CHAPTER 6 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Introduction:
Gender identity is an often-talked about topic. Through both traditional and social media, society is
becoming more aware of new ideas about gender roles. But how much do young people hold onto gender
norms, and how does that feed into the picture of their well-being? According to Joy Nash, Student
Ambassador of One world Education (OWED), “Many people still stick to traditional ideas that men and
women should behave in ways that fall into specific categories determined solely on their gender.
However, male or female gender-specific identities are irrelevant in modern, civilized society. Gender roles
are social constructs developed over time and are not based on natural human behavior. This is because
gender roles evolved as a way to organize the necessary tasks done in early human society. Some may
say that due to the fact that traditional gender roles have been practiced for so long, they should not be
changed, and are now a key element in human development.
Nevertheless, in many of the modern societies today, there is no need for traditional gender roles, because
both men and women are able to do many of the same necessary tasks, thereby making gender-specific
behaviors irrelevant. These stereotypes can be harmful because they motivate people to condemn and
oppress those who do not fit the traditional gender roles. As a result of this oppression, many people
struggle to reach their full potential. Therefore, it is critical that we encourage everyone to follow and
express their own truth, regardless of gender norms, so that everyone is able to contribute fully to our
society.”
Lesson 1.
GENDER SOCIALIZATION

Starting Accurately:
Society expects different attitudes and behaviors from boys and girls. Gender Socialization is the tendency
for boys and girls to be socialized differently. Boys are raised to conform to the male gender role, and girls
are raised to conform to the female gender or role. The toys, games and even colors parents select for
children are often unconsciously intended to socialize them into the appropriate gender roles. Girls receive
dolls in an attempt to socialize them into future roles as mothers. Since women are expected to be more
nurturing than men, giving a girl a doll teaches her to care for it and fosters the value of caring for others.
The color pink is associated with girls and the color blue with boys. Even as tiny babies, boys and girls are
dressed differently, according to what is considered “appropriate” for their respective sexes. But why do you
think so parents not usually give dolls to their sons for a toy, and do not paint the room or crib of their baby
boys with color pink?
Inculcating Concepts:
a. Childhood Socialization
Key Points

 Gender is instilled through socialization immediately from birth. Consider the gender norms
with which society imbues infants. The most archetypal example is the notion that male
babies like blue things while female babies like pink things.
 The example set by an individual’s family is also important for socialization. For example,
children who grow up in a family with the husband a breadwinner and the wife a homemaker
will tend to accept this as the social norm.
 Children sometimes resist gender norms by behaving in ways more commonly associated
with the opposite gender.
Key Terms

 socialization: The process of learning one’s culture and how to live within it.
 primary socialization: The socialization that takes place early in life, as a child and
adolescent.
 secondary socialization: The socialization that takes place throughout one’s life, both as a
child and as one encounters new groups that require additional socialization.
Social norms pertaining to gender are developed through socialization, the lifelong process of inheriting,
interpreting, and disseminating norms, customs, and ideologies. The process of socialization continues
throughout one’s life and is constantly renegotiated, but socialization begins as soon as one is born.
Sociologists divide socialization into two different parts. Primary socialization takes place early in life, as a
child and adolescent.
Secondary socialization refers to the socialization that takes place throughout one’s life, both as a child and
as one encounters new groups that require additional socialization. Gender is instilled through socialization
immediately from birth. Consider the gender norms with which society imbues infants: The most archetypal
example is the notion that male babies like blue things while female babies like pink things. When a boy
gets a football for his birthday and a girl receives a doll, this also socializes children to accept gender
norms. The example set by an individual’s family is also important for socialization; children who grow up in
a family with the husband a breadwinner and the wife a homemaker will tend to accept this as the social
norm, while those who grow up in families with female breadwinners, single parents, or same-sex couples
will develop different ideas of gender norms.
b. Adolescent Socialization
Key Takeaways
 Identity development is a normative process of change in both the content and structure of
how people think about themselves. Identity development encompasses the following
notions: self-concept, sense of identity and self-esteem.
 Self-concept is the awareness of the self in relation to a variety of different characteristics
and concepts.
 A sense of identity is much more integrated and less conflicting than the selfconcept, as an
identity is a coherent sense of self that is consistent across different contexts and
circumstances past, present and future.
 Self-esteem is one’s perception of and feelings toward one’s self-concept and identity.
 Familial, peer and sexual/romantic relationships exert a significant influence over adolescent
development and can encourage either positive or negative outcomes.
Key Term

 Identity – A coherent sense of self-stable across circumstances and including past

experiences and future goals.
 Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development. The
period of adolescence is most closely associated with the teenage years, although its
physical, psychological and cultural expressions can begin earlier and end later. In studying
adolescent development, adolescence can be defined biologically as the physical transition
marked by the onset of puberty and the termination of physical growth; cognitively, as
changes in the ability to think abstractly and multi-dimensionally; and socially as a period of
preparation for adult roles. Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex
organs, height, weight and muscle mass, as well as major changes in brain structure and
organization. Cognitive advances encompass both increases in knowledge and the ability to
think abstractly and to reason more effectively. This is also a time when adolescents start to
explore gender identity and sexuality in depth.

Relationships
Peers
Peer groups are especially important during adolescence, a period of development characterized by a
dramatic increase in time spent with peers and a decrease in adult supervision. Adolescents also associate
with friends of the opposite sex much more than in childhood and tend to identify with larger groups of
peers based on shared characteristics. Peer groups offer members the opportunity to develop various
social skills like empathy, sharing and leadership.
Romance and Sexual Activity
Romantic relationships tend to increase in prevalence throughout adolescence. The typical duration of
relationships increases throughout the teenage years as well. This constant increase in the likelihood of a
long-term relationship can be explained by sexual maturation and the development of cognitive skills
necessary to maintain a romantic bond, although these skills are not strongly developed until late
adolescence. Overall, positive romantic relationships among adolescents can result in long-term benefits.
High-quality romantic relationships are associated with higher commitment in early adulthood and are
positively associated with self-esteem, self-confidence and social competence.
c. Identity Development

Among the most common beliefs about adolescence is that it is the time when teens form their
personal identities. Empirical studies confirm a normative process of change in both the content and
structure of one’s thoughts about the self. Researchers have used three general approaches to
understanding identity development: self-concept, sense of identity and self-esteem.

Self-Concept
Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-awareness, greater awareness
of others and their thoughts and judgments, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities,
and the ability to consider multiple possibilities at once. While children define themselves with
physical traits, adolescents define themselves based on their values, thoughts and opinions.
Adolescents can now conceptualize multiple “possible selves” they could become and long-term
possibilities and consequences of their choices. Exploring these possibilities may result in abrupt
changes in selfpresentation as the adolescent chooses or rejects qualities and behaviors, trying to
guide the actual self toward the ideal self (who the adolescent wishes to be) and away from the
feared self (who the adolescent does not want to be). In terms of gender socialization, boys and
girls start to gravitate toward traditional roles. For example, girls may take more liberal art type
classes while boys are more physical. Boys and girls tend to socialize together, although dating
starts to occur. Girls generally look to their mothers or female role models for guidance, while boys
tend to identify more with their fathers or male role models.

Sense of Identity
Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of selfstable
across circumstances and including past experiences and future goals. Development psychologist
Erik Erikson describes adolescence as the period during which individuals ponder the questions:
who am I and what can I be? As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents
ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to experience some role
confusion—mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society—and
may experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities. For example, a girl may want to pursue a
career that is predominantly male, and if she is stifled by her sense of female identity, she may end
up with a lifetime of regret. The same is true of males wishing to pursue a female-dominated career.
Erikson proposed that most adolescents eventually achieve a sense of identity regarding who they
are and where their lives are headed.

Self-Esteem
The final major aspect of identity formation is self-esteem, which is one’s thoughts and feelings
about one’s self-concept and identity. Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a
significant drop in self-esteem over the course of adolescence. “Barometric self-esteem” fluctuates
rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem remains highly stable
across adolescence. The validity of global self-esteem scales has been questioned, and many
suggest that more specific scales might reveal more about the adolescent experience. For girls,
they are most likely to enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends,
as the most important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide social and
moral support. In contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their
independence and defining their relation to authority. As such, they are more likely to derive high
self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their friends.
 d. Gender Differences in Social Interaction

Key Points
 Differences between “gender cultures” influence the way that people of different genders
communicate. These differences begin at childhood.
 Traditionally, masculine people and feminine people communicate with people of their own
gender in different ways.
 Through communication we learn about what qualities and activities our culture prescribes to
our sex.
Key Terms

 gender: The socio-cultural phenomenon of the division of people into various categories
such as male and female, with each having associated roles, expectations, stereotypes, etc.
 gender culture: The set of behaviors or practices associated with masculinity and femininity.

Social and cultural norms can significantly influence both the expression of gender identity, and the nature
of the interactions between genders. Differences between “gender cultures” influence the way that people
of different genders communicate. These differences begin at childhood. Maltz and Broker’s research
showed that the games children play contribute to socializing children into masculine and feminine cultures.
For example, girls playing house promotes personal relationships, and playing house does not necessarily
have fixed rules or objectives. Boys, however, tend to play more competitive team sports with different
goals and strategies. These differences as children cause women to operate from assumptions about
communication, and use rules for communication that differ significantly from those endorsed by most men.
Gender Differences in Social Interaction
Masculine and feminine cultures and individuals generally differ in how they communicate with others. For
example, feminine people tend to self-disclose more often than masculine people, and in more intimate
details. Likewise, feminine people tend to communicate more affection, and with greater intimacy and
confidence than masculine people. Generally speaking, feminine people communicate more and prioritize
communication more than masculine people.
Traditionally, masculine people and feminine people communicate with people of their own gender in
different ways. Masculine people form friendships with other masculine people based on common interests,
while feminine people build friendships with other feminine people based on mutual support. However, both
genders initiate opposite gender friendships based on the same factors. These factors include proximity,
acceptance, effort, communication, common interests, affection and novelty.
Context is very important when determining how we communicate with others. It is important to understand
what script it is appropriate to use in each respective relationship. Specifically, understanding how affection
is communicated in a given context is extremely important. For example, masculine people expect
competition in their friendships. They avoid communicating weakness and vulnerability. They avoid
communicating personal and emotional concerns. Masculine people tend to communicate affection by
including their friends in activities and exchanging favors. Masculine people tend to communicate with each
other shoulder-to-shoulder (e.g., watching sports on a television).
In contrast, feminine people are more likely to communicate weakness and vulnerability. In fact, they may
seek out friendships more in these times. For this reason, feminine people often feel closer to their friends
than masculine people do. Feminine people tend to value their friends for listening and communicating non-
critically, communicating support, communicating feelings of enhanced self-esteem, communicating
validation, offering comfort and contributing to personal growth. Feminine people tend to communicate with
each other face-to-face (e.g., meeting together to talk over lunch).
e. Communication and Gender Cultures
A communication culture is a group of people with an existing set of norms regarding how they
communicate with each other. These cultures can be categorized as masculine or feminine. Gender
cultures are primarily created and sustained by interaction with others.
 Through communication we learn about what qualities and activities our culture prescribes to our
sex. While it is commonly believed that our sex is the root source of differences and how we relate
and communicate to others, it is actually gender that plays a larger role. Whole cultures can be
broken down into masculine and feminine, each differing in how they get along with others through
different styles of communication. Julia T. Wood’s studies explain that “communication produces
and reproduces cultural definitions of masculinity and femininity. ” Masculine and feminine cultures
differ dramatically in when, how, and why they use communication.

Communication Styles
Deborah Tannen’s studies found these gender differences in communication styles (where men
more generally refer to masculine people, and women correspondingly refers to feminine people):

 Men tend to talk more than women in public situations, but women tend to talk more than
men at home.
 Women are more inclined to face each other and make eye contact when talking, while men
are more likely to look away from each other.
 Men tend to jump from topic to topic, but women tend to talk at length about one topic.
 When listening, women make more noises such as “mm-hmm” and “uh-huh”, while men are
more likely to listen silently.
 Women are inclined to express agreement and support, while men are more inclined to
debate.
Lesson 2.
SEXUALITY AND GENDER:
Starting Accurately:
Gender and sexuality can be very complicated issues for young people. People identifying as lesbian, gay,
bisexual, trans, queer, intersex, asexual and other sexualities, sexes and genders (LGBTQIA+) often face
discrimination, bullying or violence and experience much higher incidents of mental health issues as a
result. This is why it is so important that young people discuss gender and sexuality, are supported to be
themselves, and know where and when to seek further help.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Distinguish sex from gender

 Show how gender and sexuality is related to love.
 Discuss the role of gender in reproduction
Inculcating Concepts
a. Gender, Sex, and Sexuality

Key Points
 A person’s sex, as determined by their biology, does not always correspond with their
gender. Therefore, the terms “sex” and “gender” are not interchangeable.
 “Sex” refers to physical or physiological differences between male, female, and intersex
bodies, including both primary sex characteristics (the reproductive system) and secondary
sex characteristics (such as breasts and facial hair).
 “Gender” is a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with a given sex; it
is generally considered to be a socially constructed concept.
 Gender identity is the extent to which one identifies with their sex assigned at birth. In many
Western cultures, individuals who identify with a role that is different from their biological sex
are called transgender.
 “Human sexuality ” refers to people’s sexual interest in and attraction to others, as well as
their capacity to have erotic experiences and responses.
Key Terms
  sex: The distinguishing property, quality, or assemblage of properties by which organisms
are classified as female, male, or intersex on the basis of their reproductive organs and
functions.
 gender: The sociocultural phenomenon of the division of people into various categories
according to their biological sex, with each having associated roles, clothing, stereotypes,
etc.; those with male sex characteristics are perceived as “boys” and “men,” while those with
female sex characteristics are perceived as “girls” and “women.”
 intersex: A variation in sex characteristics including chromosomes, gonads, or genitals that
do not allow an individual to be distinctly identified as male or female.
 sexuality: People’s sexual interest in and attraction to others; their capacity to have erotic
experiences and responses.
 gonad: The sex organs that produce gametes; specifically, the testicles or ovaries.
Sex
“Sex” refers to physiological differences found among male, female, and various intersex bodies. Sex
includes both primary sex characteristics (those related to the reproductive system) and secondary sex
characteristics (those that are not directly related to the reproductive system, such as breasts and facial
hair). In humans, the biological sex of a child is determined at birth based on several factors, including
chromosomes, gonads, hormones, internal reproductive anatomy, and genitalia. Biological sex has
traditionally been conceptualized as a binary in Western medicine, typically divided into male and female.
However, anywhere from 1.0 to 1.7% of children are born intersex, having a variation in sex characteristics
(including chromosomes, gonads, or genitals) that do not allow them to be distinctly identified as male or
female. Due to the existence of multiple forms of intersex conditions (which are more prevalent than
researchers once thought), many view sex as existing along a spectrum, rather than simply two mutually
exclusive categories.
Gender
A person’s sex, as determined by his or her biology, does not always correspond with their gender;
therefore, the terms “sex” and “gender” are not interchangeable. “Gender” is a term that refers to social or
cultural distinctions associated with being male, female, or intersex. Typically, babies born with male sex
characteristics (sex) are assigned as boys (gender); babies born with female sex characteristics (sex) are
assigned as girls (gender). Because our society operates in a binary system when it comes to gender (in
other words, seeing gender as only having two options), many children who are born intersex are forcibly
assigned as either a boy or a girl and even surgically “corrected” to fit a particular gender. Scholars
generally regard gender as a social construct—meaning that it does not exist naturally, but is instead a
concept that is created by cultural and societal norms. Gender identity is a person’s sense of self as a
member of a particular gender. Individuals who identify with a role that corresponds to the sex assigned to
them at birth (for example, they were born with male sex characteristics, were assigned as a boy, and
identify today as a boy or man) are cisgender. Those who identify with a role that is different from their
biological sex (for example, they were born with male sex characteristics, were assigned as a boy, but
identify today as a girl, woman, or some other gender altogether) are often referred to as transgender. The
term “transgender” encompasses a wide range of possible identities, including agender, genderfluid,
genderqueer, two-spirit (for many indigenous people), androgynous, and many others.
Cultural Variations of Gender
Since the term “sex” refers to biological or physical distinctions, characteristics of sex will not vary
significantly between different human societies. For example, persons of the female sex, in general,
regardless of culture, will eventually menstruate and develop breasts that can lactate. Characteristics of
gender, on the other hand, may vary greatly between different societies. For example, in American culture,
it is considered feminine (or a trait of the female gender) to wear a dress or skirt. However, in many Middle
Eastern, Asian, and African cultures, dresses or skirts (often referred to as sarongs, robes, or gowns) can
be considered masculine. Similarly, the kilt worn by a Scottish male does not make him appear feminine in
his culture.
Sexuality
“Human sexuality” refers to people’s sexual interest in and attraction to others, as well as their capacity to
have erotic experiences and responses. People’s sexual orientation is their emotional and sexual attraction
to particular sexes or genders, which often shapes their sexuality.
Sexuality may be experienced and expressed in a variety of ways, including thoughts, fantasies, desires,
beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles, and relationships. These may manifest themselves in
biological, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual aspects. The biological and physical aspects of sexuality
largely concern the human reproductive functions, including the human sexual-response cycle and the
basic biological drive that exists in all species. Emotional aspects of sexuality include bonds between
individuals that are expressed through profound feelings or physical manifestations of love, trust, and care.
Social aspects deal with the effects of human society on one’s sexuality, while spirituality concerns an
individual’s spiritual connection with others through sexuality. Sexuality also impacts and is impacted by
cultural, political, legal, philosophical, moral, ethical, and religious aspects of life.
b. Love, Romance and Sexual Activity

Romance, according to Wikipedia, is an emotional feeling of love for, or a strong attraction towards
another person, and the courtship behaviors undertaken by an individual to express those overall
feelings and resultant emotions. Anthropologist Charles Lindholm defined love as "any intense
attraction that involves the idealization of the other, within an erotic context, with expectation of
enduring sometime into the future" Collins Dictionary describes romantic love as "an intensity and
idealization of a love relationship, in which the other is imbued with extraordinary virtue, beauty,
etc., so that the relationship overrides all other considerations, including material ones.”

Difference Between Love and Romance

Love and romance are sometimes used interchangeably since they are closely related in a
particular context. However, love and romance are different from each other upon closer
examination.

Love is usually explained as an intense feeling or emotion of deep affection, attachment, and
devotion. It is said that love is one of those unexplainable things that is best experienced rather than
explained.

Love is also characterized as a powerful attraction and personal commitment and sacrifice.
Attachment or affection in love are not limited to human beings and extend to other entities like
animals, things, and ideas. Attachment results in a very powerful connection and bond between two
entities. Love can exist in many forms and be manifested in many ways. Forms of love include: non-
romantic, unconditional, and romantic love. Manifestations of love can vary from simple to grand
gestures.

People often define or manifest love in many ways like: security, companionship, devotion,
affection, attraction, faith, loyalty, or commitment. In contrast, romance is referred to as the actions
or gestures in the context of a relationship. These gestures are done and seen as an outward
expression of the feelings of a person towards another. It is also seen as a tool to prolong and
reinforce both the relationship and the bond between two individuals. Romance also develops the
romantic love in a potential couple and reinforces the connection. In this situation, romance
improves the potential for a couple to be in love.
Different Kinds of Love
According to Bill Taylor,there are many meanings which English-speakers pack into the one word "love."
This causes HUGE amounts of confusion because people use the word for may different feelings. The
Greeks knew better. They have six different words for different kinds of love.
1. Eros is erotic love - the physical attraction between men and women. The Greeks knew that this
form of attraction need not be accompanied by any other feeling. A relationship based on pure lust
won't last very long Men generally start with being physically attracted to a woman. Whether it
develops from there depends mostly on the terms and conditions she sets.
2. Philia is filial love or brotherly love. This describes a deep friendship which should develop between
husband and wife over time.
3. Ludus is playful love between children or young people who're engaging in playful, non-serious
flirting. Youthful crushes are expressions of ludus.
 4. Pragma, or longstanding love, comes from a mature relationship between long-married couples. It's
about making compromises to help the relationship work over time, and showing patience and
tolerance. We should spend less time worrying about "falling in love" and work at "standing in love"
if we want relationships to last. That's where the word "pragmatic" originated.
5. Philautia, or love of the self, can be either bad, as in extreme narcissism, or good as in feeling
secure enough in yourself to feel love for someone else. It is difficult to love someone else without a
health appreciation of yourself. It is hard to assume responsibility for caring for someone else
without a realistic appreciation of your strengths and weaknesses.
6. Agape is selfless, empathetic love for everyone, especially those close to you. Agape translates into
Latin as caritas, which is the origin of our word "charity." Charity is based in treating other people
better than they deserve. Many older people believe that our modern narcissistic "selfie generation"
is lacking in empathy which makes it hard to form resilient relationships.
A healthy relationship between man and woman generally starts with eros in that the couple is mutually
attracted to each other. This can happen very rapidly. For it to last, however, it must progress to the point
that the man has agape for the woman in that he wants to charitably sacrifice his interests to take care of
her. This is not an emotion, it is an act of will.
Men know that while a happy woman is heavenly, an unhappy woman can give him a taste of the
punishments of hell. A man's emotions are as powerful as a woman's, but men engage their emotions more
slowly. A man will try not to let himself love a woman unless he's confident of making her happy.
What is a sexual act, sexual contact or sexual activity?
In an article published by Rockland Community College, State University of New York, Sexual activity
includes sexual acts and sexual contacts. A sexual act means:
A. contact between the penis and the vulva or the penis and the anus, and for purposes of this
subparagraph contact involving the penis occurs upon penetration, however slight;
B. contact between the mouth and the penis, the mouth and the vulva, or the mouth and the anus;
C. the penetration, however slight, of the anal or genital opening of another by a hand or finger or by
any object, with an intent to abuse, humiliate, harass, degrade, or arouse or gratify the sexual desire
of any person; or
D. the intentional touching, not through the clothing, of the genitalia of another person who has not
attained the age of 16 years with an intent to abuse, humiliate, harass, degrade, or arouse or gratify
the sexual desire of any person.
Sexual contact means the intentional touching, either directly or through the clothing, of the genitalia, anus,
groin, breast, inner thigh, or buttocks of any person with an intent to abuse, humiliate, harass, degrade, or
arouse or gratify the sexual desire of any person.
10 Surprising Benefits of Sex
By Kara Mayer Robinson
Sex not only feels good. It can also be good for you. Here’s what a healthy sex life can do for you.
1. Helps Keep Your Immune System Humming

“Sexually active people take fewer sick days,” says Yvonne K. Fulbright, PhD a sexual health
expert. People who have sex have higher levels of what defends your body against germs, viruses,
and other intruders. Researchers at Wilkes University in Pennsylvania found that college students
who had sex once or twice a week had higher levels of the a certain antibody compared to students
who had sex less often.
You should still do all the other things that make your immune system happy, such as:

 Eat right.
 Stay active.
 Get enough sleep.
 Keep up with your vaccinations.
  Use a condom if you don’t know both of your STD statuses.

2. Boosts Your Libido

Longing for a more lively sex life? “Having sex will make sex better and will improve your libido,”
says Lauren Streicher, MD. She is an assistant clinical professor of obstetrics and gynecology at
Northwestern University’s Feinberg School of Medicine in Chicago.

For women, having sex ups vaginal lubrication, blood flow, and elasticity, she says, all of which
make sex feel better and help you crave more of it.

3. Improves Women's Bladder Control

A strong pelvic floor is important for avoiding incontinence, something that will affect about 30% of
women at some point in their lives. Good sex is like a workout for your pelvic floor muscles. When
you have an orgasm, it causes contractions in those muscles, which strengthens them.

4. Lowers Your Blood Pressure

Research suggests a link between sex and lower blood pressure, says Joseph J. Pinzone, MD. He
is CEO and medical director of Amai Wellness. “There have been many studies,” he says. “One
landmark study found that sexual intercourse specifically (not masturbation) lowered systolic blood
pressure.” That's the first number on your blood pressure test.

5. Counts as Exercise

“Sex is a really great form of exercise,” Pinzone says. It won’t replace the treadmill, but it counts for
something. Sex uses about five calories per minute, four more calories than watching TV. It gives
you a one-two punch: It bumps up your heart rate and uses various muscles. So get busy! You may
even want to clear your schedule to make time for it on a regular basis. “Like with exercise,
consistency helps maximize the benefits,” Pinzone says.

6. Lowers Heart Attack Risk

A good sex life is good for your heart. Besides being a great way to raise your heart rate, sex helps
keep your estrogen and testosterone levels in balance. “When either one of those is low you begin
to get lots of problems, like osteoporosis and even heart disease,” Pinzone says. Having sex more
often may help. During one study, men who had sex at least twice a week were half as likely to die
of heart disease as men who had sex rarely.

7. Lessens Pain Before you reach for an aspirin, try for an orgasm.

“Orgasm can block pain,” says Barry R. Komisaruk, PhD, a distinguished service professor at
Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey. It releases a hormone that helps raise your pain
threshold. Stimulation without orgasm can also do the trick. “We’ve found that vaginal stimulation
can block chronic back and leg pain, and many women have told us that genital selfstimulation can
reduce menstrual cramps, arthritic pain, and in some cases even headache,” Komisaruk says.

8. May Make Prostate Cancer Less Likely

Men who ejaculated frequently (at least 21 times a month) were less likely to get prostate cancer
during one study, which was published in the Journal of the American Medical Association. You
don’t need a partner to reap this benefit: Sexual intercourse, nocturnal emission, and masturbation
were all part of the equation. It's not clear that sex was the only reason that mattered in that study.
Lots of factors affect cancer risk. But more sex won’t hurt.
 9. Improves Sleep

You may nod off more quickly after sex, and for good reason. “After orgasm, the hormone prolactin
is released, which is responsible for the feelings of relaxation and sleepiness" after sex, says
Sheenie Ambardar, MD. She is a psychiatrist in West Hollywood, Calif.

10. Eases Stress

Being close to your partner can soothe stress and anxiety. Ambardar says touching and hugging
can release your body's natural “feel-good hormone.” Sexual arousal releases a brain chemical that
revs up your brain’s pleasure and reward system. Sex and intimacy can boost your self-esteem and
happiness, too, Ambardar says. It’s not only a prescription for a healthy life, but a happy one.
Lesson 3.
The Social Construction of Gender
Starting Accurately:
According to Wikipedia - the free Encyclopedia, the social construction of gender is a theory in feminism
and sociology about the manifestation of cultural origins, mechanisms, and corollaries of gender perception
and expression in the context of interpersonal and group social interaction. Specifically, the social
construction of gender stipulates that gender roles are an achieved "status" in a social environment, which
implicitly and explicitly categorize people and therefore motivate social behaviors. An intimately related,
though notably distinct matter in feminist theory is the relationship between the ascribed status of biological
sex- male and female; and their achieved status counterparts in gender- masculine and feminine.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Discuss the difference between biological and social construction of gender identity
 Compare and contrast gender roles in different cultures
Inculcating Concepts
a. Social Constructionism

Key Takeaways
 Social constructionism is the notion that people’s understanding of reality is partially, if not
entirely, socially situated.
 Gender is a social identity that needs to be contextualized.
 Individuals internalize social expectations for gender norms and behave accordingly.
Social Constructionism
The social construction of gender comes out of the general school of thought entitled social
constructionism. Social constructionism proposes that everything people “know” or see as “reality” is
partially, if not entirely, socially situated. To say that something is socially constructed does not mitigate the
power of the concept. Take, for example, money. Money is a socially constructed reality. Paper bills are
worth nothing independent of the value individuals ascribe to them. The dollar is only worth as much as
value as Americans are willing to ascribe to it. Note that the dollar only works in its own currency market; it
holds no value in areas that don’t use the dollar. Nevertheless, the dollar is extremely powerful within its
own domain.
These basic theories of social constructionism can be applied to any issue of study pertaining to human life,
including gender. Is gender an essential category or a social construct? If it is a social construct, how does
it function? Who benefits from the way that gender is constructed? A social constructionist view of gender
looks beyond categories and examines the intersections of multiple identities and the blurring of the
boundaries between essentialist categories. This is especially true with regards to categories of male and
female, which are viewed typically as binary and opposite. Social constructionism seeks to blur the binary
and muddle these two categories, which are so frequently presumed to be essential.
b. Gender identity in everyday life

Key Points
 Gender identity typically falls on a gender binary —individuals are expected to exclusively
identify either as male or female. However, some individuals believe that this binary model is
illegitimate and identify as a third, or mixed, gender.
 Individuals whose gender identity aligns with their sex organs are said to be cisgender.
Transgender individuals are those whose gender identity does not align with their sex
organs.
 Gender identity discourse derives from medical and psychological conceptions of gender.
There is vigorous debate over biological versus environmental causes of the development of
one’s gender identity.
 As gender identities come to be more disputed, new legal frontiers are opening on the basis
that a male/female gender binary, as written into the law, discriminates against individuals
who either identify as the opposite of their biological sex or who do not identify as either
male or female.
 The extreme cultural variation in notions of gender indicate the socially constructed nature of
gender identity.
Key Terms

 cisgender: Identifying with or experiencing a gender the same as one’s biological sex or that
is affirmed by society, e.g. being both male-gendered & male-sexed.
 transgender: Not identifying with culturally conventional gender roles and categories of male
or female; having changed gender identity from male to female or female to male, or
identifying with elements of both, or having some other gender identity.
 gender binary: A view of gender whereby people are categorized exclusively as either male
or female, often basing gender on biological sex. Gender identity is one’s sense of being
male, female, or a third gender.
Gender identity typically falls on a gender binary—individuals are expected to exclusively identify either as
male or female. However, some individuals believe that this binary model is illegitimate and identify as a
third, or mixed, gender. Gender identity is socially constructed, yet it still pertains to one’s sense of self.
Gender identity is not only about how one perceives one’s own gender, but also about how one presents
one’s gender to the public.
Cisgender and Transgender
Individuals whose gender identity aligns with their sex organs are said to be cisgender. Transgender
individuals are those whose gender identity does not align with their sex organs. These people generally
dress according to how they feel but do not make an drastic change within their sexual organs.
Transsexuals, however, take drastic measures to assume their believed identity. This includes hormone
therapy and sexual reassignment operations. Recently, there has been a growing gender/queer movement
consisting of individuals who do not feel that their sex organs are mismatched to their gender identity, but
who still wish to trouble the notion of a gender binary, considering it overly simplistic and misrepresentative.
Gender Identities and Law
As gender identities come to be more disputed, new legal frontiers are opening on the basis that a
male/female gender binary, as written into the law, discriminates against individuals who either identify as
the opposite of their biological sex or who identify as neither male nor female. On college campuses,
gender-restrictive dorm housing is facing opposition by individuals who identify as neither a man nor a
woman. Many public spaces and workplaces are instituting gender-neutral bathroom facilities. Gender
identity has become a piece of international law as a branch of human rights doctrines. The Yogyakarta
Principles, drafted by international legal scholars in 2006, provide a definition of gender identity in its
preamble. In the Principles “gender identity” refers to each person’s deeply felt internal and individual
experience of gender, which may or may not correspond with the biological sex assigned at birth, including
the person’s sense of the body and other expressions of gender.

c. Causes of confusion in gender identity

What causes individuals to sense a sort of confusion between their biological gender and their
gender identity? This question is hotly contested, with no clear answer. Some scientists argue that
the sense of confusion is a biological result of the pre- and post-natal swinging of hormone levels
and genetic regulation. Sociologists tend to emphasize the environmental impetuses for gender
identity. Certainly, socialization, or the process of transferring norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors
to group members, plays a significant part in how individuals learn and internalize gender roles and
subsequently impact their gender identity.

Though the medical emphasis in some conversations about gender identity is frequently scrutinized
by sociologists, there is clearly some biological basis to gender, even if it has more to do with
appearances and social presentation than identity formation. Women have two X chromosomes,
where men have one X and one Y chromosome. However, despite the deep relationship to biology,
gender identity cannot only be biologically determined. However, gender identity has a larger social
component that needs to be considered. For example, although a person may be biologically male,
“he” may feel more comfortable with a female identity, which is a social construction based on how
he feels, not his physical makeup.

d. Gender identities cross cultural perspective

Gender identities, and the malleability of the gender binary, vary across cultures. In some
Polynesian societies, fa’afafine are considered to be a third gender alongside male and female.
Fa’afafine are accepted as a natural gender and are neither looked down upon nor discriminated
against. They are biologically male, but dress and behave in a manner that Polynesians typically
consider female. Fa’afafine are often physiologically unable to reproduce. Fa’afafine also reinforce
their femininity by claiming to be only attracted to and receiving sexual attention from heterosexual
men.

In the Indian subcontinent, a hijra is usually considered to be neither male nor female. The hijra
form a third gender, although they do not enjoy the same acceptance and respect as individuals
who identify along the gender binary.

The xanith form an accepted third gender in Oman, a society that also holds a gender binary as a
social norm. The xanith are male, homosexual prostitutes whose dressing is male, featuring pastel
colors rather than the white clothes traditionally worn by men, but their mannerisms are coded as
female. Xanith can mingle with women where men cannot. However, similar to other men in Oman,
xanith can marry women and prove their masculinity by consummating the marriage. This extreme
cultural variation in notions of gender indicate the socially constructed nature of gender identity.

Southeast Asian third gender embodiments have also been influenced by the effects of globalization
and capitalism. Third gender individuals (as in the US) are popularly associated with industries that
value their particularized cultural traits. In the Philippines, third gender embodiments are referred to
as bakla (in the Tagalog language), bayot (in Cebuano/Bisaya), or agi (in Hiligaynon/Ilonggo). Third
gender individuals are incorporated into the social and cultural structures of Filipino life, often
associated with working in the beauty and entertainment industries. Anthropologists such as Martin
Manalansan have noted the ways in which modern bakla life is lived in the context of the diaspora,
immigration, globalization, and community, noting that bakla presence challenges and troubles
Western notions of gay identity and the assumed connection between LGBTQ+ people and
progressive politics (Manalansan, 2003).
CHAPTER 7. THE ENTREPRENEURIAL MIND
Introduction:
The Philippines is a highly entrepreneurial country. The main reason that drives its entrepreneur spirit is its
poverty. Challenges for entrepreneurs in Philippines include a lack of research and development,
inadequate access to technology, financing—most entrepreneurs starting small business in the Philippines
have difficulty acquiring capital, a lack of marketing advice and logistical problems in setting up and
maintaining the competitiveness in the community. For this reason, the Philippine government has
identified the need to foster entrepreneurial spirit to jumpstart the lagging economy.
To overcome these challenges today, the government is promoting Entrepreneurship and giving Filipinos
the proper knowledge and tools in starting their own businesses. The Philippine government sees that
Entrepreneurial efforts will help ignite economic growth, improve living standards, and build a worldwide
market for Philippine products.
Lesson 1.
The Importance of Entrepreneurship
Starting Accurately:
The word “entrepreneur” is derived from the French verb enterprendre, which means ‘to undertake’. This
refers to those who “undertake” the risk of new enterprises. An enterprise is created by an entrepreneur.
The process of creation is called “entrepreneurship”.
Entrepreneurship is a process of actions of an entrepreneur who is a person always in search of something
new and exploits such ideas into gainful opportunities by accepting the risk and uncertainty with the
enterprise.
Entrepreneurship is a complex term that's often defined simply as running your own business. But there's a
difference between a "business owner" and an "entrepreneur," and although one can be both, what
distinguishes entrepreneurship is a person's attitude.
"Entrepreneurship is much broader than the creation of a new business venture," said Bruce
Bachenheimer, a clinical professor of management and executive director of the Entrepreneurship Lab at
Pace University. "At its core, it is a mindset – a way of thinking and acting. It is about imagining new ways
to solve problems and create value."
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Explain the importance of entrepreneurship

 Discuss how entrepreneurship affect us.
 Enumerate the Personal attributes of an entrepreneur
Inculcating Concepts
a. WHY DO WE HAVE TO STUDY ENTREPRENEURSHIP?
To answer this question, let us delve on the multiple roles of an entrepreneur in a society, as
follows:
1. Economic role: Entrepreneurs play an important direct and indirect role in maintaining
healthy economy. Paying taxes on time, helping employees maintain a standard of living,
being a healthy part of the supply and demand chain of economics etc.
 2. Maintaining ethics: People who represent their businesses locally and globally need to have
standard of ethics so that they’re able to run their businesses successfully and along side,
not disrupt other non-competition business.
3. Bringing more entrepreneurs in the society: It’s the duty of every entrepreneur to bring more
entrepreneurs in the society by grooming the next generation and mentoring new businesses
and ventures. The more the successful businesses in a society the happier the society since
everyone has a good standard of life.
4. Brining new advancements in their fields: An entrepreneur needs to stay relevant and
updated all the time. This also leads to new advancements that he brings in the society,
5. Environmental contributions: Knowingly and unknowingly every entrepreneur has his
impacts on the environment in various degrees depending on his venture.

b. HOW DOES ENTREPRENEURSHIP AFFECT US?

According to Shobhit Seth, Entrepreneurship is important for a number of reasons, from promoting
social change to driving innovation.
1. Entrepreneurs Spur Economic Growth

New products and services created by entrepreneurs can produce a cascading effect, where it
stimulates related businesses or sectors that need to support the new venture, furthering economic
development.

For example, a few information technology companies made up the IT industry in India during the
1990s. The industry quickly expanded and many other sectors benefited from it. Businesses in
associated industries—such as call center operations, network maintenance companies, and
hardware providers— flourished.

Education and training institutes nurtured a new class of IT workers who were offered better, high-
paying jobs. Infrastructure development organizations and even real estate companies capitalized
on this growth as workers migrated to cities where employment was growing.

Similarly, future development efforts in underdeveloped countries require robust logistics support,
capital investments, and a qualified workforce. From the highly qualified programmer to the
construction worker, entrepreneurship benefits a large part of the economy.

2. Entrepreneurs Add to National Income

Entrepreneurial ventures help generate new wealth. Existing businesses may remain confined to
existing markets and may hit the glass ceiling in terms of income. New and improved products,
services or technology from entrepreneurs enable new markets to be developed and new wealth to
be created.

Additionally, increased employment and higher earnings contribute to better national income in the
form of higher tax revenue and higher government spending. This revenue can be used by the
government to invest in other, struggling sectors and human capital. Although it may make a few
existing players redundant, the government can soften the blow by redirecting surplus wealth to
retrain workers.

3. Entrepreneurs Create Social Change

Through offering unique goods and services, entrepreneurs break away from tradition and reduce
dependence on obsolete systems and technologies. This results in an improved quality of life,
improved morale, and greater economic freedom.

For example, the water supply in a water-scarce region will, at times, forces people to stop working
to collect water. This will impact their business, productivity, and income. Imagine an innovative and
 automatic pump that can fill people's water containers automatically. This type of innovation ensures
people are able to focus on their jobs without worrying about a basic necessity like water. More time
to devote to work translates to economic growth.

For a more contemporary example, smartphones and apps have revolutionized work and play
across the globe. Smartphones are not exclusive to wealthy countries or people. As the growth of
the smartphone market continues, technological entrepreneurship can have a profound, long-lasting
impact on the world. Moreover, the globalization of technology means entrepreneurs in
lesserdeveloped countries have access to the same tools as their counterparts in richer countries.
They also have the advantage of a lower cost of living, so a young entrepreneur from an
underdeveloped country can compete with a multi-milliondollar existing product from a developed
country.

4. Community Development

Entrepreneurs regularly nurture ventures by other like-minded individuals. They also invest in
community projects and provide financial support to local charities. This enables further
development beyond their own ventures.

Some famous entrepreneurs, such as Bill Gates, have used their money to finance good causes,
from education to public health. The qualities that make one an entrepreneur are the same qualities
that help motivate entrepreneurs to pay it forward.
KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Entrepreneurship is important as it has the ability to improve standards of living and create
wealth, not only for the entrepreneurs, but also for related businesses.
 Entrepreneurs also help drive change with innovation, where new and improved products
enable new markets to be developed.
 Economy wise, higher earnings thanks to entrepreneurship can help boost national income
and tax revenue.  Entrepreneurs contribute in other ways as well, such as investing in
community projects and supporting local charities.
 Too much entrepreneurship (i..e, high self-employment) can be detrimental to economic
development.

c. PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES OF AN ENTREPRENEUR

Entrepreneurs are a different breed - they think different, act different, and live different than the rest
of society. However, the successful ones all seem to share a few of the same traits with each other.
Here are 12 of the most common:

1. They take what they do seriously - Entrepreneurs understand that the success of the business
ultimately rests upon their shoulders. When you run a startup, whether or not rent is paid depends
on how you run the business.
2. They make it all about the customer - Customers are why a business exists. Their sales dollars
determine the success of any business. Successful entrepreneurs realize this early on and make
their business about the customers. Studies show that customers are four times more likely to
switch to a competitor if they have a customer service concern versus a price or product issue.
3. They make the big decisions carefully - Every decision has consequences, whether good or bad.
Over time, those consequences shape our reality and tell the story of our lives. Entrepreneurs who
are doing well take note and carefully identify the potential long-term effects of each decision, while
seeking counsel before making major decision.
4. They aren’t scared of the road less traveled - Following the crowd only leads to where others have
been before. Successful entrepreneurs aren’t afraid to venture out on their own with a company and
blaze a new trial. That’s their defining characteristic. Some of the best inventions and designs have
come from the minds of those who weren’t afraid to be different.
 5. They harness technology - Things change constantly, and they change especially quickly in
business. To best serve their customers, successful entrepreneurs keep up to date with the best
technology can offer to them. Take, for example, live chat. It can make a huge difference in your
company’s customer service results and overall growth.
6. They invest in themselves - You can’t make other people better unless you make yourself better
first. Entrepreneurs who are successful make a point to carve out time from their calendar and
money from their budget to invest in themselves. This investment may be further education or a
well-earned vacation. Either way, successful entrepreneurs find ways to recharge and propel
themselves further.
7. They are constantly learning - There’s always something you don’t know and something else that
has just been discovered. Both are essential for entrepreneurs. You can’t build a business around
something you don’t know about, and you can’t improve products and services using outdated
methods. Entrepreneurs are always on the prowl to learn more about what they do and what the
competition is working on.
8. They’re not afraid of risks- The best things in life are often found on the other side of a worthwhile
risk; in that way, the best business you can build may be on the other side of possible failure.
Entrepreneurs don’t shy away from the unknown or the uncharted. They know that’s where the
future sales dollars and profits are. While uncalculated risks can cause terrible consequences,
calculated risks are the sweet spot of a new business venture.
9. They’re willing to experience failure - Very few successful entrepreneurs have made it without living
through some failure, large or small. They realize failure is just information about what doesn’t work,
not the end of the journey. They continue trying long after most would have given up.
10. As conditions and society go through changes, so do the needs of customers. The successful
businesses of tomorrow will be those that learn how to meet those needs quickly and don't get left
behind in the heap of non-adapters.
11. They know how to sell themselves - Successful entrepreneurs know when something is valuable,
even if no one else does yet. They can explain and prove why their product or service is worth the
price or investment. Finding a way to sell yourself before anyone believes in you or your business is
the key to successful entrepreneurship.
12. They network, network, network - Not everyone is going to be jumping at the chance to use a new
product and service, and some still won’t adopt even after a lot of compelling information. So
entrepreneurs network; not only to find clients, but also to meet others who share their passion and
desire and who can help them go even further.
Lesson 2.
The Entrepreneurial Mind

Starting Accurately:
According to Arash Asli, the entrepreneurial mindset is about a certain way of thinking -- it is about the way
in which you approach challenges and mistakes. It is about an inherent need to improve your skill set and
to try and try again. But why is this important? The entrepreneurial mindset is what you need to propel
yourself forward. This mindset can dim as you get entrenched in the daily grind of entrepreneurship. But by
making an effort to embody this mindset, you position yourself to meet everyday challenges and experience
growth.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Discuss what makes an entrepreneur a unique individual.

 Enumerate and discuss the essential characteristics of an entrepreneurial mind

Inculcating Concepts:

a. The Entrepreneurial Mindset.

What is an entrepreneurial mindset? From an article published by the Entrepreneurial Learning Initiative
(ELI), A mindset is a cognitive belief system consisting of interrelated beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge
that we use to process information, inform our decisions, and guide our behavior.
An entrepreneurial mindset is a specific set of beliefs, knowledge, and thought processes that drives
entrepreneurial behavior. Those with an entrepreneurial mindset tend to:

 believe in their ability to succeed and influence their own outcomes, empowering them to
take ownership of their lives;
 have compelling goals that keep them future-focused and intrinsically motivated, driving
them to be self-directed, action-oriented, and highly engaged;
 have an optimistic interpretation of adverse events and see problems as potential
opportunities, becoming highly resilient, resourceful, and solutionoriented even within highly
uncertain, resource constrained environments;
 be lifelong knowledge seekers with a focus on micro-experiments as learning opportunities
to test ideas, cultivating curiosity, creativity, and critical thinking;
 display a high-level of reliability, understanding that following through on simple solutions
can lead to unforeseen opportunity;
 have a humanistic outlook, being other-focused and understanding that one creates value by
looking to solve problems for others; and
 surround themselves with an intentional community of positive influence and critical
guidance

It’s important to note that successful entrepreneurs are often touted as exceptional individuals; a rare breed
who seem to have been born with unique hereditary traits. But, the entrepreneurial mindset is most often
acquired implicitly without conscious effort or awareness, which may explain why it often appears to be a
dispositional trait, even though it is not.

An entrepreneurial mindset can be developed and enhanced through entrepreneurial experiences. And to
cultivate the entrepreneurial mindset, we must create entrepreneurial learning experiences within our
classrooms, organizations, and communities.

b. The Entrepreneurial Mind

c. Five Essential Characteristics of an Entrepreneurial Mind

How can we challenge our own thinking to achieve better results? These are the hallmarks of
entrepreneurial thinking. According to Kentin Waits, inventors, business owners and corporate superstars
who reshape and remake companies are some of our strongest cultural heroes. They reflect an essential
part of the American story—the story of the average person who sees an opportunity, seizes it and in the
process creates something new. But what do these entrepreneurs share? What qualities or ways of
thinking characterize the entrepreneurial mind, and can this type of innovative thinking be cultivated in
others? Let’s explore some of hallmarks of entrepreneurial thinking to better understand how it works and
how we can challenge and adapt our own thinking to achieve better results.

1. Creativity
The seed of entrepreneurship is the ability to see things differently. Whether it's with new products
or new processes, entrepreneurs are driven by the uncanny knack to see holes in the marketplace
and devise innovations to fill them. Though it’s not the only essential quality to success, creativity
may be the foundational mental skill. Entrepreneurs ask the “what ifs” that drive inquisitiveness, and
they’re able to let go of what they already know to source fresh information and new ways of
thinking about a problem.

2. Suspicion of predictors
Entrepreneurs tend not to labor under the assumption that data is the sole predictor of an outcome.
Especially in new markets and with new products where data is largely interpretive or extrapolated,
entrepreneurs are undaunted by the typical predictors that may put off fainter hearts. One study by
Inc. magazine found that nearly 60 percent of Inc. 500 CEOs had not written business plans prior to
the launch of their companies, and only 12 percent had done market research. These entrepreneurs
realize that creating something new is a heated evolutionary contest, and no one can know the
outcome with any amount of certainty. It’s as if their thinking, freed from the “no’s” of the data, can
begin to build, test and refine.

3. Comfort with uncertainty

 Similarly, a distrust of prediction and analysis creates an atmosphere where uncertainty rules.
Indeed, uncertainty is the very essence of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs are comfortable existing
in that space between raw idea and successful product, and they tend to thrive in the wide middle
ground of experimentation, revision and testing.

4. Openness to experimentation

A comfort with experimentation goes beyond educated trial and error. The ability to experiment with
products, processes and outcomes, no matter where the results may lead, is the key element of this
quality. It’s difficult to fully appreciate how much of what we call “experimental” is actually quite
predictable. Most people are comfortable testing new products or systems with a range of one or
two possible outcomes. When the results fall nicely within the range, we move on to the next step.
But for entrepreneurs who are bringing something new and novel to the marketplace,
experimentation can be truly…experimental. Removing expectations and letting the results lead you
in completely new directions is the attribute that marks a truly entrepreneurial mind.

5. Functional humility

Egos can destroy the very best ideas. Entrepreneurs who are committed to solving a business
problem or reinventing a product or service display a functional humility. They understand that their
egos are only useful in moving the idea forward, not dictating outcomes or wrestling to make results
conform to a preconceived notion. The very best entrepreneurs may constantly generate and
promote their own ideas, but they think and act collaboratively and are staunchly solutions-focused.

So can everyone have an entrepreneurial mind? Probably not. But with time and practice, we can
begin to think more like entrepreneurs. We can start to make subtle shifts in old, reflexive thinking
that keeps us from exploring a new idea or taking the leap and launching our own business.
Entrepreneurial thinking may be less of a destination and more of a journey as we push our own
boundaries and explore exactly what we’re capable of. There are few things more elemental than
how we think. What kind of beneficial chaos could we create if we began to think differently?

Lesson 3.
The Social Role and Impact of Entrepreneurship

Starting Accurately:
The role of entrepreneurship in any economy is critical, as it contributes to the socioeconomic development
of societies in various ways. Entrepreneurship is vital for any country’s economy as it supports the
contribution of the government in the provision of goods and services. In addition to creating wealth with
they also create jobs and contribute to a growing economy.

Entrepreneurship is the capacity and willingness to develop and participate in a business venture with the
intention of making a profit regardless of the financial risks involved. Their entrepreneurial ventures and
innovations improve our standards of living. Great entrepreneurs have the ability to change the way we live
and work.

Learning Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Enumerate and discuss the five pillars of the social role of entrepreneurship
 Illustrate the relevance of integrating CSR, BOP and SE for greater societal impact.

Inculcating Concepts

Shaker A. Zahra and Mike Wright identified five pillars on which the evolving social role of entrepreneurship
can rest and have its impact:

(1) Connecting entrepreneurial activities to other societal efforts aimed at improving the quality
of life, achieving progress, and enriching human existence by paying attention to wealth
distribution and balancing the interests of different stakeholders,
 (2) Identifying ways to reduce the dysfunctional effects of entrepreneurial activities on
stakeholders including individuals, families, communities, and society,
(3) Redefining the scope of entrepreneurial activities as a scholarly arena,
(4) Recognizing entrepreneurship's social multiplier, which refers to the potential of
entrepreneurial activities to lead to the discovery of creation of additional opportunities,
leading to the birth of new firms in different sectors of the economy. These companies may
have purely economic, social or hybrid goals, and
(5) Pursuing blended value at the organizational level, centering on balancing the creation of
financial, social and environmental wealth. This value is crucial to developing sustainable
quality of life (Zahra et al., 2014). New ventures with a focus on sustainability often seek to
strike a balance among these three dimensions.

Together, these five pillars underscore the importance of social wealth as a key yardstick in evaluating
corporate and independent entrepreneurial activities. As important as financial wealth creation is, the field
of entrepreneurship can benefit from considering social value creation. This likely has two implications.
First, it will shift focus from the implicit recognition of social value to its explicit analysis and thus promote
research that defines this value and its manifestations in different settings. Second, it highlights the need to
align individual motives (e.g., wealth creation) with social good by reducing abuses to resources and the
environment by entrepreneurs while supporting and undertaking those activities that promote the public
good.

This alignment will raise awareness of the need to move from ‘do no harm’ to ‘do good’ and thus improve
personal as well as social wealth. This would be a qualitative shift from examining ‘what’ entrepreneurs do
to studying and analysing ‘who’ they do it for and ‘how’ they do it, with an eye on creating and improving
social wealth.

Integrating CSR, BOP and SE for Greater Societal Impact

According to Shaker A. Zahra and Mike Wright, refining the social role of entrepreneurship requires the
creative integration of the corporate social responsibility, bottom of the pyramid and social entrepreneurship
perspectives. Though each has its unique focus, together the three perspectives can lead to a more
balanced view of blended value.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

CSR refers to a company's efforts, investment and activities aimed to improve relations with stakeholders
such as customers, investors and communities. These activities center on building the company's
reputation and relationships with stakeholders (Aguilera et al., 2007). Recently, many have come to view
CSR programmes as simply a part of doing business and/or a means of successfully executing competitive
strategies. By being innovative, risk taking and proactive in carrying out their CSR programmes,
entrepreneurs can gain a competitive advantage by addressing social needs.

Bottom of the Pyramid (BOP)

The bottom of the pyramid (BOP) is defined as groups of people who lead a meager existence due to
poverty. They often live on incomes lower than US$2.0 a day (Brooks, 2009; London and Hart, 2011;
Prahalad, 2005; Zahra et al., 2008). Corporate entrepreneurs have also crafted strategies that center on
serving the BOP, a widely ignored population (Auriac, 2010; George et al., 2012), applying existing
corporate capabilities (Zahra et al., 2014). Corporate entrepreneurs have also succeeded in highlighting the
importance of social business for their companies’ market success, engaging senior executives and linking
their newly created business to existing operations.

Social Entrepreneurship (SE)

Some independent entrepreneurs have focused more on creating companies around opportunities derived
from societal problems such as poverty, health care, energy, private education, and water purification
(Zahra et al., 2008, 2009b, 2014). These new firms have been founded in nearly every sector of the
economy to address particular needs while making a profit. As such, they are distinct from not‐for‐profit
social entrepreneurs (Kroeger and Weber, 2014). The phenomenal growth of SE and ventures around the
globe attests to the growing realization that entrepreneurs could be responsible while being profitable. SE
activities focus on creating social and financial wealth (Zahra et al., 2008). These ventures vary in their
financing, ownership structures, organizational forms, and business models. While they focus on
addressing social needs (e.g., providing inexpensive good medical care for the poor), these ventures vary
significantly in their relative emphasis on financial and social goals (McMullen and Warnick, 2016). Many of
these ventures are hybrid, focusing on both sets of goals. Social ventures often work side by side with not‐
for‐profit, government agencies, community organizations, and NGOs in delivering their products and
services.