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Blind Maths Comm-Morin
Blind Maths Comm-Morin
Mathematicians
A visitor to the Paris apartment of the blind geome- able to resort to paper and pencil, Lawrence W.
ter Bernard Morin finds much to see. On the wall Baggett, a blind mathematician at the University of
in the hallway is a poster showing a computer- Colorado, remarked modestly, “Well, it’s hard to do
generated picture, created by Morin’s student for anybody.” On the other hand, there seem to be
François Apéry, of Boy’s surface, an immersion of differences in how blind mathematicians perceive
the projective plane in three dimensions. The sur- their subject. Morin recalled that, when a sighted
face plays a role in Morin’s most famous work, his colleague proofread Morin’s thesis, the colleague
visualization of how to turn a sphere inside out. had to do a long calculation involving determi-
Although he cannot see the poster, Morin is happy nants to check on a sign. The colleague asked Morin
to point out details in the picture that the visitor how he had computed the sign. Morin said he
must not miss. Back in the living room, Morin grabs replied: “I don’t know—by feeling the weight of the
a chair, stands on it, and feels for a box on top of thing, by pondering it.”
a set of shelves. He takes hold of the box and
climbs off the chair safely—much to the relief of Blind Mathematicians in History
the visitor. Inside the box are clay models that The history of mathematics includes a number of
Morin made in the 1960s and 1970s to depict blind mathematicians. One of the greatest mathe-
shapes that occur in intermediate stages of his maticians ever, Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), was
sphere eversion. The models were used to help a blind for the last seventeen years of his life. His eye-
sighted colleague draw pictures on the blackboard. sight problems began because of severe eyestrain
One, which fits in the palm of Morin’s hand, is a that developed while he did cartographic work as
model of Boy’s surface. This model is not merely director of the geography section of the St. Pe-
precise; its sturdy, elegant proportions make it a tersburg Academy of Science. He had trouble with
work of art. It is startling to consider that such a his right eye starting when he was thirty-one years
precise, symmetrical model was made by touch old, and he was almost entirely blind by age fifty-
alone. The purpose is to communicate to the sighted nine. Euler was one of the most prolific mathe-
what Bernard Morin sees so clearly in his mind’s maticians of all time, having produced around 850
eye. works. Amazingly, half of his output came after his
A sighted mathematician generally works by sit- blindness. He was aided by his prodigious mem-
ting around scribbling on paper: According to one ory and by the assistance he received from two of
legend, the maid of a famous mathematician, when his sons and from other members of the St. Peters-
asked what her employer did all day, reported that burg Academy.
he wrote on pieces of paper, crumpled them up, and The English mathematician Nicholas Saunderson
threw them into the wastebasket. So how do blind (1682–1739) went blind in his first year, due to
mathematicians work? They cannot rely on back- smallpox. He nevertheless was fluent in French,
of-the-envelope calculations, half-baked thoughts Greek, and Latin, and he studied mathematics. He
scribbled on restaurant napkins, or hand-waving ar- was denied admission to Cambridge University
guments in which “this” attaches “there” and “that” and never earned an academic degree, but in 1728
intersects “here”. Still, in many ways, blind math- King George II bestowed on Saunderson the Doc-
ematicians work in much the same way as sighted tor of Laws degree. An adherent of Newtonian phi-
mathematicians do. When asked how he juggles losophy, Saunderson became the Lucasian Profes-
complicated formulas in his head without being sor of Mathematics at Cambridge University, a
Means of Communicating
When he was growing up in Argentina in the 1950s,
Norberto Salinas, who has been blind since age
ten, found, just as Baggett did, that the standard
profession for blind people was assumed to be
law. As a result, there was no Braille material in
mathematics and physics. But his parents would
read aloud and record material for him. His fa-
Lawrence Baggett. ther, a civil engineer, asked friends in mathemat-
ics and physics at the University of Buenos Aires
sometimes visualizes formulas and schematic, sug- whether his son could take the examination to
gestive pictures. When he is tossing around ideas enter the university. After Salinas got the maximum
in his head, he sometimes makes Braille notes, but grade, the university agreed to accept him. In a con-
not very often. “I try to say it aloud,” he explained. tribution to a Historia-Mathematica online discus-
“I pace and talk to myself a lot.” Working with a sion group about blind mathematicians, Eduardo
sighted colleague helps because the colleague can Ortiz of Imperial College, London, recalled exam-
more easily look up references or figure out what ining Salinas in an analysis course at University of
a bit of notation means; otherwise, Baggett said, col- Buenos Aires. Salinas communicated graphical in-
laboration is the same as between two sighted formation by drawing pictures on the palm of
mathematicians. But what about, say, going to the Ortiz’s hand, a technique that Ortiz himself later
blackboard to draw a picture or to do a little cal- used when teaching blind students at Imperial.
culation? “They do that to me too!” Baggett said with Salinas taught mathematics in Peru for a while and
a laugh. The collaborators simply describe in words then went to the United States to get his Ph.D. at
what is on the board. the University of Michigan. Today he is on the fac-
Baggett does not find his ability to calculate in ulty of the University of Kansas.
his head to be extraordinary. “My feeling is that Salinas said that he would often translate taped
sighted mathematicians could do a lot in their material into Braille, a step that helped him to ab-
heads too,” he remarked, “but it’s handy to write sorb the material. He developed his own version of
on a piece of paper.” A story illustrated his point. a Braille code for mathematical symbols and in the
At a meeting Baggett attended in Poland in the 1960s helped to design the standard code for rep-
dead of winter, the lights in the lecture hall sud- resenting such symbols in Spanish Braille. In the
denly died. It was completely dark. Nevertheless, United States, the standard code for mathematical
the lecturer said he would continue. “And he did symbols in Braille is the Nemeth code, developed in
integrals and Fourier transforms, and people were the 1940s by Abraham Nemeth, a blind mathemat-
following it,” Baggett recalled. “It proved a point: ics and computer science professor now retired
You don’t need the blackboard, but it’s just a handy from the University of Detroit. The Nemeth code em-
device.” ploys the ordinary six-dot Braille codes to express
Blind mathematics professors have to come up numbers and mathematical symbols, using special
with innovative methods for teaching. Some write indicators to set mathematical material off from lit-
on the blackboard by writing the first line at eye erary material. Standard Braille was clearly not in-
level, the next at mouth level, the next at neck tended for technical material, for it does not provide
level, and so on. Baggett uses the blackboard, but representations for even the most common techni-
more for pacing the lecture than for systemati- cal symbols; even integers must be represented by
cally communicating information the students are the codes for letters (a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 , etc.). The
expected to write down. In fact, he tells them not Nemeth code can be difficult to learn because the
to copy what he writes but rather to write down same characters that mean one thing in literary
what he says. “My boardwork is just an attempt to Braille have different meanings in Nemeth. Never-
make the class as much like a normal lecture as pos- theless it has been extremely important in helping
sible,” he remarked. “Many of [the students] decide blind people, especially students, gain access to sci-
they have to learn a different way in my class, and entific and technical materials. Salinas and John
they do.” He makes up exams in TEX and has a Web Gardner, a blind physicist at Oregon State Univer-
page for homework problems and other informa- sity, have developed a new code called GS8, which
tion. For grading, he can use graders “but I lose uses eight dots instead of the usual six. The two