GENERATION OF HIGH

CHAPTER 6 VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS KE47503

• Electron microscopes & X-ray – HV DC 100kV or more KE47503
• Electrostatic precipitators – kilovolts to megavolts
• High Voltage Transmission lines

High DC voltages

High AC voltages of power frequency

High AC voltages of high frequency

High transient or impulse voltages of very

short duration such as lightning overvoltages

Transient voltages of longer duration such as

switching surges
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Generation of High Generation of High

Direct Current Alternating Current
Voltages Voltages

Generation of Generation of
Impulse Voltage Impulse Current
Generation of High Direct Current Voltages
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Generation of high DC is needed on testing of equipment

insulation with large capacity, such as capacitor and cable.
Characteristic Parameters of High Direct Voltages
 The mean value of DC test voltage
− T
1
V =
T  u (t )dt
0

 The ripple amplitude

V = 1 / 2(V '−Vmin )

 Where V’ is the peak value, and Vmin is the minimum value

−
V / V

is called the ripple factor. The value of < 1

 Half and Full Wave Rectifier Circuit
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Half Wave Rectifier Input and out put waveforms

The Capacitor is charged to Vmax , The maximum a.c. voltage of the

secondary of the high voltage transformer in the conducting half cycle.
In the other half cycle, the capacitor is discharged into the load.
The rectifier must have a peak inverse rating at least 2 Vmax. R is given
in series with the secondary of transformer to limit the charging current .
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Out put with full wave rectifier

Full wave rectifier and capacitor filter.

In the positive half cycle, the rectifier A conducts and charges the
capacitor C , while in the negative half cycle the rectifier B conducts and
charges the capacitor.
The sources transformer requires a centre tapped secondary with a
rating of 2 V.
Ripple Voltage with Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifiers KE47503

When loaded, a fluctuation in the output d.c voltage is larger for a half
wave rectifier V appears, and is called a ripple. The ripple voltage
is larger for a half wave rectifier than that for a full wave rectifier, since
the discharge period in the case of half wave rectifier is larger.
The ripple voltage V depend on
a) The supply frequency (f )
b) The time constant CRL
c) The reactance of the supply transformer XL
The ripple frequency is equal to frequency of half wave rectifier.
For full wave, the ripple frequency is twice that value.
Voltage Double Circuits
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Half and full wave rectifier circuits
produce a d.c voltage less than the a.c.
maximum voltage.
In the need of higher voltage, Voltage
double or cascade rectifier doubler
circuits are used.
Simple voltage double
C1 and C2 have the same rating.

The capacitor C1 is charged through rectifier R1 to a voltage of + Vmax during

the negative half cycle.
The voltage of the transformer rises to positive Vmax during the next half cycle,
the potential of the other terminal of C1 rises to a voltage of +2Vmax.
The capacitor C2 is charged through R2 to 2 Vmax.
d.c out put voltage on load will be less than 2 Vmax., depend on the time
constant C2RL and forward charging constants.
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Cascade voltage doubler

1. a.c input waveform
R1, R2, R3, R4: rectifiers 2. a.c out put waveform without capacitor
C1,C2,C3,C4 : capacitors 3. a.c out put voltage wave form with
RL : load resistor capacitor .

The rectifier R1 and R2 with transformer T1 and capacitor C1 and C2 produce

an out put voltage of 2V. Furthermore out put voltage produces of 4 V.
T is an isolating transformer to give an insulation for 2 Vmax since the
transformer T2 is at potential of 2 Vmax above ground.
Voltage Multiplier Circuit KE47503

The pulses generated in the anode

circuit of the valve P are rectified and
the voltage is cascaded to give an out

put of 2nVmax across the load RL.

A d.c power supply of about 500 V
applied to generate a high voltage d.c
50 to 100 kV
Cascade rectifier unit with pulse
generator

P : Pulse generator
Vb: d.c supply to pulse gen.
Vg : Bias voltage.
Cockcroft-Walton voltage multiplier circuit
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The rectifiers D1,D2,D3, …, D2n-1 operate and conduct during the positive half
cycles while the rectifier D2, D4 …D2n conduct during the negative half cycles.
The first stage i.e. D1,D2,C1,C2 and transformer T are identical as the simple
voltage doubler circuit and produce 2V. For the other stage the voltage out put
are 4, 6, 8, … 2n.
Ripple in Cascaded Voltage Multiplier Circuit
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The ripple V = (I1) / (fC2)

At the same time a charge q is transferred from C1 to C2 during

each cycle equal to (I1) / (fC2).
The ripple at the capacitor C2n will be (I1) / (fC)
C2n-2 transfers as charge q to load and to C2n-1,
The ripple at the capacitor C2n-2 is (2I1) / (fC)
Similarly, the ripple at capacitor C2n-4 transfers a charge q to the
load, to C2n-3 , and to C2n-2,
Therefore, the ripple at capacitor C2n-4 is (3I1) / (fC)
The same way, the ripple at C2 will be (nI1) / (fC)
For n stage the total ripple I1 n(n + 1)
Vtotal =
fC 2
Electrostatic Generator
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Generation of High Alternating Voltages
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Cascade Transformer
(Schematic).

The T1 is at the ground potential along with its tank.

The T2 is kept on insulators and maintained at a potential of V2
HV winding of the first unit is connected to the thank the second unit.
The LV is supplied from winding T1.
The HV connection from T1 winding and the excitation winding terminal are
taken through a bushing to the T2. In similar manner for T3.
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Cascade transformer unit with
isolating transformer for excitation.
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T1,T2,T3 : Cascade transformer unit.

Is1, Is2, Is3 : Isolation transformer unit
C1,C2,C3 : Capacitance voltage dividers for h.v after 1st, 2nd 3 rd stages.
V1,V2,V3 : for metering after 1st, 2nd and 3 rd stages.
1: primary winding, 2: h.v winding, 3. Excitation winding.
 Resonant Transformer
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T : Testing transformer
L : Choke
C :Capacitance of h.v. terminal
and test object
Lo : Magnetizing inductance (a) Transformer

L1,L2 : leakage inductances of

transformer
R1, r2 : Resistances of the
windings
Ro : Resistance due to core loss.
(b) Equivalent circuit

The magnitude of the voltage across the

capacitance C of the test object will be
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Generation of High Frequency AC high voltages
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Equivalent circuit Output waveform

The magnitude of the secondary voltages V2 is

L 2 1− 2 LC  2

V2 max = V1e 2 e= a = 2 2 = 12
L1 (1 + a) 2 − 4a L1C1 2
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Advantages
1. The absence of iron core in transformers and
hence saving in cost and size
2. Pure sine wave output
3. Slow build-up of voltage over few cycles and
hence no damage due to switching surges
4. Uniform distribution of voltage across the
winding coils due to subdivision of coil stack into
a number of units
GENERATION OF IMPULSE VOLTAGES
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• required in high voltage tests to simulate the stresses due to

external and internal over voltages, and also for fundamental
investigation of breakdown mechanism.
• usually generated by discharging high voltage capacitors through
switching gaps onto network of resistor and capacitors, whereby
voltage multiplier circuits are often used.
• Impulse waveform is transient of lightning over voltage can be
represented as double exponential waves defined by equation

𝑽 = 𝑽𝟎 (𝒆−𝜶𝒕 − 𝒆−𝜷𝒕 )
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Fig. Standard Impulse Waveform

Tf ; wave front time Tt : wave tail time

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The impulse waves equation

V = V0 [exp(−t ) − exp(− t )

V0 : depend on the peak value

For impulse wave of 1.2/50 µs, α = -0.0146 and β = -2.467

α and β control the front and tail times of the wave

respectively.
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Standard Impulse Waveform

Japan : 1 x 40 µs
Europe : 1 x 50 µs
IEC : 1.2 x 50 µs
USA : 1.5 x 40 µs
India : 1.2 x 50 µs

A impulse wave designated as 100, 1.2/50 µs

Circuits for Producing Impulse Waves
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1. R, L and C circuit and

2. R-C circuit.

The current through the load resistance R

With initial condition at t= 0 ; i (0) = 0

Fig. R, L and C circuits A Laplace equation transform,
The voltage across the resistor R , V(o) = I(s) R. KE47503
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R-C circuit,
The out put voltage across C2 KE47503

𝟏 𝒕
𝒗𝟎 𝒕 = න 𝒊𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝑪𝟐 𝟎

𝟏
Performing Laplace transformation, 𝑰 (𝒔) = 𝒗𝟎 (𝒔)
𝑪𝟐 𝒔 𝟐

𝑹𝟐
𝑰𝟐 𝒔 = 𝑰𝟏 (𝒔)
Taking the current through C1 as i1 𝟏
𝑹𝟐 + 𝑪 𝒔
and its transformed value as I1(s) 𝟐

𝑽 𝟏
𝑰𝟏 𝒔 =
𝒔 𝟏
𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪 𝒔
𝟐
𝑪𝟏 𝒔 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝟏
𝑹𝟐 + 𝑪 𝒔
𝟐
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𝟏
𝑹𝟐
Where, 𝑪𝟐 𝒔 represent the impedance of the parallel combination of R
2
𝟏
𝑹𝟐 + 𝑪 𝒔
𝟐

and C2, substitution of I1(s) gives

𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑽 𝟏
𝒗𝟎 𝒔 =
𝑪𝟐 𝒔 𝑹 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝑹
𝟏
𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒔 𝟏 𝟐𝑪 𝒔
𝟐
𝑪𝟏 𝒔 + 𝑹 𝟏 + 𝟏
𝑹𝟐 + 𝑪 𝒔
𝟐
After simplification and rearrangement

𝑉 1
𝑣0 𝑠 =
𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠 2 + 1 1 1 1
+ + 𝑠+
𝐶1 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅2
The roots of the equation
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 1 1 1  1
2

s + + + 
s + C C R R
 1 1
C R C R
2 2 C 2 1
R 1 2 1 2

By solution of above equation can be found,

where
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The output voltage

The Desired wave shape
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The most commonly used configuration for generators are like
bellow,

R1 and R2 to control the wave front and wave tail depend on ratio of C1/C2.

For circuit (b) the ratio C1/C2 ≤ 3.35 for a 1/5 µs wave shape, similarly
for a 1/50 µs wave shape C1/C2 lies between 6 and 106.5.
If circuit (c) is chosen C1/C2 for 1/5 µs wave shape is about 0.3 and
For 1/50 µs wave shape is about .
The front wave time and the tail wave time can be determined
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approximately,

The time for wave front

C1C2
t1 = t f = 3.0 R1 = 3R1Ce
C1 + C2

The time for wave tail,

t 2 = 0.7( R1 + R2 )(C1 + C2 )

R1 : is given in ohms and Ce in microfarads, t is obtained in

microseconds.
Multistage Impulse generators – Marx circuit
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Rs is chosen to limit charging current about 50 to 100 mA

The generator capacitance C is chosen such that the product CRs is
about 10 s to 1 min.
The gap spacing is chosen such that the breakdown voltage of the
gap G is greater than charging voltage V.
Generation of Switching Surges KE47503

Circuits for producing switching surges:

(i). Impulse generator circuit modified to give longer
duration wave shapes.
(ii). Power transformers or testing transformers

Standard switching impulse voltage

IEC : 250/2500 µs with tolerance
Time to front of (250 ± 50) µs
Time to tail of (2500 ± 500) µs
Circuit for producing switching surge voltages KE47503

The values of R1 and R2 determine long duration of wave shape.

For producing wave shapes of long duration:
100/1000 µs, R2 is 1 to 5 k-ohm and or 400/4000 µs, R2 is 20 k-ohm.
R1 is about 20 to 30% of R2.
Generation of Impulse Currents
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❑ The wave shapes used in testing surge diverters are

4/10 and 8/20 µs with tolerance 10%.
❑ Tolerance for peak load value is +20%.
❑ The duration of the wave is defined as the total time of
the wave during which the current is at least 10% of its
peak value.
Circuit for Producing Impulse Current Waves KE47503

t11 and t12 = time-to-front waves I and II

t21 and t22 = time-to-tail of waves I and II
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Voltage V when the current im through in the circuit

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Energy is given by equation,

W = 1 / 2CV 2
The current im is expressed as follow,

( )
I m = e −t e + t − e − t = I 0 (e( − +  ) − e −( +  ) )
R2 1
 = − R / 2L and = −
4 L LC
Values of R, L and C are expressed in ohms, Henries and Farad, V and I in kV and kA
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Series resonant
a.c test system

Parallel resonant
a.c. test system