Digestive system

First we have to explain “digestion”

Digestion is the process in which complex food component are broken down into the small pieces to get the energy.

 Oral cavity.

Digestive system starts from the oral cavity. In oral cavity we have teeth, tongue saliva etc. Teeth helps to broke down the food
into the small pieces while tongue helps to move around during the masticating and mix it with saliva. Oral cavity ingest the
food and make a mass swallow of chewed food which is called bolus and transfer it to pharynx.

 Pharynx.
 Pharynx is a funnel shape five inches long tube which connect the oral cavity with esophagus. It transfer the food to
the esophagus.
 Esophagus.

Esophagus is a 10 inch long tube which transfer the bolus to stomach.

 Stomach.

Stomach is J shaped and located just below the diaphragm. It has four regions.

1. Cardia
2. Fundus
3. Body
4. Pylorus

Stomach receives the bolus from esophagus. Churns it with the gastric juice. Initiate the absorption of protein. Move the
mixture of food which is called chyme and secretion to small intestine.

 Small intestine

In small intestine the most chemical digestion take place. It has three regions

1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum.

Small intestine receives chyme from the stomach and secretion to the liver and pancreas. Absorbs the nutrients and transport
the undigested waste material to the large intestine.

 Large intestine.

Large intestine is a thick tube of about 5 feet and 2.5 inches in diameter. It has also three regions.

1. Cecum
2. Colon
3. Anal canal.

It receives the undigested waste material from small intestine. Absorb the water and electrolytes. Form, store and expel the
feces.
Cardio vascular/circulatory system/transport system.
Circulatory system consists of heart blood and vessels.

Heart is a pumping organ of about the size of your clench fist. It located in the left side of the chest cavity just above the
diaphragm. It starts beating when a baby is still in the womb of mother.

Heart has four chambers. Two auricles and two ventricles.Auricles are at the top, small and thin walled chambers while
ventricles are large and thick walled chambers.

Many vessels arise from the heart. These are of two types. Arteries which take away the blood from the heart. And veins which
bring the blood towards the heart.

Right auricle receives de-oxygenated blood from the whole body and transfer it to the right ventricle through bicuspid valve.
When the heart contract with the de-oxygenated blood it push it to the lungs.

After the oxygenation the blood come back to the left auricle from it sent to the left ventricle through tricuspid valve. In the
contraction with the oxygenated blood, the heart push it with full force to the whole body through arteries and capillaries.

The blood is loaded with food and oxygen. Which is transfer to the cells through capillaries in the tissues.

Similarly, waste material like CO2 and nitrogenous waste are also released to the blood.

The blood release nitrogenous waste in kidneys and CO2 in lungs.

Cell.
The basic unit of living organism consisting of a quantity of protoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane.

Tissue:
When two or more then two cells combine it make a tissue.

Organ:
Two or more then two tissue make an organ.

Antibiotics:
Antibiotics are the molecules or chemical substances which are derived from micro-organism to kill or stop the growth of living
organism including both bacteria and fungi.

Antibiotics are normally use for infection for example urinary track infection, gastro intestinal track infection, respiratory track
infection.

What is infection.
Invasion of the body by pathogenic organism(disease producing organism).

Antibiotics have five main groups.

1. Macrolides.
 Erythromycin
 Clarithromycin
 Azithromycin
 Rozithromycine
2. Aminoglycosides.
 Amikacin
 Gentamycin
  Kanamycin
 Neomycin
 Streptomycin
 Tobramycin
3. Fluor quinolones.
 Ciprofloxacin
 Gatiflaxacin
 Gemiflaxacin
 Levofloxacin
 Moxifloxacin
 Oflazxacin
 Norflaxacin
 Trovaflaxacin
4. Penicillin.
 Amoxicillin
 ampicillin
 Bacompicillin
 Oxacillin
 penicillin
5. Tetracycline
 tetracycline
 Doxycycline
 Minocycline

Mechanism of antibiotics
Bacteriostatic: which stop the growth of bacteria.
Tetracycline
Spectinomycin
Sulphonamides.
Macrolides
Trimethoprim
Bactericidal : which directly kill the bacteria.
Pencillin
Cephalosporin
Fluoro quinolones
Glycopeptides
Monobactams
Carbapenems.

Modes of actions of antibiotics:

Inhibits of DNA synthesis.
Inhibits of bacterial protein synthesis.
Inhabits of bacterial cell wall synthesis.

Inhabitis of DNA synthesis or DNA gyrase.

 Noldixcin acid
 Norfloxacin
 Navobiocin
 Quinolones

Protein synthesis:

60S inhibitors
  Macrolides
 Chloraminicol.
 Clindamycin
 Streptomycin.
 Lincomycin
 Oligosaccharides

Protein synthesis: ( 30 S inhibitors)

 Tetracycline.
 Spectinomycin
 Streptomycin
 Gentamycin
 Tobramycin
 Kanamycin
 Amikacin.

Cell wall inhibitors:

 Cycloserine
 Vancomycin
 Bacitracin
 Penicillin
 Cephalosporin
 Monobactam
 Carbapenems

Origin of antibiotics.

Originally derived antibiotic.

b-lactam antibiotics

tertacyclines

aminoglycosides

macrolides.

Man made originating from synthetic chemical operation.

Sulfa antibiotics.

Sulfa quinolones.

Wxazolidinones.

Bacteria.
These are the microorganism which cannot be seen by the nacked eyes and can be seen by the micro scope.

These are of two types

Aerobic bacteria.

They can live with or without oxygen.

Anaerobic bacteria.
They can live with oxygen and will not live without oxygen.

Gram positive bacteria:

The bacteria which have positive reaction to Gram’ stain is known as gram positive bacteria.these have large peptidoglycan
structure.

Gram negative bacteria:

Those bacteria which have negative reaction to gram’s stain are called Gram negative bacteria.

Gram negative bacteria have a small peptidoglycan layer but it have an additional membrane, the outer cytoplasmic
membrane.

The measurement of the force that the heart pump the blood to the whole body… below the 90 is low. 90 to 120 is ideal blood
pressure.120 to 140 is pre high blood pressure and more than 140 is high…..

The increase of glucose/suger in the blood the reason is when pancreas cannot make the insulin.

Respiratory system
Respiratory system consists of lungs, nose, nostrils, pharynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.

The air entre into the nostrils where it become warm and clear. After that air transfer to pharynx and
larynx than reach to lungs through trachea and bronchioles. After oxygenation in the lungs the oxygen
goes to blood and corban dioxide goes out…..

Hypoglycemic (anti-diabetic drug)

DPP-4 (dipeptidyl peptidase-4) inhibitor that result In increase amount of active incretins ( GLP-1 and
GIP) Diminishes its release and increase release of insulin)

Can be given with thiazolidinedione

Diabetes mellitus

Diminishes its release and increase release of insulin)