Dilla University

College of Engineering and Technology

School of Architecture and Construction Technology & Management
Department of Construction Technology & Management
Cost efficient construction (ARCH5281)
Group Assignment

Write an essay on;

1. The history and current practice of prefabricated construction in Ethiopia.
2. Emerging Technologies in cost efficient housing.
 Rapid wall systems
 Monolithic Concrete Construction Technologies
 Mortar less Masonry (Interlocking)
 Confined Masonry
 Light Weight Construction Technology
 Technologies based on Agro-Industrial Waste
 Bamboo Based Technologies
 Pre-Engineered form work systems
 Fiber Cement Board, Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) blocks and concrete

3. Sustainable alternative building materials for low cost housing. The alternative materials should
include for wall, floor, roof and any other building elements. (Define the purpose and the properties
of the materials.)

Submission Date- 20/5/14 E.C

Contents
#1. History of Prefabrication Construction in Ethiopia ..................................................................................... 4
Current Application of prefabricated Structural Element in Ethiopia ............................................................... 5
#2. Rapid wall .................................................................................................................................................... 5
WHICH MATERIAL IS USED IN RAPID WALL? ........................................................................................ 6
WHY RAPID WALL IS IMPORTANT............................................................................................................ 6
RAPID WALL(GFRG) APPLICATION .......................................................................................................... 6
EMBODIED ENERGY ..................................................................................................................................... 8
WHAT IS MONOLITHIC CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION? ......................................................................... 9
Monolithic Slab................................................................................................................................................ 10
Monolithic Construction. ................................................................................................................................. 10
Monolithic Slab Foundation ............................................................................................................................ 10
Monolithic Concrete Slab ................................................................................................................................ 10
MONOLITHIC CONSTRUCTION FAILURES ............................................................................................ 10
1. FASTER CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 11
2. EASY REINFORCEMENT......................................................................................................................... 11
3. HARD GROUND ........................................................................................................................................ 12
4. CONSISTENT ............................................................................................................................................. 12
Advantages of Monolithic Construction: ......................................................................................................... 12
Disadvantages of Monolithic Construction: .................................................................................................... 13
Consideration For Dry-Packed Interlocking Masonry Construction ............................................................... 14
Benefits of Dry-Stacked Interlocking Masonry System .................................................................................. 15
In Load Bearing Masonry ................................................................................................................................ 15
In Framed Structure Masonry .......................................................................................................................... 15
In Reinforced Masonry .................................................................................................................................... 15
In Boundary Walls ........................................................................................................................................... 15
Background ...................................................................................................................................................... 16
What is Confined Masonry Construction? ....................................................................................................... 16
How? Confined Masonry Buildings Resist Earthquake Effects ...................................................................... 18
Key Factors Influencing Seismic Resistance of Confined Masonry Structures .............................................. 18
Is lightweight construction economical? ......................................................................................................... 21
Materials .......................................................................................................................................................... 21
Manufacturing and joining technologies ......................................................................................................... 22
Manufacturing and joining technologies ......................................................................................................... 22
Heavyweight Construction: ............................................................................................................................. 23
Lightweight Construction: ............................................................................................................................... 23
MAJOR SOLID WASTE AND THEIR POTENTIAL USE IN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ............. 24
A. Fly ash ......................................................................................................................................................... 25
B. Granulated blast-furnace slag ...................................................................................................................... 26
C. Phosphogypsum .......................................................................................................................................... 26
D. Palm oil Fuel Ash ........................................................................................................................................ 27
E. Rice Husk Ash ............................................................................................................................................. 27
F. Construction and Demolition Debris ........................................................................................................... 28
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................ 28
Bamboo morphology ....................................................................................................................................... 29
Bamboo for Foundations.................................................................................................................................. 30
Walls Construction with Bamboo as a Building Material ............................................................................... 31
Roofing with Bamboo as a Building Material ................................................................................................. 31
Scaffolding with Bamboo as a Building Material............................................................................................ 31
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION ....................................................................................................... 32
BENEFITS OF PREFABRICATED FORMWORK SYSTEM ...................................................................... 33
Different types of Formwork System .............................................................................................................. 33
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION ............................................................................................................... 34
WHAT IS FIBER CEMENT SIDING MADE OF? ........................................................................................ 36
Fiber Cement Siding Advantages .................................................................................................................... 36
Fiber Cement Siding Pros and Cons ................................................................................................................ 37
Durability ......................................................................................................................................................... 37
Environmentally Neutral .................................................................................................................................. 37
Longevity ......................................................................................................................................................... 37
Fire Safety ........................................................................................................................................................ 37
Insulation Value ............................................................................................................................................... 37
Cost .................................................................................................................................................................. 38
Installation Issues ............................................................................................................................................. 38
Maintenance Matters ........................................................................................................................................ 38
Consumer Caveats ........................................................................................................................................... 38
#3. What is alternative building material? ....................................................................................................... 38
Deep Strip Foundation ..................................................................................................................................... 39
Advantage ........................................................................................................................................................ 39
Advantage ........................................................................................................................................................ 40
Driven Pile Foundation .................................................................................................................................... 40
Advantages ....................................................................................................................................................... 40
Bamboo reinforced column.............................................................................................................................. 40
Fiber reinforcement .......................................................................................................................................... 41
Walls ................................................................................................................................................................ 42
Fly ash bricks ................................................................................................................................................... 42
Gypsum plaster. ............................................................................................................................................... 43
Foundation ....................................................................................................................................................... 44
Column............................................................................................................................................................. 44
Beam ................................................................................................................................................................ 45
Wall .................................................................................................................................................................. 45
Plastering.......................................................................................................................................................... 45
#1. History of Prefabrication Construction in Ethiopia
The Ethiopian Experience A modern prefabricated building industry was introduced in Ethiopia in 1985 by
the former Yugoslavian technical assistance under the former Ethiopian Building Construction Authority
(EBCA) by the name of Prefabricated Building Parts Production Enterprise (PBPPE).
The establishment of prefab housing factory in Addis Ababa has brought new techniques for the
construction industry and it was supposed to provide solution for the vast building needs. On top of this, it
was aimed to accommodate the ever-increasing demand of housing within the shortest possible time and to
minimize the pressing need of timber for formwork.
The factory has been producing structural elements for the construction of office, apartments, hotels, schools
etc. (from G+0-G+9) by using IMS precast concrete system. At a time, the IMS system has found
acceptance in many countries, such as in Cuba, Hungary, Egypt, Angola, China, Italy, Austria and Ethiopia
as well. However, now a day in Ethiopia, precast concrete is widely used for non-structural elements such as
pipes, lintels, cladding, poles and for institutions fence work.
The other prefab factory, Ybel industrial plc was established in 2009 in Addis Ababa to construct buildings
by applying prefab technology. It is the first and pioneer private prefab factory and in adoption of
mechanized agro-stone panels and magnesium board technology in Ethiopia in the prefab building industry.
The factory produces steel building structure, magnesium board (4.5-10 mm), agro-stone panel, light gauge
steel frame (LGS), and PVC doors and windows. The factory has been constructed residence houses, project
camp houses, guest houses, etc. by using steel frame, agro-stone panel, magnesium board and PVC opening
and ceiling in different places of Ethiopia.
Some of the prefabricated buildings in Ethiopia

Hotel public school apartment

For the first-time prefabrication plant was established in Ethiopia at 1978 E.C with the help of former
socialist country Yugoslavia. The company called Prefabricated Building Parts Production Enterprise
(PBPPE) and it is the only prefabrication factory in Ethiopia till know. According to Gutema (1998) the aim
was to accommodate the ever-increasing demands of housing
within the shortest possible time, to overcome the shortage of
accommodation and meet the future demands, and to
minimize the pressing need of timber for formwork and
consequently conserve the natural forest. The Factory
primarily in charge of prefabrication - Prefabricated Building
Parts Production Enterprise (PBPPE) - has produced
structural elements for the construction of office buildings,
apartments, hotels and residential buildings for the public and
private sector. According to the information from PBPPE, the
building shown in the following figure is one of those
buildings.
The back-log of housing units in Ethiopia was so vast that
all efforts made by the Government and inhabitants could
not wipe out the shortage of housing in the early 1980s. To
promote the building industry and to alleviate the housing
shortage prefabrication technology was introduced. The
objectives of the enterprise are to promote the building
industry through mass production of prefabricated concrete
elements, to alleviate the shortage of housing and to reduce
the construction cost (Gutema, 1998). As indicated above
establishment of PBPPE in Addis Ababa has brought new
techniques for the construction industry and it was supposed
to provide the solution for the vast housing needs at the time.

Current Application of prefabricated Structural Element in Ethiopia

Currently prefabrication technology was applied by limited extent in construction industry of Ethiopia.
There is only one prefabrication plant in Ethiopia, Prefabricated Building Parts Production Enterprise
(PBPE), which was established 30 years ago without any modification. Kibirt (2017) state that within its 30
years of operation, the Prefabricated Building Parts Production Enterprise has not shown much progress as
an organization. It still uses the same outdated batching plant, crane system, and even molds that had been
installed during its.
According to Kibirt (2017) the problem here is that with the number of years that have passed since PBPPE
has started operation; a lot has changed worldwide in construction technology. What was acceptable 30
years ago may not be up to par currently. Moreover, almost all equipment, forms and design and production
manuals that the plant utilizes are the same ones that were put in place during its start almost three decades
ago, that all their pages have parched and turned brown.
They are very delicately handled as they have not yet been converted and filed into a soft copy format. The
theoretical design capacity of the enterprise was estimated to reach 50,000-meter square of built-up floor
area per year, but the maximum attained capacity to date is 33,000-meter square. The production output of
the enterprise was designed to build three categories of buildings: the residential buildings up to 5-storeys,
and public buildings up to 10 stores (Gutema, 1998). The types of structural elements produced by the
factory include columns, slabs, footings, girder beams, beams, cantilevers, shear walls, stair flights and
landings.

However, majority of the building constructed by prefabrication method in Addis Ababa are public and
business building, there are a small number of apartments. The Apartment Adequate efforts were not carried
out to show the merits and demerits of recasting emphasizing the effectiveness and efficiency of pre-
fabrication technology as compared to other conventional construction methods. Much has to be done in the
future in marketing, and dissemination of information to promote the prefabrication construction in Ethiopia
(Gutema, 1998).

#2. Rapid wall

The construction industry must seek new technologies to lower costs and to gain a competitive advantage in
changing business environment. The main objective during any construction project is to deliver quality
product in a timely, cost effective and safe manner.
The world construction companies are competing to transform their attitude from using the conventional
construction, to the prefabricated technologies, which providing the high quality of the final product and
high productivity to get higher profitability.
The governments should look for technologies that solve the homes deficits, energy consumption, high
valuable natural resources depletion, high wastages in money, time, building materials &labor demand.
The above-mentioned aspects are provided by rapid wall technology which is making these goals
guaranteed. Gypsum, glass fiber and additives are the main raw material which is natural and abundant
resource. Rapid wall is considered to be a good solution to get homes at affordable cost and short time.
Rapid wall is a revolutionary, low-cost, prefabricated walling product with broad construction application
from load- bearing walls for individual domestic cottages and multi- story residential building to formwork
for suspended concrete floor structure.

WHICH MATERIAL IS USED IN RAPID WALL?

Rapid wall is manufactured in a molding process using glass-fiber reinforced, water-resistant gypsum
plaster. All panels are 12 meters long and 3 meters high. The panels are cellular and 124 millimeters thick.
The formed cells can be used to accommodate building services such as plumbing and electrical conduits or
they can be filled with insulation for increased thermal performance or they can be filled with concrete for
increased structural capacity. The rapid wall panels have the following constituent materials:
¾ Calcined plaster.
¾ )LEHUJODVVURYLQJ¶V
¾ Water proofing agent
¾ Water
¾ Setting additives.

WHY RAPID WALL IS IMPORTANT

The conventional materials are put many constraints on the face of development the building sector. The
huge increasing of humans needs to provide the houses at affordable prices. The building and homes
construction take a lot of time, big efforts, high cost and increased consumption of valuable natural
resources like potable water which is most important resource. adopt new construction technologies had
been very clear.
Rapid wall is renewable technology having the ability to remanufacture the used panels for demolished
buildings. In all of India, there is presently 31 million tons of excess phosphor gypsum stockpiled and this is
added to annually by 2.5 million tons.

RAPID WALL(GFRG) APPLICATION

The cavities of the panel can conveniently be filled with concrete and reinforced with steel bars, which
increases the load carrying capacity of the panel significantly. The research groups at IIT Madras extended
the application of this product (used only as load bearing walls in Australia and China) for the entire
building system including floors, roofs, parapets, sunshades, staircases and lift wells, thus significantly
reducing the consumption of reinforced concrete (RC). IITM research group also conducted extensive
studies on the use of wall panels as structural members for earthquake resistant design, and a detailed design
methodology has been developed satisfying the provisions of National Building Code (NBC).
The applications of Rapid wall (GFRG) panels are illustrated below

GFRG buildings are found to have the following advantages over conventional buildings:
¾ High speed of construction
¾ Less built-up area for the same carpet area: wall panels are only 124 mm thick.
¾ Less embodied energy and carbon footprint: significant reduction in the use of cement, sand, steel
and water; recycling of industrial waste gypsum.
¾ Lower cost of structure: savings in materials and labor input.
¾ Lesser building weight (panels weigh only 44 kg/m2), contributing to savings in foundation and
reduction in design for earthquake forces in multi- storied construction.
¾ Buildings up to 6 - 10 stores can be constructed using this load-bearing system,
¾ without the need for beams and columns
¾ Excellent finishes of prefabricated GFRG panels ±used for all the walls, floors and
o staircases, with minimal embedded concrete: no need for additional plastering.
¾ Satisfactory performance under the event of fire
¾ Good thermal comfort: indoor is cooler in summer and warmer in winter ±ideal for tropical climates
¾ Rot and termite resistant
¾ Recyclable

The limitations of this technology are:

 ¾ In this load bearing wall system, the same floor plan has to be replicated in all floors, in multistoried
constructions.
¾ Precast constructions, especially on a mass scale, calls for meticulous planning and preparation, prior
to start of construction.
¾ All the prescribed guidelines for cutting of panels, transportation, erection, joints, application of
primer and waterproofing need to be strictly followed to ensure fault free performance of this prefab
building system.
¾ Spans exceeding 5m are not advisable.
¾ Building height is restricted to 6 to 10 floors depending on seismic zonation.
¾ Walls and slabs are required to be planar, not allowing for curvature.
¾ The electrical/plumbing fittings should be planned in such a way that most of the pipes pass through
the cavities in order to facilitate minimum cutting of panels).

CASE STUDY
A residential demonstration house of 130 m2 built-up area is constructed with Rapid wall panels and
compared with Conventional block work gives the following results mentioned in table.

EMBODIED ENERGY

Energy required to manufacture products is known as Embodied energy. It is including energy consumption
of all associated processes such as mining, transport and manufacturing. Conventionally, the energy
embodied in a building includes the energy used directly to construct the building as direct energy and the
energy used indirectly in the manufacture of building materials as a indirect energy. The main reason for
recognizing indirect energy is that a construction process can be very energy efficient, whereas the materials
that are used are very inefficient in energy consumption, thus a holistic view is preferable to a limited view
of parts of a manufacturing chain. The measurement of embodied energy is joule (J).
The casted panel is lifted to ACROBA frame and shifted to dryer for drying. The wall panel is dried at a
temperature of 2750 C for 60 minutes. After drying, the wall panel is either shifted to storage area or on the
cutting table. The wall panel is cut as per dimensions supplied by the client and the cut pieces are
transferred to stillages which are specially made for transporting wall panel.
The waste liquid effluent generated during manufacturing process can be recycled back in the system for
manufacturing of new wall panels, also the solid waste which is generated during manufacturing process is
recycled to the calciner after crushing and separating plaster and glass roving in recycle plant

CONCLUSIONS
Rapid wall provides fast track building construction methodology by utilizing the benefits of prefabricated,
light weight large panels with modular Cavities. By this process, man power, cost and time of construction is
reduced. The use of scarce natural resources like river sand, water and agricultural land is significantly
reduced. Rapid wall panels have reduced embodied energy and require less energy for thermo-regulation of
interiors.

MONOLITHIC CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

Monolithic concrete construction is one of the most innovative forms of concrete construction available to
companies today. In some situations, monolithic concrete construction is a highly attractive form of
construction that can get the job done faster than other methods. As you consider concrete construction
services, learn more about the history of monolithic concrete construction, along with its advantages and
disadvantages.
In this technology a few variants of frame are raised
¾ covering on supporting columns
¾ supporting longitudinal walls
¾ supporting transverse walls

WHAT IS MONOLITHIC CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION?

Monolithic architecture refers to a type of building that has been cast, excavated or carved from one piece of
material. Historically, monolithic buildings were built by carving rooms and other features into rocks.
Monolithic concrete construction is a kind of monolithic architecture. Specifically, it refers to a structure
made out of concrete that casts all of its components at one time.

Why We Need Monolithic Construction?

The total cost of building construction includes cost of materials, cost of labor, and cost of formwork &
other techniques that are 55% to 60%, 25 to 30%, and 10 to 20% of total cost respectively.
Therefore, economic construction can be achieved by using efficient and cost-effective material, or by an
improved design, or by using innovative technology.
This problem leads to Monolithic construction technology which is construct housing rapidly with good
quality and durability.

Monolithic Slab

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So, a monolithic slab is a giant block of cement that’s poured in one, fell swoop. While it may be
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Monolithic Construction.

Monolithic structure means the whole structure along with the slab is cast at a time. In order to construct
a monolithic structure, we required formwork for construction. In this project, we discuss the importance
of the use of monolithic construction work for high-rise buildings.

Monolithic Slab Foundation

This foundation is created by pouring a single layer of concrete to form a slab and footing. Contractors
like the monolithic concept because it keeps the labor cost low, and the construction process is faster than
with other foundations.

Monolithic Concrete Slab

A monolithic concrete slab is a giant block of cement that’s poured in one, fell swoop. While it may be
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load-bearing wall and in all perimeter areas (in place of footers)

PROS AND CONS OF MONOLITHIC CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

Monolithic construction is often a much faster method for laying down the foundation of homes and is
popular for developments where lots of homes need to be built quickly. There are a few other benefits to
monolithic concrete construction, but there are also some disadvantages, leading companies to sometimes
choose step-wise construction methods over the monolithic alternative. Before choosing a concrete service
for your needs, learn the positives and negatives of monolithic construction:

MONOLITHIC CONSTRUCTION FAILURES

Though monolithic construction comes with many benefits, there are some downsides to using this method.
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colder climates, where freezing and thawing will be more likely and often, leading to concrete cracking.
Besides not being well-suited for cold weather, there are a few more potential negatives to using monolithic
concrete:

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where many holes have had to be filled. Placing a monolithic slab over fill dirt can raise the likelihood that
the concrete will crack. Step-wise construction, in contrast, can adjust to fill dirt and other conditions.
Carbon intensive: One of the most significant downsides to monolithLFFRQFUHWHFRQVWUX
most carbon-intensive of all building construction methods. The embodied carbon found in monolithic
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some builders not to use it as a result.
Expensive for certain homesites: At times, monolithic concrete construction can be far more expensive
than other options. Homes on slopes will require far too much concrete for a monolithic pour and end up
being too expensive.
Cracking due to excess weight: 0RQROLWKLFFRQVWUXFWLRQLVQ¶WDJU
significant weight loads on your structure. For example, block exterior walls can cause the perimeter to
crack if it was built via a monolithic pour.
Can’t be used for elevated homes: Sometimes, local regulations cause a home to be elevated, such as when
a home is being constructed in a flood zone. Since monolithic foundations are often much shallower than
RWKHUVWKH\ZRQ¶WEHDEOHWRHOHYDWHWKHKRPe properly to meet the local safety codes or appearance
regulations.

VALUE OF MONOLITHIC CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

Despite the negatives of monolithic concrete, some benefits make it ideal for particular projects. There are
plenty of monolithic construction successes that have left houses standing for a long time, and it can be a
great choice for many projects. Learn more about the following advantages to monolithic concrete
construction:

1. FASTER CONSTRUCTION

One of the most well-known benefits of monolithic concrete structures is the speed in which you can
complete them. Instead of step-wise construction where you have to lay the footings, slab and walls in three
individual steps, monolithic concrete construction only requires a single pour. 6LQFH\RXGRQ¶W
for your footings to cure after pouring, you can get structures built faster. A monolithic pour means that you
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project elements faster.

2. EASY REINFORCEMENT
Since monolithic slabs are often thinner than traditionally poured slabs, construction companies often worry
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reducing the structural integrity of the home. One of the primary advantages of a monolithic concrete slab is
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strengthening the slab and making it ideal for times when you need extra durability.

3. HARD GROUND

In a traditional foundation construction pour, footings have to go deep into the ground. This need to place
the footings far into the ground requires the builder to drill deep, leading to extra costs, equipment and time.
,I\RX¶UHLQDUHJLRQZKHUHWKHJUR und is hard or rocky, digging becomes even more difficult. In times where
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making it the ideal construction method for many construction companies who operate in areas with difficult
soil.

4. CONSISTENT

With step-wise construction, there are many more steps that a team has to follow to get the job done
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with all of the steps required for step-wise concrete construction, leading to problems where the slab ends up
not being as stable or strong as it needs to be. With a monolithic pour, you get a simple, short process that
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Advantages of Monolithic Construction:

¾ Allow speedy Construction.

¾ It helps to fill the gap between the demand and supply of housing quickly. Provide
a speedier solution to the housing shortage.
¾ This technology helps to optimize the cost & time of project.
¾ The structure was constructed by optimal use of time, money, and building material.
¾ It provides a disaster-resistant structure.
¾ The Monolithic buildings are more strong against horizontal forces ( Earthquake, cyclone,
etc.) as compared to conventional Buildings.
¾ ,W¶V not required any expensive construction equipment in case of building
constructed with aluminum formwork.
¾ In this technology, No need for any type of bricks, blocks, and plastering work.
¾ Monolithic Structures are Box type structure that is more desirable as per the
Earthquake point of view.
¾ We get an Excellent Finished structure that avoids expansive plastering costs.
¾ The thickness of walls is less due to that we get more plinth area and carpet area.
 ¾ The durability and quality of Monolithic construction are very high as compared to normal
construction.
¾ The monolithic construction was Fast and lightweight.

Disadvantages of Monolithic Construction:

¾ Require Skilled & Semi-skilled laborers.

¾ Required a few days of training for workers.
¾ Repair and maintenance of monolithic construction are difficult.
¾ The thermal radiation is more.
¾ High Initial Investment
¾ Required Special type of Formwork like Tunnel Formwork

MORTARLESS DRY STACKED INTERLOCKING MASONRY SYSTEM

Construction of masonry wall systems is possible without the use of mortar. The use of standard CMU units
laid dry and subsequently surface bonded with fiber reinforced surfaced bonding cement has been well
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rless systems is simple, easy and cost effective. This TEK describes
the construction and engineering design of such mortarless wall systems.
The provisions of this TEK apply to both specialty units manufactured specifically for dry-stack
construction and conventional concrete masonry units with the following system types:
¾ Grouted, partially grouted or surface bonded
¾ Unreinforced, reinforced, or prestressed
The system of dry-stacked interlocked masonry enables affordable building construction, speedier
construction of high quality in stretcher bond as well as enhanced aesthetic properties. The walls constructed
using this system may be left exposed, plastered or finished with cement paint.
It is a mortarless masonry system using blocks that interlock to provide leveling and alignment. Though still
uncommon, these systems could be used to construct strong, durable, and cost-effective buildings.

Types of Dry-Packed Interlocking Masonry Construction

Depending on the type of occupancy of the building, the assembly of dry-packed masonry can be completed
in one of the three ways:
¾ Plain
¾ surface bonded
¾ grouted
Plain dry-stacked units can be used for retaining walls, foundation walls,
partitions, and load-bearing walls up to about 9 feet tall in structures not
intended for human occupancy.
For surface-bonded walls, dry stacked units can be finished on both sides
with a cementitious or acrylic bonding matrix reinforced with fiberglass
mesh or plastic fibers as rain and air barrier, as well as providing the final
surface finish and color. Height limits can be as high as 21 feet 8 inches for
two-story load bearing walls.
In grouted construction, dry-stacked units have their cores partially or
fully filled with grout, including horizontal and vertical reinforcement.
Reinforced grouted walls provide masonry assemblies with properties and
load capacities similar to conventional reinforced masonry systems. Height
limits can approach 36 feet for three-storied load bearing walls

Consideration For Dry-Packed Interlocking Masonry Construction

CORNERS
Dry-packed interlocking masonry construction should be started at
the corners. One must start the first course with a shaved ½ block.
It must be remembered to shave off the ridge and male face of the
corner block, and further ensuring that the shaved ridge points
upward and the shaved male face points outwards. The aim is to
make the corner an integral part of the structure
T – JUNCTIONS
For a T ±Junction of n courses, shaved ½ blocks and shaved full blocks are required to start the first
course having shaved faces pointing upwards.
CROSS JUNCTIONS
For a cross junction, that is an integral part of both the walls, only full blocks with ridges shaved off
are required, ensuring that there are no straight joints.
JOINTS AND ANGLES
Each course will have to be connected at the corner with a brick force that should be always nailed
in the center of the block and not near the edge.

Benefits of Dry-Stacked Interlocking Masonry System

¾ Reduction in construction time. Due to this, building construction cost also reduces.
¾ Reduced requirement for skilled labor.
¾ Reduction in usage of costly cement.
¾ Wall face surfaces are even. Plastering is not required but can be done as an option.
¾ It is a self-aligning masonry system that uses minimal amounts of mortar (or no mortar).
¾ Good quality control over the manufacturing of blocks and assembly as it is done at the
manufacturing factory. Quality control of the assembly would lie with the manufacturer of the
interlocking block, substantially reducing responsibility at the job-site.
¾ Faster construction compared to masonry units, as the mixing and placing of mortar is avoided.
Using interlocking units without mortar, the mason could put more units in the wall in a given period
of time. Output has been as much as 900 to 1,200 units a day per crew.
¾ The combined effect of less skilled labor and increased output has been estimated to reduce labor
cost by as much as 80%.
¾ The interlocking block provides stability during construction, floor and roof loads could be placed on
wall assemblies without waiting for mortar to cure, thus further speeding the construction process.

Suitability of Dry-Packed Interlocking Block Construction

In Load Bearing Masonry

Since blocks are of 220 mm width and can be made of block strength > 75 N/mm2, same can be safely used
for Load Bearing construction. In terms of IS 1905, masonry can be done with thin mortar slurry of 1:3.

In Framed Structure Masonry

Brick/block work is to be used as an infill only. Dry-stacked block work can be used in out-walls of +/- 220
mm thickness. For block work of lesser width, it is recommended to use mortar slurry.

In Reinforced Masonry

Interlocking blocks with horizontal and vertical cavity provide an ideal solution for using reinforcements to
suit the structural design requirements, of reinforced masonry.

In Boundary Walls
Dry-stacked block work is well suited for this application and is very fast, aesthetically pleasing and cost-
effective.

CONFINED MASONRY
Background

Confined masonry is a technology that, if built correctly, performs well in earthquakes. Well-constructed
confined masonry buildings have been observed to incur little or no damage when exposed to strong
earthquake shaking.
Confined masonry uses the same basic materials of concrete and bricks/blocks that are used in more
common construction techniques in areas of high seismic risk around the world, such as unreinforced
masonry and reinforced concrete frame construction with masonry infill walls. Because confined masonry
uses these commonly available materials, it can be an affordable and feasible construction choice for low-
rise buildings (4 stories or less).
While confined masonry as a building technology is addressed in some couQWULHV¶EXLOGLQJ
Chile, Peru, Argentina, China as well as Eurocodes which are used in the European Union countries), it is
more widely treated as an informal technology. This makes it difficult for engineers and architects in
countries where its use could be beneficial to use the technology.

What is Confined Masonry Construction?

Over the last 100 years, confined masonry construction has emerged
as a building technology that offers an alternative to both
unreinforced masonry and RC frame construction. In fact, confined
masonry has features of both these technologies. Confined masonry
construction consists of masonry walls (made either of clay brick or
concrete block units) and horizontal and vertical RC confining
members built on all four sides of a masonry wall panel. Vertical
members, called tie-columns or practical columns, resemble
columns in RC frame construction except that they tend to be of far
smaller cross-section. Horizontal elements, called tie-beams,
resemble beams in RC frame construction.
‡
Masonry walls ±transmit the gravity load from the slab(s) above down to the foundation; the walls act as
bracing panels, which resist horizontal earthquake forces. The walls must be confined by concrete tie-beams
and tie-columns to ensure satisfactory earthquake performance.
‡Confining elements (tie-columns and tie-beams) ±provide restraint to masonry walls and protect them
from complete disintegration even in major earthquakes; these elements resist gravity loads and have
important role in ensuring YHUWLFDOVWDELOLW\RIDEXLOGLQJLQ Floor and roof slabs ±transmit
both gravity and lateral loads to the walls. In an earthquake, slabs behave like horizontal beams and are
called diaphragms.
‡
Plinth band ±transmits the load from the walls down to the foundation. It also protects the ground floor
walls from excessive settlement in soft soil conditions.
‡
Foundation ±transmits the loads from the structure to the ground.
The confining members are effective in
¾ Enhancing the stability and integrity of masonry walls for in-plane and out-of-plane earthquake
forces (confining members can effectively contain damaged masonry walls),
¾ Enhancing the strength (resistance) of masonry walls under lateral earthquake loads, and
¾ Reducing the brittleness of masonry walls under earthquake loads and hence improving their
earthquake performance.

Confined masonry walls can be constructed using various masonry units. Figure 2 shows construction from
Slovenia built using hollow clay tiles and confined masonry construction from El Salvador built using burnt
clay bricks, while Figure 3 (left) shows a confined masonry building from Indonesia built using concrete
blocks.
Confined masonry construction is somewhat similar to reinforced masonry. In reinforced masonry, vertical
and horizontal reinforcement bars are provided to enhance the strength of masonry walls. Masonry units are
usually hollow and are made of concrete or clay. Vertical reinforcement bars are placed in the hollow cores,
which are subsequently grouted with a cement-based grout to protect the reinforcement from corrosion.
Horizontal reinforcement is provided in the form of ladder reinforcement (placed in horizontal joints) or
deformed reinforcement bars placed in bond beams typically located at the lintel level (similar to RC lintel
bands in Indian masonry construction).
How? Confined Masonry Buildings Resist Earthquake Effects

A confined masonry building subjected to earthquake ground shaking can be modeled as a vertical truss, as
shown in Figure (left). Masonry walls act as diagonal struts subjected to compression, while reinforced
concrete confining members act in tension and/or compression, depending on the direction of lateral
earthquake forces. This model is appropriate before the cracking in the walls takes place. Subsequently, the
cracking is concentrated at the ground floor level and significant lateral deformations take place. Under
severe earthquake ground shaking, the collapse of confined masonry buildings may take place due to soft
story effect similar to the one observed in RC frames with masonry infills, as shown in Figure (right).
This behavior was confirmed by experimental studies (Alcocer, 2004, 2004a). It was reported after the 2003
Tecomán, Colima, Mexico earthquake, that a three-story confined masonry apartment building in Colima
experienced significant damage at the ground floor level. An effective way to avoid the fragile behavior
associated with the soft story effect is to provide horizontal reinforcement in masonry walls to enhance their
shear resistance.

Key Factors

Influencing Seismic Resistance of Confined Masonry Structures

Wall Density: This is believed to be one of the key parameters influencing the seismic performance of
confined masonry buildings. Wall density can be determined as the transverse area of walls in each principal
direction divided by the total floor area of the building.
Masonry Units and Mortar: The tests have shown that the lateral load resistance of confined masonry
walls strongly depend on the strength of the masonry units and the mortar used. The walls built using low
strength bricks or ungrouped hollow units had the lowest strength while the ones built using grouted or solid
units had the largest strength. Also, the weaker the mortar the lower the masonry strength (due to the unit-
mortar interaction, the masonry strength is always lower than the unit strength). Test results have also shown
that there is no significant difference in strength between unreinforced and confined masonry wall
specimens with the same geometry and material properties
Tie-Columns: The contribution of tie-columns is significant in the post-cracking stage. Tie-columns
significantly influence the ductility and stability of cracked confined masonry walls. Note that the effect of
tie-columns in increasing lateral resistance of confined masonry structures has only recently been
recognized.
Horizontal Wall Reinforcement: In many countries where confined masonry construction is practiced,
reinforcement is usually not provided in masonry walls. However, in four-to-five storey construction in Peru
there is a tendency to provide horizontal joint reinforcement in the form of one or two wires laid in the
mortar bed joints, as shown in Figure.
Openings: An experimental research study showed that, when the opening area is less than approximately
10% of the total wall area, the wall lateral load resistance is not significantly reduced as compared to a solid
wall (Yanez et al., 2004). The walls with larger openings develop diagonal cracks (same as solid walls),
except that the cracks are formed in the piers between the openings; thus, diagonal struts form in the piers,
as shown in Figure.

Conclusions
Confined masonry buildings have performed well in several earthquakes worldwide. This type of
construction has a great potential for saving lives and property in areas of high seismic risk in India.
However, like any other construction practice, good earthquake performance is based on the following
premises:
¾ Use of good quality materials,
¾ Good quality concrete and masonry construction, and
¾ Simple architectural design.
It is expected that this simple guideline featuring architectural design and construction of confined masonry
buildings will be useful to architects, builders and other parties involved in the building construction.
Light Weight Construction Technology
Lightweight construction can be defined as the effort to change a design in such a way that the quotient of
useful weight to dead weight improves without having a negative impact on functionality resulting from this
change. One goal could therefore be to increase the payload of a vehicle without increasing its dead weight;
or to reduce the weight of the vehicle to the same possible payload without compromising its function as a
safety, comfort and assistance system.

As an alternative to all-concrete, lightweight construction is increasingly seen as a more responsible

construction option as we face up to the social challenges of climate change, increasing urbanization and
galloping demographic change... We take a closer look at these new techniques that could point the way to
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This construction method uses materials like timber and metal to form building structures, instead of bricks
and mortar. Far from being a fashion statement, this trend is essentially the globalization of local traditional
construction methods. Healthy and environmentally friendly, they comply fully with the latest thermal
insulation and energy efficiency regulations.
Is lightweight construction economical?

Is lightweight construction really more flexible, faster and more economical? It all depends on what we are
talking about.
By offering the option to build faster, facilitate automation and optimize production processes by using
prefabrication, lightweight construction really does reduce production costs, and therefore the construction
costs of creating the affordable, repeatable and exportable ho using the world badly needs.
But all that depends on the materials you choose. Timber frame or metal frame? The cost depends on
resource availability. The fact that timber is widely used in Japan, Scandinavia and the USA is because the
resource is readily available in those countries, and the construction industry has structured itself to use this
material over a very long period, thereby keeping costs under control.
Lightweight construction offers a huge potential for resource-efficient mechatronic systems. Lightweight
construction does not only imply lower weight of moved assembly groups, it is also a synonym for ideal
load-oriented use of materials and design principles.
¾ Development and calculation of lightweight structures
¾ Design/utilization of metal fiber composite hybrid components
¾ Metal foam: technology, prototypes, small series
In industrial terms, lightweight construction is not only the technically best compromise between weight and
other technological requirements ² it must also be economical. For cost reasons, most mechanical
engineering products are made of metal. The most important materials are steel, aluminum and magnesium.
Their differing material properties not only have an influence on the quality indicators but also on the
processability of semi-finished and finished products and the associated costs.

The light weight concrete can be produced by various methods. All depends on either the presence of air
voids in aggregates or in the matrix, or by committing fine aggregates. We can classify light weight concrete
as follows:
¾ Light weight aggregate concrete
¾ Aerated concrete
¾ No fines concrete

Materials

Lightweight construction by intelligent material combination

Metal lightweight materials include aluminum, magnesium, high-strength steels and titanium. In addition,
fiber composites are among the typical lightweight materials. Powder metallurgical materials also offer a
huge potential for lightweight construction.
Manufacturing and joining technologies

Lightweight technologies ready for serial production

Using lightweight materials requires adapting existing manufacturing and joining technologies to new
materials. We investigate process chains holistically, develop solutions for technology and periphery levels
and accompany you from the first idea up to series production.
Joining and assembly technologies for lightweight construction
¾ Mechanical and thermal joining ¾ Lightweight construction of production
technology resources
¾ Electromagnetic forming ¾ Bulk metal forming
¾ Cutting and removing

Manufacturing and joining technologies

More efficiency due to functional integration

By integrating sensors and actuators on the material level, we achieve high functional density in assembly
groups, machines and components. In this context, composites of so-called smart materials are used, for
example piezoceramics, shape-memory alloys or active polymers in combination with construction materials
such as steel, aluminum or fiber plastic composites.
¾ Complexity: New technologies of additive manufacturing also known as 3D printing are applied in
order to reach a new level of geometric variability, thus implementing functional integration in the
narrowest installation space. In addition to widespread pure plastic or metal printing, fiber plastic
composites can even be directly printed and specifically applied at the Fraunhofer IWU.
 ¾ Simplicity: By integrating sensors and actuators made of smart materials, self-adaptation to variable
ambient conditions becomes possible, resulting in drastic reduction of component complexity.
¾ Multifunctionality: Hybrid structures offer an expansion of functions in addition to their lightweight
potential.
¾ Technological variety: Tapping into textile technologies for fiber plastic composites facilitates high
variability of geometry and properties.
Heavyweight and lightweight materials have differing thermal performance and environmental impact
depending on:
¾ Where they are used (internally or externally).
¾ How they interact with or moderate the climate.
¾ How far they need to be transported.
¾ How much energy and water are used in their manufacturing process.
¾ Specific site requirements (e.g., slope, aspect, noise control; fire resistance).
¾ Exposure to destructive forces of nature (fire, termites, rain, cyclonic activity, UV, humidity, etc.).
Material selection for a new home should be assessed in light of the above factors to reach the best
possible solution. In most situations, a carefully designed combination of lightweight and
heavyweight systems will produce the best overall outcome in economic and environmental terms.

Heavyweight Construction:

¾ Generally, has higher embodied energy than lightweight construction.

¾ Improves thermal comfort and reduces operational (heating and cooling) energy use, when used in
conjunction with passive design and good insulation.
¾ Is most appropriate in climates with large diurnal (day-night) temperature ranges, however,
exceptions occur at more extreme climates.
¾ Is more beneficial in heating climates.
¾ Requires more substantial footing systems and causes greater site impact and disturbance.
¾ Should be avoided on remote sites where there is a high transport component (eg. Darwin).
¾ Is often quarried or processed with high impact.
¾ Typically requires less maintenance and is more durable than lightweight construction.

Lightweight Construction:

¾ Generally, has lower embodied energy than heavyweight construction.

¾ Can yield lower total life cycle energy use, particularly where the diurnal range is low.
¾ Responds rapidly to temperature changes and can provide significant benefits in warmer climates by
cooling rapidly at night.
¾ Is preferred on remote sites with high materials transportation component.
 ¾ Usually requires more heating and cooling energy in cold to warm climates (where solar access is
achievable) when compared to heavyweight construction with similar levels of insulation and passive
design.
¾ Can have low production impact (eg sustainably sourced timber) or high impact (unsustainably
sourced timber or metal frame).
¾ Typically requires more maintenance and is less durable than heavyweight construction. Australia
boasts eight different climate zones, insulation and thermal mass needs and requirements are climate
determined. It is important to understand that different types and combinations of insulation and
thermal mass must be considered to create an energy efficient, comfortable and long-term lower cost
home

Technologies based on Agro-Industrial Waste

In the past few decades, due to prodigious increase in the modernization, tons and tons of waste is produced.
Every year the whole world has to face the waste accumulation issue. Industrial factory and agriculture
produce by products of waste like sludge, slag, fly ash, glass, rice husk ash, bagasse, cement dust etc.
Handling this waste is a major environmental problem as it causes air pollution in which the dust and other
fine particles are released in the atmosphere, and spreads toxic chemicals like cadmium, lead, mercury,
boron, arsenic, selenium, hydrogen compounds etc., which are later dumped in rivers, oceans and landfills.
Protection of nature has become a major concern from the environmental point of view. Construction field is
a prominent field in handling this waste to reuse them as construction materials.
Researchers are working on producing prominent and effective construction materials from waste produced.
Concrete is a very cheap and easy to produce material as it is obtained from about 8% of water, 12% of
cement and almost 80% of aggregate. Aggregates and water are available naturally but cement is produced
in factory pollutes the environment, by liberating 480 kg of CO2 to produce 1m3 of concrete. To reduce the
consumption of cement and aggregate, different materials obtained from waste are studied.

MAJOR SOLID WASTE AND THEIR POTENTIAL USE IN CONSTRUCTION

MATERIALS

Due to technological innovations, there has been increase in urbanization, population and living standards
which has eventually led to the increase in solid waste produced by industries, agricultural fields etc. Above
table shows the different types and sources of solid waste.
Every year millions of tons of waste are generated. In India itself 960 million tons of solid waste is
generated which include 350 million tons of organic agro-waste, 290 million tons of inorganic industrial and
mining waste. Getting rid this solid waste has become a major problem in every country and the possibility
of using this solid waste as construction material is of increasing importance.
In the past few years, the solid waste has been gone under considerable development to make recycled
products. Waste such as fly ash, blast furnace slag, sludge, recycled aggregates, waste tea, red mud etc have
shown tremendous success in this research area.

A. Fly ash

Fly ash is basically left-over residue from power plants. It is a by-product from municipal solid waste
incinerators. Fly ash is highly dispersible. It contains about 60% to 80% of aluminosilicate and
ferriferous glassy spherical particles, , mullite quartz and unburned metamorphic fuel (Malhotra and
Ramezaniarpour.)
Fly ash mainly consist of silicon dioxide which is 52.11% and aluminum oxide which is 23.59%. Instead of
Portland cement, fly ash is used in concrete because it is cost effective.
Fly ash has high strength of concrete because of its pozzolanic properties and its small spherical particles
makes the concrete more effective.
Advantages of using fly ash as raw material for bricks as the saves the firing energy due to the presence
carbon content.
B. Granulated blast-furnace slag

Blast furnace slag is actually produced from the manufacturing of steel and iron, and holds intrinsic
hydraulic properties. It is used to make some of the construction materials such as portland slag cement and
super sulfated cement. A large quantity of Granulated blast-furnace slag is used in the manufacturing of
portland slag and super sulfated cements. The use of GGBS with cement improves the final strength,
microstructure and durability of hardened concrete. Ground granulated blast furnace slag provides protection
against sulfate attack and chloride attack. To measure the resistivity of the concrete samples bulk electrical
resistivity test is used. Higher the resistivity, higher is the ion transfer resistivity and hence higher is the
durability. This durability of GGBS can be improved by 50% of GGBS in concrete. Also if concrete is made
with GGBS, it continuous to gain strength over time, and shows double the strength in 28 days over a period
of 10 to 12 years.

C. Phosphogypsum

Phosphogypsum is a by-product of phosphate fertilizer produced from phosphate or fluoridate.

Approximately 280 million tons of Phosphogypsum waste is generated every year out of which 6 million
tons of phosphogypsum is produced in India itself. 30 million tons of Phosphogypsum waste is generated in
Korea and about 22 million tons is generated in China. Phosphogypsum waste is very difficult to store. Is it
usually deposited in rivers and seas hence polluting the environment. It would be very worthy if
Phosphogypsum would be used as construction materials. Due to the presence of undesirable impurities like
P2O5, fluorides, organic matter and alkalis, untreated phosphogypsum waste cannot be used as construction
material. However, phosphogypsum is reused as a secondary binder with lime stone and cement. It is used as
a substitute for natural gypsum in the manufacturing of Portland cement to set control. Phosphogypsum is
used in the production of artificial aggregates for soil and road stabilization. Phosphogypsum is also used as
a raw material for plaster and wallboard after calcination or purification process. Construction material such
as Bricks and blocks can be manufactured by combining phosphogypsum with fly ash and lime.
D. Palm oil Fuel Ash

Palm oil fuel ash is a waste material produced from the combustion of palm oil industry waste to generate
electricity. It is basically a ago-waste material. When the oil from the oil palm fruit is extracted, both shells
and husks are burnt in boiler to create steam for turbine to generate electricity used in palm oil mills. The
product obtained after burning, the ash is known as palm oil fuel ash. Ungrounded POFA has partially
replaced OPC (ordinary Portland cement), the only thing to remember is the ungrounded POFA should not
be used with a content more than 10% of cement by weight because of its low pozzolanic property. Hussin
and Ishida (1999) used 20% to 40% of ground POFA by weight of ordinary Portland cement in concrete and
found out that the modulus of elascity, compressive strength, shrinkage, 3RLVVRQ¶V ratio, and creep of
concrete were comparable to that of OPC concrete up to 30% replacement of cement.

E. Rice Husk Ash

Rice husk ash is by product of rice mill industry which is obtained by burning husk of rice paddy. Non-
crystalline amorphous rice husk ash is obtained by controlled burning of rice husk at 500oC to 800oC which
is grey or whitish in color. Rice husk ash particles have cellular structures with very high surface area.
Rice husk ash contains up to 95% of amorphous silica and has excellent pozzolanic activity because of
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findings in 1973. Rice husk ash can also be used in concrete and mortar with good workability. High
strength and high performance concrete was made using rice husk ash as a supplementary cementing
material. Rice husk ash can be used for production of delf consolidating high performance concrete with
improved durability and hardened properties. RHA reduces the porosity, and increases the flexural, tensile
and compressive strengths of concrete. Rice husk ash also improves the corrosive resistance and durability
of concrete. Rice husk ash can successfully used in construction materials like blocks and bricks.
F. Construction and Demolition Debris

CONCLUSION

Ample amount of solid waste is generated from various industrial, agricultural, mining and domestic
activities as by-products which causes major environmental damage and pollution. Eco-friendly, efficient
and cost-effective materials can replace this other material which produces more waste can consume a lot of
natural resources.
These materials keep a potential to be used in urban as well as rural areas. A detailed engineering, psycho-
chemical, thermal, mineralogical and morphological knowledge is required to effectively utilize the solid
waste as an alternative in construction industry. If the durability performance of this solid waste is not good
then despite of their good properties they will not be used. High technology centers are required to maximize
the use of solid waste construction materials in the real world.

Bamboo Based Technologies

Bamboo grows fast and matures early. The output of bamboo
plantation is great and the use of bamboo stem is wide. Once
successfully planted, bamboo plants keep on rhizoning, shooting
and maturing every year. The annual selective cutting and
sustainable utilization can be implemented without damaging
ecological environment. The world is facing rapid decrease of
forest resources and suffering serious deterioration of ecological
environment. Therefore, the development and exploitation of
bamboo resource is of considerable importance.
The morphology, structure and chemical components of bamboo
differ from those of timber. Consequently, the methods, technology
and equipment for timber processing cannot be applied
indiscriminately in bamboo utilization. This is one of the direct
reasons why bamboo is utilized only for manual weaving, simple
ware making for hundreds of years.
Several bamboo-based technologies and products like bathroom
sanitary and electrical products, bamboo buildings and structures for relief and rehabilitation in the wake of
major disasters, laptop stand, photo frames, bamboo shoot processing, cane furniture, plyboards have been
developed, and IPRs also filed on some of them. These have generated employment of the order of 30
million man-days per annum.
Furniture made with new designs and engineered bamboo is gaining popularity and attracting the attention
of architects, designers, and interior decorators. Bamboo buildings and structures have been constructed for
relief and rehabilitation in the wake of major disasters.
Bamboo-based board/ply/timber flattened board, veneer board, jute composites, plastic composites have
been developed and commercialized.

Bamboo morphology

A. Rhizome
The underground part and tubers of bamboo compose its
rhizome system. The rhizome has nodes and inter-node parts.
There are small, degenerated scale-like leaves on nodes,
axillary buds and adventitious roots on leaf auxins. The
axillary buds can grow into shoots or bamboo culms.
Facts are most important: bamboo culm is growing on the
rhizome. But from the viewpoint of bamboo utilization
bamboo culm is regarded as its main stem in this book.
B. Stem
In the industrial utilization of bamboo, particularly for making
bamboo-based panels, stems of large-scale bamboo species are
selected. The stem consists of three parts: stem, stem base and
stem petiole.
where technologies have been developed, tested, and
commercialized are include:
Wood substitutes and composites including different types of bamboo boards like flatten, veneer, jute
composite, corrugated sheets.
Construction and Structural Applications Bamboo composites have opened new vistas for lightweight,
durable and aesthetic construction for a variety of applications, enabling informed choices for housing,
community, and functional structures, including high-end construction for areas
Food and Agro-processing- Bamboo shoots carry the potential of value-added economic activity through
community entrepreneurial initiatives in cultivation, processing, and packaging. Cluster level processing
and packaging technology of bamboo shoots is standardized for 7 days and were tested microbiologically,
chemically & organoleptically.

Processing machines and technology: The Mission worked with machinery manufacturers to develop a
range of efficient, sturdy, and low-cost tooling and processing machinery suited to Indian conditions and
species, to reduce drudgery, improve productivity and minimize wastage.

Bamboo for Energy: The gasification of bamboo can produce clean and renewable electricity and a range
of valuable byproducts like high-grade charcoal.

Industrial Products: Bamboo processing ‘waste’ is an excellent source material for high-grade charcoal
and activated carbon which can serve as a fuel, absorbent, and conductor. Activated carbon can be used as
deodorant, disinfectant, medicine, agricultural chemical, and absorbent of

pollution and excessive moisture. Technologies to enable the manufacture of bamboo charcoal and
activated carbon have been established.

Bamboo as a Building Material

Utilization of Bamboo for construction is achieved by a structural frame technique which is related to
same approach applied in usual timber frame design and construction. In the case bamboo, floor, walls and
roof are interconnected and often rely on the other for overall stability. Bamboo has played a vital role in the
growth of enterprises and the rural transformation.

Bamboo for Foundations

There is very limited use of bamboo as foundation material because when in contact with moisture laden
surface they decay fast. However, this issue can be tackled to quite an extent though proper treatment using
appropriate chemicals. The various types of foundations constructed with bamboo are:
¾ Bamboo which is in direct contact with ground surface.
¾ Bamboo fixed to rock or preformed concrete footings
¾ Composite bamboo or concrete columns
¾ Bamboo piles

Bamboos are used in various shapes and forms to build foundation. Some of the common shapes of
bamboos are:
a) Flattened bamboo shape which is acquired by splitting freshly cut bamboo stalks and then rolling and
flattening them.
b) Bamboo mats as thin as 5-6mm or 10-15mm in size are woven according to design prerequisite. Phenolic
resins are used in structures employing bamboo mats.
c) Bamboo plastic composite is a pioneering technology in which bamboo fiber as raw material is blended
with plastic as the core material. These mats are highly resistant to moisture and structurally more stable.
Walls Construction with Bamboo as a Building Material

Bamboo is extensively used for construction of walls and partitions. Posts and beams are the main elements
normally constructed with bamboo provide structural framework for walls. They positioned in a way to be
able to withstand forces of nature. An infill is used between framing elements to add strength and stability to
the walls.

Roofing with Bamboo as a Building Material

Bamboo is one of the best roofing materials and provides ample sturdiness to the structure. It is a proven
shield against forces of nature or animals and are considerably light weighted which makes them easy to
install. The bamboo roofs encompass purlins, rafters and trusses.

Scaffolding with Bamboo as a Building Material

Due to advantageous properties of bearing heavy load bamboos are considered as one of the highly-endorsed
materials for scaffolding even for tall structures. For the construction of scaffolding, cane extensions are
obtained by lashing cane ends using several ropes. The ties are positioned in such a way that forces acting
vertically downwards lodge the nodes in the lashing. This technique has immense significance since the
joints can be re-aligned in the right degree.
Advantages of Bamboo as a Building Material
The various advantages of bamboo are as mentioned below:
¾ Tensile strength: Bamboo has higher tensile strength than steel because its fibers run axially.
¾ Fire Resistance: Capability of bamboo to resist fire is very high and it can withstand temperature up
to 4000 C. This is due to the presence of high value of silicate acid and water.
¾ Elasticity: Bamboo is widely preferred in earthquake prone regions due to its elastic features.
¾ Weight of bamboo: Bamboos due to their low weight are easily displaced or installed making it
very easier for transportation and construction.
¾ Unlike other building materials like cement and asbestos, bamboo poses no danger to health.
¾ They are cost effective and easy to use.
¾ They are especially in great demand in earthquake prone areas.

Disadvantages of Bamboo
Bamboos come with their own set of drawbacks such as:
¾ They require preservation
¾ Shrinkage: Bamboo shrinks much greater than any other type of timber especially when it loses
water.
¾ Durability: Bamboo should be sufficiently treated against insect or fungus attack before being
utilized for building purposes.
¾ Jointing: Despite prevalence of various techniques of jointing, structural reliability of bamboo is
questionable.

Pre-Engineered form work systems

A prefabricated formwork system comprising two parallel surfaces and a collapsible mechanism joining the
two surfaces, wherein the collapsible mechanism moves between being collapsed and expanded to allow
separation of the surfaces to expand the system from a collapsed position to an expanded position, wherein
the system includes a lock to lock the system in the expanded position to maintain separation of the surfaces
to form a formwork structure.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Prefabricated formwork panels are fast replacing traditional methods of constructing concrete buildings. The
on-site pouring of concrete using prefabricated formwork panels is preferred to prefabricated concrete tilt
slabs, particularly in low-rise buildings, as prefabricated formwork panel systems provide greater versatility
and accuracy in creating a wall as well as in accommodating building services within the panels.
There is furthermore less expense in transporting prefabricated formwork panels than concrete slabs as they
are lighter, not being filled with concrete until after erected on-site, and hence more panels can be
transported in a single delivery compared with the transportation of concrete slabs.
Prefabricated formwork panels can be quickly erected and joined on- site, reinforced and then filled with
liquid concrete to form permanent internal and external walls, including load bearing walls. These panels
can be ready made with internal and external wall finishes, such as cement sheet or plasterboard, and can
also be pre-fabricated with insulating layers. In the quest for lowering construction costs and construction
time, formwork systems are being developed to make the construction process more efficient and more
economical while maintaining a high-quality product.

BENEFITS OF PREFABRICATED FORMWORK SYSTEM

Now-a-days, prefabricated formwork systems are gaining popularity among the contractors for the following
reasons:-
¾ Capability to assemble components for almost any size or shape form
¾ The requirement for on-site skilled labor is reduced significantly
¾ Capacity to reprocess forms either as a large section or as individual units.
¾ In prefabricated method, frame of aluminum is covered with aluminum or timber. The frame is very
long lasting if constructed with metal and aluminum and can be utilized for 2000 times.
¾ The design of all prefabricated systems is made for light and heavy construction. The contractors will
be able to submit bid for almost any type of work like straight, battered, curved or cup-up.
¾ Prefab forms are settled in any combination, horizontally and vertically to different types of wall
heights.
¾ On high walls, one side of form is built up and ties are arranged, then the close-out side is built up at
the time of being arranged. Thus, the concrete drop is reduced and efficient vibration is maintained.
¾ In a prefab system, the contractor is capable of eliminating and substituting forms at any point. It
streamlines erection and stripping that can be commenced at any location.
¾ The most striking feature is prefab forming is the formation gang forming that is simply described as
the grouping together and shifting of a number of forms as a single unit.
¾ The gang forming is possible because of the formation of user-friendly hardware and ties,
specifically created for this forming method.

Different types of Formwork System

Traditional timber formwork: The formwork is built on site out of timber and plywood or moisture-
resistant particleboard. It is easy to produce but time-consuming for larger structures, and the plywood
facing has a relatively short lifespan. It is still used extensively where the labor costs are lower than the costs
for procuring reusable formwork. It is also the most flexible type of formwork, so even where other systems
are in use, complicated sections may use it.
Engineered Formwork System: This formwork is built out of prefabricated modules with a metal frame
(usually steel or aluminum) and covered on the application (concrete) side with material having the wanted
surface structure (steel, aluminum, timber, etc.).
The two major advantages of formwork systems, compared to traditional timber formwork, are speed of
construction (modular systems pin, clip, or screw together quickly) and lower life cycle costs (barring
major force, the frame is almost indestructible, while the covering if made of wood; may have to be replaced
after a few ±or a few dozen ±uses, but if the covering is made with steel or aluminum the form can achieve
up to two thousand uses depending on care and the applications).
Re-usable plastic formwork: These interlocking and modular systems are used to build widely variable,
but relatively simple, concrete structures. The panels are lightweight and very robust. They are especially
suited for similar structure projects and low-cost, mass housing schemes. To get an added layer of protection
against destructive weather, galvanized roofs will help by eliminating the risk of corrosion and rust.. They
can either be mounted on an existing roof, or constructed without a floor and lifted onto existing enclosures
using a crane.
Permanent Insulated Formwork: This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of insulating concrete
forms (ICF). The formwork stays in place after the concrete has cured, and may provide advantages in terms
of speed, strength, superior thermal and acoustic insulation, space to run utilities within the EPS layer, and
integrated furring strip for cladding finishes.
Stay-In-Place structural formwork systems: This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of
prefabricated fiber-reinforced plastic forms. These are in the shape of hollow tubes, and are usually used for
columns and piers. The formwork stays in place after the concrete has cured and acts as axial and shear
reinforcement, as well as serving to confine the concrete and prevent against environmental effects, such as
corrosion and freeze-thaw cycles.
Flexible formwork: In contrast to the rigid molds described above, flexible formwork is a system that uses
lightweight, high strength sheets. of fabric to take advantage of the fluidity of concrete and create highly
optimized, architecturally interesting, building forms. Using flexible formwork, it is possible to cast
optimized structures that use significantly less concrete than an equivalent strength prismatic section,
thereby offering the potential for significant embodied energy savings in new concrete structures.
Slab formwork: Slab Formwork essentially consists of a horizontal load-bearing structure which supports
the form lining and transfers the forces into the shoring. Some its types areTimber beam slab formwork,
Traditional slab formwork, Metal beam slab formwork, Modular slab formwork, Table or flying form
systems and Tunnel forms.
Climbing formwork: Climbing formwork is a special type formwork for vertical concrete structures that
rises with the building process. While relatively complicated and costly, it can be an effective solution for
buildings that are either very repetitive in form (such as towers or skyscrapers) or that require a seamless
wall structure (using gliding formwork, a special type of climbing formwork)

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

According to the present invention there is provided a prefabricated formwork system comprising two
parallel surfaces and a collapsible mechanism joining the two surfaces, wherein the collapsible mechanism
moves between being collapsed and expanded to allow separation of the surfaces to expand the system from
a collapsed position to an expanded position, wherein the system includes a lock to lock the system in the
expanded position to maintain separation of the surfaces to form a formwork structure
The fixing plates in one embodiment may include a notch to receive a pin joint when the panel is collapsed
such that the collapsed mechanism is clip locked into a collapsed state. From the collapsed state to full
extension, the rotatable linkage extends through 0°- 180°.
The spacers are in one embodiment defined by two inter-clipping parts that
snap fit together using a bead and groove clip lock arrangement to form a
spacer. Where expansion is maintained by the self-locking feature of the
collapsible mechanism as described above, the interlocking parts of the
rotatable linkage is able to maintain separation at variable expansion
widths.
In one embodiment the surfaces are wall sheets, such as cement sheet,
plasterboard, plastics board, metal sheet or screen. In another embodiment the surfaces may be a frame or a
screen adapted to be attached to wall sheets. In further embodiments the surfaces may be structures other
than walls, including indoor and outdoor slabs, beams, columns, multipurpose planks filled with concrete,
stair structures and applicable to many other building construction and structural engineering possibilities.
7KHFRXSOLQJVWXGLVW\SLFDOO\DQHORQJDWH+
clips positioned on opposing inner surfaces of each adjacent structure that the interlocking system joins. The
stud can be in extruded form or can be in pieces shorter in length than the length of a structure side so that
multiple coupling studs can be spaced along a side length of a structure.

Fiber Cement
Fiber cement siding is a durable and low-maintenance material that is commonly used to cover the exterior
of houses and, in some cases, commercial buildings. It's manufactured with cellulose fibers, along with
cement and sand, making it long lasting and durable.
Fiber cement siding is sometimes confused with asbestos-cement siding, a shingle-format type of siding
widely used in the first half of the 20th century and which has since been discontinued. Fiber cement siding
does not contain asbestos.
Fiber cement siding is a durable, long-lasting and low-maintenanFHPDWHULDOWKDW¶VXV
KRXVHVDQGVRPHFRPPHUFLDOSURMHFWV,W¶VDVHP -rigid material that provides substantial protection, while
still maintaining some flexibility.

WHAT IS FIBER CEMENT SIDING MADE OF?

Fiber cement is made up of a few simple ingredients: Portland cement, sand, water, and cellulose fibers.
+RZHYHUWKHFRPSRVLWLRQZLOOFKDQJHGHSHQGLQJ
propriety additives that enhance the performance of the product.

Fiber Cement Siding Advantages

One of the most desirable qualities of fiber cement board is that it is so durable. Unlike wood siding,
fiberboard siding does not rot or require frequent repainting. It is fireproof, insect resistant, and performs
well in natural disasters. Impressively, some fiber cement board manufacturers offer warranties that last for
up to 50 years, a testament to the material's longevity. Aside from being low maintenance, fiber cement
board is also energy efficient and, to a small degree, contributes to insulating your home.
¾ Non-combustible. It will not ignite
when exposed to a direct flame, nor will
it contribute fuel to a fire.
¾ Created to withstand damage from
moisture and rot.
¾ Engineered to stand up to the demands
of your specific climate.
¾ Unappealing to woodpeckers, termites
and other pests.
Fiber cement siding is a low-maintenance exterior option for your home. The extent and nature of
maintenance required will depend on your geographical location, exposure of the building and whether you
have prefinished siding or if it will be painted on site.

Fiber Cement Siding Pros and Cons

Pros
¾ Durable ¾ Heavy
¾ Durable ¾ Brittle: may chip or crack
¾ Fire resistant ¾ Dusty when cut
¾ Insect resistant ¾ Higher cost
¾ Great appearance
Advantages of Fiber Cement Siding
Durability

-XVWWKHQDPH³ILEHUFHPHQW´KDVDQLQGXVWULDO-strength ring to it. Indeed, this product is considered the most

UHVLVWDQWWRFRPPRQHQHPLHVRIUHVLGHQWLDOVLGL -resistant.
UV exposure does not degrade it and it resists hail, snow and ice. Wind is not a threat: In locales that
experience a high incidence of hurricanes or tornadoes, many local building codes actually specify the use of
fiber cement siding. Pests that attack conventional wood siding, notably termites and woodpeckers, show no
interest in fiber cement.

Environmentally Neutral

In finished fRUPILEHUFHPHQWVLGLQJLVQ¶WUHF\FODEOH
product that breaks down and releases toxins inside landfills, the ingredients of fiber cement siding are
considered environmentally inert and do not degrade into damaging substances.

Longevity

Fiber cement siding typically offers an estimated maximum 50-year service life for non-back coated product
and 75 years for back coated versions. Warranty coverage for the product typically extends from 30 to 50
years. If the siding was painted during the original manufacturing process, the factory coat of paint may also
carry a guarantee against fading, peeling, chips and other defects for a specific span of years.

Fire Safety

7KLVRQH¶VSUHWW\PXFKDQR -brainer. Wood siding adds more fuel and more flame to a house fire. PVC vinyl
siding requires temperatures around 700 degrees to actually ignite, however, it melts and falls off the house
at temperatures as low as only 165 degrees. Fiber cement siding is generally unaffected by both heat and
flame.

Disadvantages of Fiber Cement Siding

Insulation Value
The insulating factor of exterior siding helps minimize household heat gain in summer and heat loss in
winter. The higher the insulation R-value, the more effectively the material retards the movement of heat
energy into or out of the house.
Fiber cement and vinyl offer insulation R-values of .5 and .61, respectively²pretty much a draw. However,
vinyl siding potentially gains a greater edge if the homeowner opts for insulated vinyl siding that increases
the R-value to 2. That extra R-value comes with a cost, though, boosting the price of insulated vinyl by as
much as 40 percent.

Cost

The installed price of fiber cement siding can run substantially more than vinyl siding and generally
averages between and $6.00 and $11.00 per square foot. Vinyl siding typically costs $3.00 to $4.00 per
square foot. In the spectrum of siding choices, fiber cement is more expensive than vinyl, about the same
cost as hardboard or composite siding and cheaper than brick and synthetic stucco.

Installation Issues

Some handy homeowners successfully manage DIY vinyl siding replacement. The tools are common and
the product is fairly light. Even when hiring a contractor to do the job, installation costs of vinyl are
comparatively low.

Maintenance Matters

The factory paint coat on fiber cement siding could last up to 25 years before painting is required. Colorfast
vinyl siding will never require repainting, however. Maintenance recommendations for both vinyl siding and
fiber cement siding are similar and straightforward²spray down with garden hose or other low-pressure
water source every 6 to 12 months, sponge away any dirt or grime with soapy water.

Consumer Caveats

Quality of vinyl siding is tested and certified by ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
International. Currently, fiber cement siding is not tested and certified by any similar quality control agency.
However, many sources of fiber cement are well-established name-brand companies with reputations for
quality²the company that actually invented the product is among them²so taking care to deal with only
recognized, standout manufacturers of the material as well as reputable local contractors is advised.

#3. What is alternative building material?

Alternative building technologies are non-conventional building methodologies that provide sustainable
solutions in the build environment.
The terms to describe ABM including alternative materials, local building materials, unconventional
building materials, alternative residential construction materials, sustainable building materials, indigenous
building materials, vernacular building materials, green building materials, environmentally responsible
building materials, eco-friendly building materials, rapidly renewable or harvested building materials,
recycled building materials, etc.
The importance of Alternative Building Materials includes: the protection of the environment through
reduces energy use and also cutting down CO2 emission, provision of affordable housing, energy
conservation, meeting increasing demands for housing stock, provision of employment opportunities, the
development and propagation of indigenous technological ingenuity and skills of our local people.
The characteristics of ABM have been identified to include low or no chemical emissions that can lead to
poor indoor air quality, recycled content (post-consumer and pre-consumer), no CFC, HCFC, or other ozone
depleting substances content, low embodied energy, locally produced, possibility of repairs and
replacements with local means and social acceptability amongst others.
Low-cost housing is a new concept which deals with effective budgeting and following if technique which
help in reducing construction cost through use of locally available materials along with improved skill and
technologies without sacrificing strength, performance and life of structure
Construction of low-cost housing by using the low-cost building materials increases the access to buildings
by low in-come group peoples. Low-cost housing can be achieved by use of efficient planning and project
management, low-cost materials, economical construction technologies and use of alternate construction
methods available.
The profit gained from use of such methods can decrease the cost of construction and make the low-cost
housing accessible to all. The use of low-cost alternate building materials also prevents the rise of
construction cost due to use of scarce building materials which eventually increase the cost of the project.
Some alternative building material can be made out of natural materials, while others can help to lower
energy costs of the occupant once built. Regardless of what the goal of the builder is, alternative building
material and their use is on the rise.

FOUNDATION
A foundation is a lower portion of building structure that transfer its gravity load to the earth. Foundation are
generally broken into two categories: shallow foundations and deep foundations. A building must have
strong foundation to stand for longer life time. Out of total construction cost 10% to 15% of the cost is spend
under foundation.

Deep Strip Foundation

Deep strip foundations are least expensive and are used when ground conditions are good. The key sizes of
strip foundation for concrete cavity wall construction and timber framed cavity wall construction are similar.
The size and position of strip is directly related to overall width of wall. Strip foundation can be used for
most sub soil but are most suitable for soil which is of relatively good bearing capacity. they are particularly
suited to light structural loading where mass concrete strip foundation can be used.

Advantage

¾ Ability to withstand great load

¾ Easy to build no special training requirement
¾ Very long service life
¾ The price is much lower then that of cast in situ structure
¾ You can insulate the floor much better if you use a strip foundation

Helical Pile Foundation

Helical Piles are steel shafts with a series of low-pitched circular steel helical plates welded at strategic
positions along the shaft. The plates give the foundation both tension and compression bearing capacity
which enables them to be used for a wide range of applications across many industries and sectors.
The piles can be connected in groups using a steel load transfer grillage and are screwed directly into the
ground by machine-mounted hydraulic or electrically powered drilling equipment. Helical Piles make the
use of concrete for foundations a thing of the past.
Advantage

¾ Cost effective, rapid installation

¾ No concrete required, saving both curing time and money
¾ Small base construction for use in restricted areas
¾ Removable and reusable
¾ Low noise and minimal vibration during installation.

Driven Pile Foundation

A driven pile is a relatively long, slender column, provided to offer support or to resist forces, made of
preformed material having a predetermined shape and size that can be physically inspected prior to and
during installation, which is installed by impact hammering, vibrating or pushing into the earth.
Driven piles are usually the most cost-effective deep foundation solution. There are no hidden extra costs or
added expenses for site clean-up. The wide variety of materials and shapes available for driven piles can be
easily fabricated or specified for high structural strength, allowing them to be driven by modern hammers to
increased working loads thus requiring fewer piles per project, resulting in substantial savings in foundation
costs.

Advantages

¾ Driven piles may conveniently be used in places where it is advisable not to drill holes for fear of
meeting groundwater under pressure.
¾ Driven piles are the most favored for works over water such as piles in wharf structures or jetties.
¾ Driven piles maintain their shape during installation. They do not bulge in soft ground conditions and
are typically not susceptible to damage from the installation of subsequent piles.
¾ Driven piles require no curing time and can be driven in natural sequence rather than skipping
alternate piles, thus minimizing the moving of the equipment and speeding up installation time.

COLUMN
A column in structural engineering is a structural element that transmit through compression, the weight of
structure above to the structural element below. Column are generally compression member.
Column are important part of the structure as entire load of slab and beam are transfer to the column.
Therefore, it is necessary to construct the column with necessary strength and striving towards the economy.
Different methodologies of column construction are.

Bamboo reinforced column

With advancement of science and technology, it has found that some species of bamboo have ultimate
tensile strength same as that of mild steel at yield point. Experimentally it has found that ultimate tensile
strength of some species of bamboo is comparable to that of mild steel and it varies from 140N/mm sq to
280N/mm sq bamboo is versatile material because of its high yield strength to weight ratio, easy workability
and availability.
It is also found that bamboo act very well in buckling but due to low stress then compared to steel due to it
not being straight it may not be very good. Further it is established that failure of bamboo is very less as
maximum absorption of energy is at joint.

Fiber reinforcement

FRP reinforced concrete column are defined as concrete structure that are reinforced with FRP. Such
reinforcement may come in various type and shape. But commonly used material is the GFRP, CFRP, and
AFRP. Among this reinforcing bar, CFRP is most expensive as compared to glass and aramid. When cost
become major consideration in project, GFRP reinforcing bar are more applicable. Many conventional steel
concrete structures faced with steel corrosion problem due to exposer to corrosive environment it was more
critical for marine structure. Most of them will exposed to chloride supplied etc. for those reason FRP
become an alternative reinforcement. Nowadays, internal reinforcing technology with FRP composite
become more popular and many research been carried out to prove that they can be successfully replaced by
conventional steel reinforcement.
Methods
Column are strengthened by making groove in column in bottom side. After grove were cleaned and primer
on concrete face. The base and hardener of primer was mixed together in bucket proportion of 100:35.
various size of (8mm, 10mm, 12mm) of GFRP bars were placed in groove.
Prefabricated fiber reinforcement
These are special type of reinforcement in which reinforcements are pre-fabricated in factory itself and are
then sent to site for its installation. They are available in different sizes and also saves lot of time as it is
prefabricated.

FLEXURAL MEMBERS
A flexural member is the member which is subjected to both tension and compression within its depth. A
beam is usually a flexural member as the load applied will usually cause the bottom flange to go into tension
and top flange to be compressed. Most column are not flexural member as they are loaded at the top that
means whole column is subjected to compression. As tensile load is also carried by flexural member along
with compressive load it shall be designed is such a way that it can withstand all the forces satisfactorily.

Bamboo reinforced beam

One of the properties of bamboo as a good substitute to steel in reinforced concrete is its strength. Bamboo
is easily accessible as it grows in almost every tropical and subtropical region, this lower the cost of
construction and increase the strength of building that would be unreinforced. One of the major problems is
that it attracts living organism. Method. As bamboo was used as a reinforcing material, it was necessary to
compare its behavior with steel, therefore the beam was designed in accordance to ACI and ASTM standard
and specification In beginning of the beam design the width to depth ratio was 0.4 assumed along width of
bar (19mm) as suggested by reference. As per ACI spacing was in between 1.5 to 2 inches. both cover and
spacing was chosen as 1.5 inch. And then the span of beam was determined which was found out to be
2.13m. and were tested by subjecting four point bending to determine ultimate load. Stress strain curve
(alternative low-cost building materials).
 Figure 1. Stress strain curve of bamboo reinforcement

Plastering and other works (walls)

Walls

Walls are built to partition living area into different parts. They impart privacy and protection against
temperature rain and theft. Walls may be classified as. Load bearing walls Partition walls Load bearing
walls: if beams and column are not used, load from roof and floor are transferred to foundation by walls.
Such walls are called load bearing walls. They are to be designed to transfer the load safely. Partition walls:
in framed structure partition walls are built to divide floor area for different utility. They rest on floors. They
do not carry load from roof and floor. They have to carry only self-weight. Hence normally partition walls
are thin.

Fly ash bricks

Fly Ash Bricks are made of fly ash, lime, gypsum and sand. These can be extensively used in all building
constructional activities similar to that of common burnt clay bricks. The fly ash bricks are comparatively
lighter in weight and stronger than common clay bricks. Ordinary Portland Cement can also be used in place
RI/LPHDQG*\SVXP2ZLQJWRWKHKLJKFRQFHQWUD
GHVFULEHGDV³VHOI-cemHQWLQJ´
Properties:
1. Size: Machine Made Modular size 20 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm
2. Weight: 2.5 Kg to 3 Kg. 3. Compressive strength: 100 to 120 Kg/cm2 4. Water absorption: 15 to 20%
,W¶VDSURYHQIDFWWKDW)O\DVKEULFNVZKLFKLV he BIS standards in India are 100 %
reliable and long lasting than normal red clay bricks of any other conventional building material.
Advantages of using Fly Ash Bricks:
¾ Fly ash bricks are light weight material compared to clay bricks, so it is suitable for multi storey
buildings, less weight means less stress on building, hence safety assured.
¾ Fly ash bricks absorb less heat than normal bricks; therefore, it keeps your building cool even in
summer, hence most suitable for Indian conditions.
¾ Due to its uniform and even shape, less mortar is required in construction. Also plastering can be
avoided if used for compound wall.
¾ Plaster of Paris can be applied directly without a backing coat of plaster.
 ¾ The compressive strength of Fly ash bricks is high compared to normal bricks; Therefore, less
wastage occurs during transportation.

Rice Husk (effect of rice husk ash to properties of brick)

The combination of different proportion of rice husk ash is determined. The percentage of rice husk, rice
husk ash varied from 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 by weight the product was examined for various property which
showed that increase in proportion of rice husk increase the compressive strength of the brick
Straw bale brick
Straw is natural fiber which we get from byproduct from the agriculture. We can get this from wheat, rice.
Straw bale are simply compressed bundle of straw arranged in square, rectangular, round shaped attached
with wire straw bales are light in weight approximately 65% less then equivalent brick wall and 62% less
than concrete block wall.
Stabilized mud block
Stabilized mud block technology is simple, cost effective, environmental friendly technology developed by
center of science and technology, it uses locally available material and reduces energy consumption and
thus, reduces the cost.
Advantage 70% energy saving when compared to burnt bricks. 20 to 40% more economical as compared to
brick masonry. Better finish hence plastering of wall can be eliminated Highly decentralized production
Aesthetically pleasing.

Plastering
Plastering is generally the mixture of cement, sand and water. Which is generally mixed in appropriate
proportion to achieve the desired grade of mortar. Plastering is used for ceiling, inside and outside wall.
Joints are generally raked before plastering and proper curing is ensured. plastering can be avoided if brick
used are of great quality. Plastering can be done in different ways.

Gypsum plaster.

Availability of River sand has become a major issue in most of the states in India. Time and again National
Green Tribunal (NGT) has taken action against illegal sand mining which are harmful to nature. Also
consider the fact that non-availability of river sand significantly increases the prices while also impeding the
construction speed.
Compare this with use of Gypsum plaster, which are completely recyclable and hence pose no threat to the
environment. Gypsum plaster main constituent is Plaster Of Paris or POP(stucco) which is obtained after
heating the gypsum rock. Upon addition of water it goes back to its original form providing required
strength.
Sand Cement plaster require at least 7 days of water curing. Water is slowly becoming a very valuable
resource and the amount of water saved in curing can have a significant impact on your cost. Compare this
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work while also saving money. You may have observed shrinkage cracks on a Sand Cement plastered
surface. It occurs because of the heat of hydration released during drying of sand cement plaster leading to
hairline cracks formation in medium term (8-PRQWKV*\SVXPSODVWHUGRH
DQGKHQFHGRHVQ¶WKDYHDQ\FUDFNIRUPDWLRQ
Methodology to apply plaster
Plaster Mortar needs to be mixed in 1: 4 (Cement : Sand ) proportions. Ensuring appropriate mix is a big
challenge. While mixing of material there is a high probability of contamination, loss of cement paste, and
incorrect water cement ratio. Gypsum Plaster needs to be mixed with water and can be applied directly to
any surface (bricks, blocks and RCC) thus providing you with uniform mixture for the whole construction
time giving you control over quality. Sand Cement Plaster requires at least fifteen days for plaster to set and
attain full strength; this includes drying time of sand cement plaster post adequate curing. Sand screening is
also a major challenge at construction site. Gypsum plaster sets within 30 minutes, attains full strength in 78
hours. Final finish of sand cement plaster is rough, coarse and requires to be further finished to make it line
leveled and smooth enough to receive paint over it.With Gypsum Plaster the surface is already line and
leveled, and is smooth enough to receive paint over it.
Copper slag plastering
Copper slags (studies on use of copper slag as replacement material for river sand in building construction)
are generally the by-product obtained through manufacturing of copper. Large amount of copper slag is
generated as waste worldwide during copper smelting process. This copper slag can be used as partial
replacement in cement concrete and building construction. Cement mortar mixture prepared with fine
aggregate made up of different proportion of copper slag and sand are tested for mortar and plastering. Three
masonry wall panels of 1 * 1 m were plastered. The study showed that although copper slag based mortar
are suitable for plastering, with increase in copper slag content. The wastage due to material rebounding
material from plastered surface increase. It is therefore suggested that copper slag can be used for plastering
up to 50% mass by aggregate and for vertical surface it can be used up to 25%.

COMPARISION BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND ALTERNATIVE

MATERIAL
Foundation

Foundation is an important part of the structure as 10-15% of total construction cost is considered under
foundation according to the data given in table (foundation construction cost comparison) which give the
comparison of different foundation system.
Deep strip foundation Helical pile foundation Driven pile foundation
per m sq per m sq per m sq
Cost (INR) 100 40 50
Duration Moderate Less than driven pile More than both
Table 1. Comparison of foundation
Hence, from the comparison given in the table above for low cost foundation construction Helical pile
foundation is most suitable.

Column

Most of the structural failure occur due to various failure in column. Hence it is necessary to construct the
column with proper strength.
Column Steel (per m sq.) Bamboo (m sq.) FRP (m sq.) Prefabricated
reinforcement
(200*200*300)
Cost (INR) 50 20 21.2 2900
Tensile strength 200-2100 Mpa 160 N/mm sq 150 N/mm sq 200 N/mm sq.
Advantage High tensile Emit less carbon cheap Time and labour
strength saving
 Table 2. Comparison of column
Column construction cost can be reduced up to 10% by making use of bamboo reinforcement. Cost can also
be reduced by making use of FRP reinforcement.

Beam

Beams are generally flexural member as it is subject to both compression and tension and entire load of the
slab is transferred to the beam. Comparison of different Beam construction technique is give in the table
below.
Beam Steel beam Bamboo reinforced beam

Cost (Rs/m) 1300 150

Table 3. Comparison of beam
For beam construction use of precast beam can save labor cost while bamboo reinforcement can save up to 9
to 10% of total reinforcement cost.

Wall

Wall is a structure that defines an area, carries a load or provide shelter or security. Hence for the
economical construction of the wall followings are the options.
Wall Material Fly ash brick Rice husk brick Straw bale brick Mud block brick
Cost per m sq. 63 50 60 20
(INR)
Thermal excellent Moderate Moderate Excellent
Water resistance good Good
Depend on Depend on
composition composition
Advantage Reduce pollution Corrosion Stable load, high Economic and
resistant, light bearing power energy efficient
weight
Table 4. Comparison of wall
For wall construction fly ash brick can be used in high polluted area, for higher strength straw bale bricks
can be used and with the use of mud brick large amount of cost can be saved.

Plastering

From this study the comparison between various plastering technique is given below.
Plastering Conventional plaster Gypsum plaster Copper slag plaster
Cost per sq. ft (INR) 33-35 30-31 25-26
Curing Required Not required Required
Compressive strength 35 40 43
(MPa)
Table 5. Comparison of plastering
In plastering copper slag plastering is most favorable though initial cost is 2 ±3% more than gypsum
SODVWHULQJEXWEHFDXVHLWGRHVQ¶WUHTXLUHZDWHU labor cost can be
saved.