦 = − න 𝑝 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝜏𝑤 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴

Where 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐶𝐿 are the coefficient of drag and lift respectively

Equating the two expressions, we get,

• Maximum constant velocity of the falling body

𝐿 - length of the channel

PART A – Forces on submerged bodies: Drag and Lift

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