CHAPTER 3- ATOMS AND MOLECULES

The invisible and unknown form of matter

The idea of divisibility by Indian philosophers
Maharishi Kanad – He postulated that if we keep on dividing the matter
(called as ‘padarth’) we will get smaller and smaller particles.  And soon we
will achieve the smallest of particles (called as ‘parmanu’) which may not
divide further.
Pakudha Katyayama – He postulated that there are various forms of matter
because the particles of matter exist together in combinations.
The idea of divisibility by Greek philosophers
Democritus and Leucippus – They suggested that when we keep on dividing
the matter there comes a time when no more division of particles can take place.
Such particles are called atoms which means being invisible.
But all these ideas were not backed up by many experimental pieces of evidence
un Chapter- Atoms and Molecules til Antoine L. Lavoisier provided two
laws of chemical combination.
Laws of Chemical Combination
1. Law of conservation of mass – mass can neither be created nor destroyed in
a chemical reaction
2. Law of constant proportion/Law of definite proportion – the elements are
always present in definite proportions by mass in a chemical substance
For example, Hydrogen and oxygen are present in water in a ratio of 1:8. So if
we decompose 9g of water we will obtain 1g of hydrogen and 8g of oxygen.
The Atomic Theory
John Dalton proposed an atomic theory which acted as an explanation of the
above two laws. As per the theory, all matter whether it is an element, a
compound or a mixture consists of tiny invisible particles called ‘atoms’.
The postulates of the atomic theory by John Dalton
1. The matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms that cannot be divided.
2. Atoms are never formed or destroyed during a chemical reaction. 
 3. Atoms of an element exhibit same nature. They have the same size, mass,
and character.
4. Atoms of different elements exhibit variant nature. They do not have same
characteristics.
5. Atoms form compounds by combining in a ratio of whole numbers.
6. A compound contains a constant number and kinds of atoms
Atoms
 We can call atoms as the building blocks of matter. Just like bricks are the
building blocks of a building.
What is the size of an atom?
Atoms are extremely small. Their size is measured in nanometers where 1nm =
1/109 m.

Atomic radius is measured in nanometers

1/109 = 1nm
1m  = 109 nm
Relative Sizes
Radii (in m) Example
10-10 Atom of hydrogen
10-9 Molecule of water
10-8 Molecule of haemoglobin
10-4 Grain of Sand
10-2 Ant
10-1 Watermelon
Symbols for Atoms
Here are some examples of the symbols that are used to represent different
atoms

The symbols for representing an atom are generated from the first two letters of
the element’s name. The first letter is always in uppercase (capital letter) while
the second letter is written in lowercase. Here are some examples –
The Atomic Mass
The Dalton’s Atomic Theory suggested that each element has a distinguishing
atomic mass. With this theory, the law of constant proportions could be
explained easily.
But it is indeed difficult to evaluate the mass of an atom since the size of an
atom is relatively small.
Therefore scientists started evaluating the mass of an atom by comparing it with
the mass of a standard atom.
Earlier 1/16 of the mass of an oxygen atom was used as a standard for
calculating the mass of other elements. Now, carbon - 12 is considered a
standard atom for calculating the mass.
Its atomic mass is 12u (12 atomic mass units). Thus we can say that one atomic
mass unit is the mass of 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Here is a list of
atomic masses of a few elements.
Element Atomic Mass
Hydrogen 1µ
Carbon 12 µ
Nitrogen 14 µ
Oxygen 16 µ
Sodium 23 µ
Magnesium 24 µ
Sulphur 32 µ
Chlorine 35.5 µ
Calcium 40 µ
Can atoms exist independently?
Atoms cannot survive independently. So, atoms join together and form
molecules or ions. 
 Molecule
 A molecule is a collection of various atoms that combine chemically with
each other.
 These atoms are bound together by certain forces of attraction.
 Atoms of the same elements or different elements can bind together to form
molecules.
 Therefore, a molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can exist
independently and shows all the properties of that substance.
Molecules of Elements
 The molecules of an element are formed by combinations of similar types of
atoms. For example, Helium (He) is made up of only one atom while oxygen
is made up of two atoms.
 Atomicity – the number of atoms in a molecule of an element is called its
atomicity. For example, helium is monoatomic and oxygen is diatomic.
 Monoatomic – when an element comprises of a single atom. Example – all
metals
 Diatomic – when an element comprises of two atoms. Example – all gases
 Triatomic – when an element comprises of three atoms
 Tetra-atomic – when an element comprises of four atoms
 Poly-atomic – when an element comprises of more than two atoms
Here a few examples of atomicity of elements –
Atomicity of some Elements

Name Atomicity Formula

Argon Monoatomic Ar
Helium Monoatomic He
Oxygen Diatomic O2
Hydrogen Diatomic H2
Nitrogen Diatomic N2
Chlorine Diatomic Cl2
Phosphorous Tetra – atomic P4
Sulphur Poly – atomic S8
Molecules of Compounds
Molecules of compounds constitute atoms of different elements that combine
together in a fixed proportion. For example, water comprises of two atoms of
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

Ions
 Compounds contain metals as well as non-metals. These elements include
charged species which are known as ions.
 Thus, ion is a particle that has a positive or negative charge.
 Anion – negatively charged ion
 Cation – positively charged ion
 There can be a single charged atom in an ion or there may be a group of
charged atoms in an ion that have a net charge on the compound.
 When a group of atoms carries a charge in a compound it is called as
a polyatomic ion.
Chemical Formula
We use a chemical formula to represent the composition of a compound in the
form of symbols. To write a chemical formula you must know two things –
1. Symbols of elements
2. Valency
Valency – it is also known as the combining capacity of an element. In other
words, valency explains how atoms of one element will mix with atoms of
another element. For example, the hydrogen ion is represented as H+ which
means that its valency is 1. Similarly, the oxygen ion is represented as O2-
which means that its valency is 2. Here is a list of valancies of various elements.

Rules of writing a Chemical Formula

 Valencies of on the ions must balance.

 In a case where both metal and non-metal substances are present in a

compound, the name of the metal is always written first in the chemical
formula. For example, Sodium Chloride is written as NaCl
 In case of polyatomic ions, the ion is written in brackets before writing the
number of ions associated to it. In case of a single ion, there is no need to
mention the ion in brackets
Writing the Formulae of Simple Compounds
Binary compounds – compounds that consist of two different elements
How to write a Formula of a Compound
 Write the symbols of the corresponding elements of the compound as
explained above
 Write the valencies of the elements of the compound
 Crossover the valencies of the elements
Here are a few examples of writing the chemical formula
Molecular Mass and the Mole Concept
Molecular Mass – summation of all the atomic masses in a molecule
Molecular mass is expressed in atomic mass units (amu).
For example, the molecular mass of HNO3 can be calculated as:
Atomic mass of H =1u
Atomic mass of N =14u
Atomic mass of O =16u
Molecular mass of HNO3 = 1 + 14 + (16*3) = 63u
Formula Unit Mass
The sum of atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound is
called as its formula unit mass.  The formula unit mass is used in case of
substances that constitute ions. For example, formula unit mass of Sodium
Chloride (NaCl) can be calculated as:    (1*23) + (1*35.5) = 58.5u
Mole Concept
How do we interpret a chemical equation?
2C + O2 = 2CO2
We say that two molecules of carbon combine with one molecule of oxygen to
form two molecules of carbon dioxide.
We can also say that 24u of Carbon molecules combine with 32u of oxygen
molecules to form 56u of carbon dioxide molecules.
Therefore, we can characterize the quantity of a substance by its mass or by its
number of molecules.
A chemical equation directly indicates the number of molecules participating in
the reaction. Thus, it is convenient for us to refer to the number of substances in
a chemical reaction as numbers of molecules or atoms.
Mole
Mole is a numerical quantity that has a mass equal to the atomic or molecular
mass of species (atoms, molecules, ions or particles).
1 mole of any substance = 6.022 X 1023 number of particles (atoms, ions or
molecules)
This is called the Avogadro number or Avogadro Constant which is
represented as N0
The mass of 1 mole of a substance is the same as that its atomic mass or
molecular mass expressed in grams.
Gram atomic mass of a substance – the atomic mass of a substance when
expressed in grams is known as its gram atomic mass.
Gram molecular mass of a substance – the molecular mass of a substance
when expressed in grams is known as its gram molecular mass.
For example, the atomic mass of Sulphur is 32u. Gram atomic mass of Sulphur
is 32g.
Also, 32u of Sulphur has 1 atom of Sulphur. 32g of Sulphur has 1 mole atoms,
that is, 6.022 X 1023 atoms of Sulphur.
Similarly, we can say that the gram molecular mass of Carbon Dioxide is 56g.
But we know that in the case of chemical equation mole is the measuring unit.
Therefore, 1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 number = Relative mass in grams
Wilhelm Ostwald introduced the word ‘mole’ which actually means a heap or a
pile. Therefore, we consider a substance as a heap of atoms or molecules.
Consider these formulae –

A quick review of how mole, Avogadro number and Mass are related to
each other – 
 
, are:
Laws of Chemical Combination:
The process of combination of two or more elements to form new
compounds is governed by certain laws called laws of chemical
combination. These are:

1. Law of conservation of mass.

2. Law of constant proportions.

1.  Law of conservation of mass (by Lavoisier in 1744):

This law states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction.

2. Law of constant proportions (by Proust in 1797):

This law states that in a chemical substance the elements are always
present in definite proportions by mass.

For example, the ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in pure water is always 1:
8 by weight.
 This law is also called law of definite proportions or law of constant
proportions.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all matter, whether an element, a
compound or a mixture is composed of small particles called atoms

Postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory:

 Matter is made up of extremely small indivisible particles called atoms
that can neither be created nor destroyed.
 Atoms of the same substance are identical in all aspects, i.e., they
possess same size, shape, mass, chemical properties etc.
 Atoms of different substances are different in all aspects, i.e., they
possess different size, shape, mass etc.
 Atom is the smallest particle that takes part in a chemical reaction.
 Atoms of different elements combine with each other in a simple whole
number ratio to form compound.
 The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given
compound.
Try the following questions:
Q. 3 g of carbon on burning in 8 g oxygen produces 11 g of carbon
dioxide. What mass of carbon dioxide will be formed when 3 g of carbon is
burnt in 50 g of oxygen?
Q.. Hydrogen and oxygen combine in the ratio of 1:8 by mass to form
water. What mass of oxygen gas would be required to react completely
with 3 g of hydrogen gas? Which law of combination will govern the
answer?
Q. Which postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory explains the law of definite
proportions?
Q. 12 g of magnesium powder was ignited in a container having 20 g of
pure oxygen. After the reaction was over, it was found that 12 g of
oxygen was left unreacted. Show that it is according to law of constant
proportions.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Atoms:
The smallest tiny particles of matter which can't be divided further is
called atom, i.e., an atom is the smallest building block of matter.

For example: Sodium (Na), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), etc.

Names of Atoms or Elements and Their Symbols:

 IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) approves
names of elements.
 The abbreviation used for lengthy names of elements are termed as their
symbols.
 The symbol of an element is formed by writing only the first letter or first
letter followed by the second or some other letter of English name or
Latin name of the element. 
 While writing a symbol, the first letter is always capital and the second is
always small.
 Symbols used for some common elements are given below:

Atomic Mass
Atomic mass of an element may be defined as the average relative mass
of an atom of the element as compared with the mass of an atom of
carbon (C-12 isotope) taken as 12 amu.

Gram Atomic Mass: The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams

is known as gram atomic mass.
Molecules:
A group of two or more than two atoms of the same or different elements
that are chemically bonded together is called a molecule.

For example: Two atoms of hydrogen (H2) and one atom of oxygen (O2)
react with each other and form one molecule of water.
Atomicity: 
The number of atoms present in a molecule of an element or a compound
is known as its atomicity.

For example, atomicity of oxygen (O2) is 2 while atomicity of ozone (O3) is

3.
Molecules of Elements:
The molecules of an element are constituted by the same type of atoms.

For example, a molecule of oxygen consists of two atoms of oxygen to

form a diatomic molecule O2.
Molecules of Compounds:
Atoms of different elements join together in definite proportions to form
molecules of compounds.
For example, a molecule of water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen to form a triatomic molecule H2O.
Ion:
It is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms. It is formed by the
loss or gain of one or more electrons by an atom.

Ions are of two types:

(i) Cation: It is positively charged ion and is formed by the loss of one or
more electrons from an atom

For example: sodium atom, loses one electron to form a sodium ion Na

Na – e−  →  Na+
(ii) Anion: It is a negatively charged ion and is formed by the gain of one
or more electrons by an atom.

For example a chlorine atom gains one electron to form a chloride ion Cl −.
Cl + e−  →  Cl−
Valency:
It is defined by the combining power (or capacity) of an element.

Depending on their valency, elements can be classified as following:

(i) Monovalent cation: Having cationic valency of 1.

For example: Sodium ion (Na+ ). Potassium ion (K+ ), Hydrogen ion (H+ ).
Monovalent anion: Having anionic valency of -1.

For example: Chloride ion (Cl-), Bromide ion (Br-)

(ii) Divalent cation: Having cationic valency of 2.

For example: Magnesium ion (Mg2+), Ferrous ion (Fe2+).

Divalent anion: Having anionic valency of −2.

For example: Oxide ion (O2−), Sulphide ion (S2−).

(iii) Trivalent cations: Having cationic valency of 3.

For example: Aluminium ion (Al3+), Ferric ion (Fe3+).

Trivalent anion: Having anionic valency of -3.

For example: Nitride ion (N-3), Phosphate ion (PO43−) etc.

Formula of Simple and Molecular Compounds:
Steps to construct the chemical formula of a compound:
(i) While writing the chemical formulae for compounds, write the
constituent elements with their valencies written down the respective
elements.
 (ii) Then crossover the valencies of the combining atoms as shown in the
following examples.

Steps to represent the chemical formula of a compound:  

(i) The valencies or charges on the ions must be balanced.

(ii) For a compound made up of a metal and a non-metal, the symbol of

metal is written first.

(iii) In compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the ion is enclosed in a

bracket before writing the number to indicate the ratio.

Molecular Mass:
The number of times a molecule of a compound is heavier than the
1/12 of the mass of C-12 atom, is known as its molecular mass.

The molecular mass is equal to the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms
present in one molecule of the substance.

For example, Molecular mass of H2O= 2 × Mass of one H-atom + Mass of

one O-atom = 2 ×1 + 16 = 18 u.
Formula unit mass:
It is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a
compound.

Formula unit mass is used for those substances whose constituent

particles are ions.

For example, formula unit mass of ionic NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 u.

Mole Concept:
 Mole: A collection of 6.023 × 1023particles is named as one mole.
         1 mole = 6.023 × 1023 particles = Mass of 1 mole particles in grams
 The mass of 1 mole particles is equal to its mass in grams.
        1 mole atoms = gram atomic mass

        1 mole molecules = gram molecular mass

 Avogadro’s constant or Avogadro’s number: 

         The number of particles present in one mole (i.e. 6.023 x
1023 particles) is called Avogadro’s number or Avogadro’s constant.

        

Try the following questions:

Q. Distinguish between atoms and molecules.
Q. Define the mole concept and molar mass.
Q. Represent the following molecules with the help of chemical formula:
(a) Aluminium chloride

(b) Calcium carbonate

(c) Copper nitrate

(d) Nitric acid

Q. Convert 20 g of water into moles.

Q. Calculate the number of molecules of sulphur (S8) present in 16 g of
solid sulphur.
Known Values

Question 1
How many molecules of water are there in 54 g of H2O ?
Solution
Molar Mass of H2O= 2 + 16 = 18 g/moles
So ,number of moles of H2O = Mass/Molar Mass = 54/18 =3 moles
Now 1 moles = 6.022×1023molecule
So 3 moles will have 18.066×102318.066×1023 molecule
Question 2
Calculate the mass of 6.022×1023 molecule of NH4Cl ?
Solution
Molar mass (Molecular mass in gram) of NH4Cl= 14+4+35.5= 53.5g
No. of moles of NH4Cl
=6.022×10236.022×1023=6.022×1023
= 1 mole
Mass of NH4Cl
=No. of moles×molar mass=1×53.5g=53.5g.

Question 3
Calculate the mass of 12.044×1023Oxygen atoms.
Solution
No. of moles of Oxygen atoms3=12.044×1023 / 6.022×1023
= 2 mole
Mass of Oxygen atoms
=No. of moles×atomic mass=No. of moles×atomic mass
=2×16=2×16
= 32 g

Question 4
How many atoms of hydrogen are there in 36 g of NH4?
Solution
Molar mass (Molecular mass in gram) of NH4= 14+4= 18 g
No. of moles of NH4?
= 36/18 = 4 moles
Now Total Moles of Hydrogen Atoms
= 16 moles
=16x6.022×1023=96.352×1023

Question 5
Calculate the number of hydrogen atoms in 1 mole of H 2.
Solution
1 molecule of H2= 2 hydrogen atoms
So, 1 mole of H2= 2 mole hydrogen atoms
=2×6.022×1023=12.044×1023hydrogen atoms.

Question 6
Calculate the number of Cu atoms in 0.3175 g of Cu.
Solution
No. of moles of Cu
=Mass of CuAtomic mass=Mass of Cu Atomic mass
= 0.3175/63.5
=0.005 mole
No. of Cu atoms
=No. of moles×Avogadro constant=No. of moles×Avogadro constant
=0.005×6.022×1023
=30.11×1020 Cu atoms.
Question 7
Calculate the number of molecules in 22.4 litres of CH 4 gas at NTP.
Solution
1 mole of CH4= 22.4 L (at NTP)
Therefore
22.4 L of CH4gas= 1 mole CH4gas= 6.022×10236.022×1023 CH4 gas molecules.

Question 8
Find the number of moles and number of atoms of H and S in 10 mole of H2S
Solution
1 mole of H2S contains 2 mole of H, 1 mole of S
Therefore
10 mole of H2S contains
20 mole of H = 20×6.022×1023=12.044×1024 H atoms
10 mole of S = 10×6.022×1023=6.022×1024 S atoms

Question 9
what is the mass of 1 Ammonia Molecule ?
Solution
Molar Mass of Ammonia= 14+3×1=17gm
Mass of One molecule =17(6.022×1023)=2.8×10−23 g
Question 10
State the number of atoms in 1 g atom of Aluminium?
Solution
Molar Mass of Ammonia= 14+3×1=17gm
Mass of One molecule =17(6.022×1023)=2.8×10−2317(6.022×1023)=2.8×10−23 g

Question 11
Calculate the mass of .5 moles of CaCO3in g.
Solution
Molar mass (i.e., molecular mass in g) = 40+12+3×16=100g
Mass of .5 moles of CaCO3= .5×100=50 g