Introduction to Convection:

Flow and Thermal Considerations

Chapter Six: Sections 6.1.1 through 6.1.3,

6.2.1,6.2.3 and 6.3 – 6.6

Convection Heat Transfer

Convection
-heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk fluid motion.

Forced- fluid moved Natural (free)- fluid moved by

by fan or pump. natural means, e.g., buoyancy effect

- can be classified as internal or external (we will discuss natural convection later)
 Convection Heat Transfer
Forced convection is achieved by subjecting the fluid to a
pressure gradient (e.g., by a fan or pump), thereby forcing
motion to occur according to the laws of fluid mechanics.

Convective heat transfer rate is calculated from

Neuton’s Law of Cooling

h is called the convective heat transfer coefficient and has

units of W/m2 K or (often W/m2 oC) or Btu/(hr ft2 oF).

Convection Heat Transfer

Typical values of h are
Natural convection of air = 5 W/m2 K
Natural conv. of water around a pipe = 570
Forced conv. of air over plate@30 m/s = 80
Water @ 2 m/s over plate, DT=15 K = 590
Liquid sodium at 5 m/s in 1.3cm pipe = 75,000 (@ 370 C)
Note: Phase change occurring at the surface during convection may also greatly
affect the values of “h”, (e.g., boiling or condensing processes such as occur in a
thermal power plant)
The heat transfer coefficient contains all the parameters which influence convection
heat transfer.
It depends on the conditions in the boundary layer which are influenced by the
surface geometry, the nature of the gas motion, and the properties of the fluid.
In fact, the question of convection heat transfer
comes down to defining the right heat transfer coefficient.

This depends on the velocity and thermal Boundary Layers.

 Velocity and Thermal Boundary Layers

Velocity and Thermal Boundary Layers

∂u
τs = μ y =0
∂y

u∞
Boundary Layer Features

Boundary Layers: Physical Features

• Velocity Boundary Layer

– A consequence of viscous effects

associated with relative motion
between a fluid and a surface.
– A region of the flow characterized by
shear stresses and velocity gradients.
– A region between the surface u( y)
δ→ = 0.99
and the free stream whose u∞
thickness δ increases in
the flow direction.
– Why does δ increase in the flow direction?
– the viscous effects penetrate further into the free stream along the plate and δ increases

– Manifested by a surface shear ∂u

τs = μ y =0
stress τ s that provides a drag ∂y
force, FD .
FD = ∫ τ s dAs
– How doesτ s vary in the flow As

direction? Why?

Boundary Layer Features (cont.)

• Thermal Boundary Layer

– A consequence of heat transfer

between the surface and fluid.

– A region of the flow characterized

by temperature gradients and heat
fluxes.
– A region between the surface and Ts − T ( y )
δt → = 0.99
the free stream whose thickness δ t Ts − T∞
increases in the flow direction.
– Why does δ t increase in the ∂T
q′′s = − k f y =0
flow direction? ∂y
– Manifested by a surface heat
flux q′′s and a convection heat − k f ∂T / ∂y y =0
transfer coefficient h . h≡
Ts − T∞
– If (Ts − T∞ ) is constant, how do q′′s and
h vary in the flow direction?
- The temperature gradient at the wall, h and q ′′s decrease with increasing x.
Local and Average Coefficients

Distinction between Local and

Average Heat Transfer Coefficients
• Local Heat Flux and Coefficient:

q′′s = h (Ts − T∞ )

• Average Heat Flux and Coefficient for a Uniform Surface Temperature:

q = hAs (Ts − T∞ )

q = ∫As q′′dAs = (Ts − T∞ ) ∫A hdAs

s

1
h= ∫ hdAs
As As

• For a flat plate in parallel flow:

1
h = ∫oL hdx
L

Transition

Boundary Layer Transition

• How would you characterize conditions in the laminar region of boundary layer
development? In the turbulent region?
• What conditions are associated with transition from laminar to turbulent flow?
• Why is the Reynolds number an appropriate parameter for quantifying transition
from laminar to turbulent flow?
• Transition criterion for a flat plate in parallel flow:
ρu x
Re x , c ≡ ∞ c → critical Reynolds number
μ
xc → location at which transition to turbulence begins
105 < Re x , c < 3 x 106
~ ~
Transition

Boundary Layer Transition

Transition (cont.)

What may be said about transition if ReL < Rex,c? If ReL > Rex,c?

• Effect of transition on boundary layer thickness and local convection coefficient:

Why does transition provide a significant increase in the boundary layer thickness?
Why does the convection coefficient decay in the laminar region? Why does it increase
significantly with transition to turbulence, despite the increase in the boundary layer
thickness? Why does the convection coefficient decay in the turbulent region?
Boundary Layer Equations

The Boundary Layer Equations

• Consider concurrent velocity and thermal boundary layer development for steady,
( )
two-dimensional, incompressible flow with constant fluid properties μ , c p , k and
negligible body forces.
• Apply conservation of mass, Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion and conservation of energy
to a differential control volume and invoke the boundary layer approximations.
Velocity Boundary Layer:

∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂p dp∞
 2, ≈
∂x 2 ∂y ∂x dx
Thermal Boundary Layer:
∂ 2T ∂ 2T

∂x 2 ∂y 2

Boundary Layer Equations (cont.)

• Conservation of Mass:
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
In the context of flow through a differential control volume, what is the physical
significance of the foregoing terms, if each is multiplied by the mass density of
the fluid?

• Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

x-direction :
∂u ∂u 1 dp∞ ∂ 2u
u +v =− +ν 2
∂x ∂y ρ dx ∂y

What is the physical significance of each term in the foregoing equation?

LHS represents the rate at which x-momentum leaves the CV due to fluid motion
across the boundaries. 1st term on RHS represents the net pressure force. 2nd term
on RHS represents the net force due to viscous shear stresses.

Why can we express the pressure gradient as dp∞/dx instead of ∂p/∂x?

The BL is assumed to be thin and incompressible so pressure in free stream dominates

Boundary Layer Equations (cont.)

• Conservation of Energy:
2
∂T ∂T ∂ 2T ν ⎛ ∂u ⎞
u +v =α 2 + ⎜ ⎟
∂x ∂y ∂y c p ⎝ ∂y ⎠

What is the physical significance of each term in the foregoing equation?

Terms on LHS represent the net rate that thermal energy leaves the CV due to the
bulk fluid motion (advection). 1st term on RHS accounts for the net inflow of
thermal energy due to conduction into the CV in the Y direction.

What is the second term on the right-hand side called and under what conditions
may it be neglected?

2nd term on RHS represents energy addition due to viscous dissipation. It may be
neglected in most cases, however not in high speed flows, e.g., supersonic flows.

Similarity Considerations
Boundary Layer Similarity
• As applied to the boundary layers, the principle of similarity is based on
determining similarity parameters that facilitate application of results obtained
for a surface experiencing one set of conditions to geometrically similar surfaces
experiencing different conditions. (Recall how introduction of the similarity
parameters Bi and Fo permitted generalization of results for transient, one-
dimensional condition).
• Dependent boundary layer variables of interest are:
τ s and q′′ or h

• For a prescribed geometry, the corresponding independent variables are:

Geometrical: Size (L), Location (x,y)
Hydrodynamic: Velocity (V)
Fluid Properties:
Hydrodynamic: ρ , μ
Thermal : c p , k
Hence,
u = f ( x , y , L, V , ρ , μ )
τ s = f ( x, L,V , ρ , μ )
Similarity Considerations (cont.)

and
T = f ( x , y , L, V , ρ , μ , c p , k )
h = f ( x , L, V , ρ , μ , c p , k )

• Key similarity parameters may be inferred by non-dimensionalizing the momentum

and energy equations.
• Recast the boundary layer equations by introducing dimensionless forms of the
independent and dependent variables.
x y
x* ≡ y* ≡
L L
u v
u* ≡ v* ≡
V V
T − Ts
T* ≡
T∞ − Ts
• Neglecting viscous dissipation, the following normalized forms of the x-momentum
and energy equations are obtained:
* ∂u * ∂u 1 ∂ 2u *
* *
dp*
u +v =− * +
∂x* ∂y* dx Re L ∂y*2
∂T * * ∂T
*
1 ∂ 2T *
u* + v =
∂x* ∂y* Re L Pr ∂y*2

Similarity Considerations (cont.)

We see there are two important dimensionless similarity parameters associated with the
heat transfer in this case. These are the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers.

The Reynolds number represents the ratio of the inertia to the viscous forces

The Prandtl number is the ratio of the momentum and thermal diffusivities. These are
calculated as

ρVL VL
Re L ≡ = → the Reynolds Number
μ v
cpμ v
Pr ≡ = → the Prandtl Number
k α

The dimensionless parameters allow us to apply results obtained for a surface

experiencing convective heat transfer conditions, to geometrically similar surfaces
experiencing different conditions, e.g., those with different fluids and fluid velocities,
or differences in size as described by the characteristic length.

Therefore, as long as the similarity parameters and dimensionless boundary conditions

are the same, the solution of the differential equations for non-dimension velocity and
temperature will be the same
 Table 6.1 in the text summarises the boundary layer equations and their assumed boundary
conditions.

We see that the dependence of these equations can be simplified by grouping variables into
non-dimensional parameters, e.g., Reynolds and Prandtl number.

• thus for a prescribed geometry, the dimensionless velocity has the following dependencies

(
u * = f x* , y* , Re L )
and the shear stress that the surface can be expressed as

∂u ⎛ μV ⎞ ∂u
*
τs = μ =⎜ ⎟ *
∂y y =0 ⎝ L ⎠ ∂y y* = 0

Similarity Considerations (cont.)

The local friction coefficient, is then

τs 2 ∂u *
Cf ≡ =
ρV 2 / 2 Re L ∂y* y* = 0

What is the functional dependence of the average friction coefficient?

Since

∂u *
∂y*
(
= f x* , Re L )
y* = 0

Then for a prescribed geometry, the friction coefficient may be expressed exclusively
in terms of a dimensionless space coordinate and Reynolds number. This result should
be universally applicable

2
Cf =
Re L
(
f x* , Re L )
Similarity Considerations (cont.)

• thus, for a prescribed geometry,

(
T * = f x* , y* , Re L , Pr )
−k f ∂T / ∂y k f (T∞ − Ts ) ∂T * k f ∂T *
y =0
h= =− =+
Ts − T∞ L (Ts − T∞ ) ∂y* y* = 0
L ∂y* y* = 0

The dimensionless local convection coefficient is then

hL ∂T *
Nu ≡
kf
= *
∂y
(
= f x* , Re L , Pr )
y* = 0

Nu → local Nusselt number

What is the functional dependence of the average Nusselt number?

How does the Nusselt number differ from the Biot number?
Problem: Turbine Blade Scaling

Problem 6.19: Determination of heat transfer rate for prescribed

turbine blade operating conditions from wind tunnel data
obtained for a geometrically similar but smaller
blade. The blade surface area may be assumed to be
directly proportional to its characteristic length ( As ∝ L ) .

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Constant properties, (3) Surface area A is
directly proportional to characteristic length L, (4) Negligible radiation, (5) Blade shapes are
geometrically similar.

ANALYSIS: For a prescribed geometry,

hL
Nu = = f ( ReL , Pr ) .
k

Problem: Turbine Blade Scaling (cont.)

The Reynolds numbers for the blades are

ReL,1 = ( V1L1 /ν1 ) = 15m 2 / s ν1 ReL,2 = ( V2 L 2 /ν 2 ) = 15m 2 / s ν 2 .

Hence, with constant properties ( v1 = v2 ) , ReL,1 = ReL,2. Also, Pr1 = Pr2 .

Therefore,
Nu 2 = Nu 1
( h 2 L2 / k 2 ) = ( h1L1 / k1 )
L L q1
h 2 = 1 h1 = 1
L2 (
L 2 A1 Ts,1 − T∞ )
The heat rate for the second blade is then
L A2 ( Ts,2 − T∞ ) q
(
q 2 = h 2 A 2 Ts,2 − T∞ = 1 )
L 2 A1 ( Ts,1 − T∞ ) 1
Ts,2 − T∞ ( 400 − 35)
q2 = q1 = (1500 W )
Ts,1 − T∞ ( 300 − 35)
q 2 = 2066 W.

COMMENTS: (i) The variation in ν from Case 1 to Case 2 would cause ReL,2 to differ from
ReL,1. However, for air and the prescribed temperatures, this non-constant property effect is
small. (ii) If the Reynolds numbers were not equal ( Re L,1 ≠ Re L 2 ) , knowledge of the specific form of
( )
f Re L, Pr would be needed to determine h2.
Problem: Nusselt Number

Problem 6.26: Use of a local Nusselt number correlation to estimate the

surface temperature of a chip on a circuit board.

KNOWN: Expression for the local heat transfer coefficient of air at prescribed velocity and
temperature flowing over electronic elements on a circuit board and heat dissipation rate for a 4 × 4
mm chip located 120mm from the leading edge.

FIND: Surface temperature of the chip surface, Ts.

Problem: Nusselt Number (cont.)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Power dissipated within chip is lost by convection
across the upper surface only, (3) Chip surface is isothermal, (4) The average heat transfer coefficient
for the chip surface is equivalent to the local value at x = L, (5) Negligible radiation.

PROPERTIES: Table A-4, Air (Evaluate properties at the average temperature of air in the boundary
layer. Assuming Ts = 45°C, Tave = (45 + 25)/2 = 35°C = 308K. Also, p = 1atm): ν = 16.69 ×
-6 2 -3
10 m /s, k = 26.9 × 10 W/m⋅K, Pr = 0.703.

ANALYSIS: From an energy balance on the chip,

q conv = E g = 30mW.

Newton’s law of cooling for the upper chip surface can be written as
Ts = T∞ + q conv / h Achip (2)
2
where A chip = A .

( )
Assuming that the average heat transfer coefficient h over the chip surface is equivalent to the local
coefficient evaluated at x = L, that is, h chip ≈ h x ( L ) , the local coefficient can be evaluated by
applying the prescribed correlation at x = L.
0.85
h x ⎡ Vx ⎤
Nu x = x = 0.04 ⎢ ⎥ Pr1/ 3
k ⎣ν ⎦
0.85
k ⎡ VL ⎤
h L = 0.04 Pr1/ 3
L ⎢⎣ ν ⎥⎦
Problem: Nusselt Number (cont.)

0.85
⎡ 0.0269 W/m ⋅ K ⎤ ⎡ 10 m/s × 0.120 m ⎤
h L = 0.04 ⎢ ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ( 0.703)1/ 3 = 107 W/m2 ⋅ K.
⎣ 0.120 m ⎣16.69 × 10-6 m 2 / s ⎦

From Eq. (2), the surface temperature of the chip is

2
Ts = 25D C + 30 ×10-3 W/107 W/m 2 ⋅ K × ( 0.004m ) = 42.5D C.

COMMENTS: (1) The estimated value of Tave used to evaluate the air properties is reasonable.

(2) How else could h chip have been evaluated? Is the assumption of h = hL reasonable?