CHAPTER 8

GRAVITATION
Physicists like to find areas that seem to have nothing to do with each other and to
show that they are related if you look at them closely enough. This search for
unification has been going on for centuries. In 1665, the 23-year-old Isaac Newton
made a great contribution when he showed that the force that holds the moon in its
orbit is the same force that makes an apple fall. In this chapter, we study the law of
universal gravitation. We emphasize a description of planetary motion because
astronomical data provide an important test of this law’s validity.

8.1. Newton’s universal law of gravitation

This law states: “Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle
with a force that varies directly with the product of their masses and inversely with
the square of the distance between them.”

If 1 and 2 are the masses of two particles separated by a distance , the force of
attraction between them is given by:

Where is called the gravitational constant whose value ≅ 6.67 × 10−11 2∕ 2

8.2. Gravitation field intensity or Acceleration due to gravity ‘g’

Gravitation field is the space surrounding a material body in which gravitational
force of attraction can be experienced. The force of attraction exerted by the earth on
a body is called gravitational pull or gravity. The acceleration produced in the motion
of a body under the effect of gravity is called acceleration due to gravity or
gravitation field intensity, denoted by ‘g’.

If the earth is considered to be a perfect sphere of mass M and radius R, and then we
consider a body of mass m placed on or near the surface of the earth, then:

Clearly the value of ‘g’ is independent of the mass of the body.

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If an object is at height h above the surface of the earth, then g is given by:

Clearly the value of ‘g’ varies with altitude or height.

8.3. Mass and density of the earth

We know that the acceleration due to gravity near the surface of the earth is given by:

Then, the mass of the earth is given by:

Taking the radius of the earth = 6.37 × 106 , = 6.67 × 10−11 2∕ 2 and
=9.8 / 2, then the mass of the earth is

Assuming the earth to be a homogeneous sphere, then its volume is given by:

The density of the earth is then given by:

3
=
4

= 5.5 × 103 / 3

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8.4. Satellites
A satellite is a body which is constantly revolving in an orbit around the planet.
Satellites can be artificial or natural. The moon is the natural satellite of the earth,
and it revolves round the earth once in 27.3 days. An artificial satellite is a man-
made object placed at a height above the earth and given sufficient velocity so as to
revolve round the earth in closed orbits.

8.4.1. Launching of a satellite

To launch a satellite into orbit multistage rockets are used. These generally have
three stages. The satellite is kept at the top of the third stage. The first part of the
flight of the rocket is made vertical so that it may cross the denser part of the
atmosphere quickly. As the first stage rocket fuel burns off, this stage drops and the
second stage begins to burn. At this stage it is given a gradual tilt since mass is
considerably reduced and there is less resistance of air, the velocity of the system
increases considerably. When the fuel of the second stage is finished it is detached
and the third stage gets ignited. The final stage rocket turns the satellite in a
horizontal direction and gives it the proper speed, which makes the satellite revolve
round the earth.

8.4.1 Orbital velocity of a satellite

The velocity with which a satellite moves in its closed orbit is called orbital velocity.
For a satellite to be in a stable orbit it must have a suitable velocity, which depends
on the radius of the orbit. Let us consider a satellite of mass m moving round a closed
orbit of radius r with orbital velocity v. Let M be the mass of the earth and R its
radius.

In this case, the centripetal acceleration of the satellite is provided by the

gravitational force. That is;

The orbital velocity is independent of the mass of the body; instead it depends on the
mass of the planet and orbital radius.

If h is the height of the satellite above the earth, then the orbital is = . In this
case, the orbital velocity becomes;

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The orbital velocity can be expressed in terms of acceleration due to gravity.

We know that the acceleration due to gravity near the surface of the earth is given by:

Then;

= 2

The expression for the orbital velocity therefore becomes;

If the orbit is close to the earth, h is negligible compared to R (h<<<<<<R), then

orbital velocity is given by:

This is called the minimum orbit, and velocity corresponding to minimum orbit is
called first cosmic velocity. Its value is / .

8.4.2 Time period of a satellite

It is the time taken by the satellite to revolve once round the earth. If r is the radius of
the orbit and v the orbital velocity, then the time period of the satellite is given by:

We know that the orbital velocity of a satellite is given by:

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Therefore, the expression for the time period of a satellite becomes:

Since;

= 2

Then;

For a minimum orbit,

8.4.3 Geostationary satellites

The satellite which appears stationary relative to the earth is called geostationary or
geosynchronous satellite. A geostationary satellite always stays over the same place
above the earth. The orbit of a geostationary satellite is known as parking orbit,
because they will appear stationary with respect to the earth. Its period of revolution
around the earth is the same as that of the earth, and hence its angular velocity is the
same as that of the earth.

Geostationary satellites have their applications in weather forecast, communications

e.g. radio, television and telephones.

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8.5. Gravitational potential energy
The gravitational potential energy of a body at a point is defined as the amount of
work done in bringing the body from infinity to that point against the gravitational
force. Consider a body of mass m placed at a distance r from the earth of mass M.

In this case, the work done is given by:

−
We know that the gravitational force on a body in this case is given by:

Then, the work done by the gravitational force will be given by:

− −

Therefore the gravitational potential energy is given by

The gravitational potential energy of a body near the surface of the earth is given by:
−
If a body is at a distance h above the earth’s surface, then its gravitational potential
energy becomes:

8.6. Escape velocity

If a body is thrown vertically upwards it rises up to certain height and then returns.
The height to which a body rises depends on the velocity of project. If a body is
given sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the gravitational pull of the earth it will
escape into the outer space and never returns. The minimum velocity, with which the
body must be projected so that it may escape from the earth’s gravitation field is
called escape velocity of the earth.

Let M and m be the masses of the earth and the body respectively, R be the radius of
the earth and be the velocity of the body with which it is to be projected so that it
escapes the gravitation field of the earth.

By law of energy transformation;

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 ∑ ∑

+ = +

At infinite distance, both kinetic energy and potential energy equals zero, that is
. Therefore

The initial kinetic energy of the body is given v by:

And the potential energy of the body is given by:

−
Then;

Since;

= 2

Then;

Escape velocity is independent of the mass and direction of projection of the body.
For the earth = 11.2 / .
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8.7. Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
The German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) is best known for developing
the laws of planetary motion. Kepler’s complete and systematic analysis of planetary
motion is summarized in three statements known as Kepler’s laws.

8.7.1. Kepler’s first law

This is law is sometimes called the law of orbits. This law states that “Every planet
moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the foci.”

8.7.2 Kepler’s second law

This law is sometimes called the law of area. The law states “The line joining the sun
to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time, i.e. areal velocity is
constant.” According to this law a planet will move slowly when it is furthest from
the sun and move rapidly when it is nearest to the sun. It is similar to the law of
conservation of angular momentum.

8.7.3 Kepler’s third law

This law is sometimes called the law of periods. The law states “The square of the
period of revolution of any planet around the sun is directly proportional to the cube
of the mean distance of the planet from the sun.” That is;

Consider a planet of mass Mp that is assumed to be moving around the sun of mass
Ms in a circular orbit. In this case, the gravitational force provides the centripetal
acceleration of the planet as it moves in a circle.

Gravitational force (FG) = Centripetal force (FC)

We know that;

Then;

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where , is a constant given by:

Therefore
T2 r3

EXERCISES

1. The mass of Jupiter is 1.9 × 1027 and that of the sun is 1.99 × 1030 . The
mean distance of Jupiter from the sun is 7.8 × 1011m. Calculate the gravitational
force which the sun exerts on Jupiter, and the speed of Jupiter. [ . × N;
. × m/s]
2. The gravitational force that the sun exerts on the moon is perpendicular to the
force that the Earth exerts on the moon. The distance between the sun and the
moon is 1011m, and the distance between the moon and the Earth is 4 × 108m.
Determine the magnitude of the net gravitational force on the moon. [ . ×
N]
3. A rocket is fired from the earth towards the sun. At what point on its path is the
gravitational force on the rocket zero? Neglect effect of other planets. [ . ×
]

4. Calculate the mass and density of the earth from the following data: Radius of
the earth =6371 km, g =9.8 m/s2, G=6.67×10-11 Nm2Kg. [6×1024 Kg; 5.5×103
Kg/m3]
5. A body weighs 63 N on the earth. What is the gravitational force on it at a height
equal to half the radius of the earth? [28N]

6. How far away from the surface of earth does the acceleration due to gravity
become 4% of its value on the surface of earth? [25600 km]

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7. An earth satellite makes a complete circuit around the earth in 90 minutes. If the
orbit is circular, calculate the height of the satellite above the earth. [279 km]

8. The international space station (ISS) moves in a circular orbit around the equator
at a height of 250 km above the earth’s surface. Calculate the period of the ISS.
[90 minutes]
9. Find the orbital velocity of an artificial satellite of the earth near its surface.
[7290 m/s]

10. Determine the minimum velocity with which a body should be projected in order
to escape from the Earth’s gravitation field. [11.2km/s]

11. Determine the escape velocity of a body from the moon. Take the moon to be a
uniform sphere of radius 1.74×106 m and mass 7.36×1022 Kg. [2375 m/s]

12. A satellite of mass 30 kg orbits the earth at a height of 500 km from its surface.
Compute its

(a) kinetic energy.

(b) potential energy. [(a)8.7×109J (b) -17.4×109J]

13. A satellite of mass 200 kg orbits the earth at a height of 400 km above the
surface. How much energy must be expended to rocket the satellite out of earth’s
gravitational influence? Radius of the earth = 6400 km; mass of the earth =
6×1024 Kg. [5.88×109 J]

14. The escape velocity of a projectile on the earth’s surface is 11.2 km/s. A body is
projected out with twice its speed. What is the speed of the body far away from
the earth (infinity)? Ignore the presence of sun and other planets. [19.4 km/s]

15. The distance of Neptune and Saturn from the sun is nearly 1013 m and 1012 m
respectively. Assuming that they move in circular in circular orbits, then what
will be the ratio of their periods? [Tn:Ts = 31.6:1]

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