In the Name of Allah, the Merciful, the Beneficent.

Praise Be To The
Lord Of All Worlds
POSITION, DISPLACEMENT
AND MOTION SENSORS

2
Measuring Position, Displacement & Motion
• Limit switches
• Resistive Sensors
• Inductive Sensors
• Capacitive
• Photo Electric Sensors

IME:365 Instrumentation & Control, Spring 2022 3

Limit Switches
• The limit switch usually has a pressure-sensitive mechanical arm. When an object
applies pressure on the mechanical arm, the switch circuit is energized. An object
might have a magnet attached that causes a contact to rise and close when the
object passes over the arm. Limit switches can be either normally open (NO) or
normally closed (NC) and may have multiple poles.
• A normally open switch has continuity when pressure is applied and a contact is
made, while a normally closed switch opens when pressure is applied and a
contact is separated.
• A single-pole switch allows one circuit to be opened or closed upon switch
contact, whereas a multiple-pole switch allows multiple circuits to be opened or
closed.

Maliha Saleem Bakhshi, Spring 2022 4

Limit Switches
WHY USE THEM?
What keeps the microwave
from starting without the
door being shut first?
Limit Switches
Why do your car’s dome
lights come on when you
open the door?
What turns the light off
when the refrigerator
door is closed?
What stops the washing
machine when a load
becomes unbalanced?
Limit Switches
Limit switches are electromechanical contact devices

Limit switches contain a set

of contacts. When a target
object comes into contact
with a limit switch’s
actuator, the switch
operates (makes or breaks
electrical connection)

It can determine the presence or absence of an object. It

was first used to define the limit of travel of an object;
hence the name "Limit Switch."
Limit Switches
BASIC COMPONENTS
Limit Switches
ACTUATOR TYPES

Side Rotary Actuator

Wobble Stick Actuator

Side or Top Push Actuator

Limit Switches
CLASSIFICATION OF CONTACTS

Momentary Contacts: Limit switch returns its contacts to their

original position when the operating force is removed

Maintained Contacts: Limit switch remain in the actuated position

until force or torque is applied in the opposite direction

Two Circuits/Four Circuits: Limit switch contains either two or four

contact pairs to open and close the control circuit

Normally Open/Normally Closed: Describe the state of each

contact pair when the switch is in un-actuated position

Normally Open: Contacts are open in un-actuated position

Normally Closed: Contacts are closed in un-actuated position
Limit Switches
PROS AND CONS: MECHANICAL POINT OF VIEW

Ease of use

Simple visible operation

Durable housing

Well sealed for reliable operation

High resistance to different ambient conditions found in

industry

High repeatability

Moving mechanical parts wear out eventually

Limit Switches
PROS AND CONS: ELECTRICAL POINT OF VIEW

Suitable for switching higher power loads than other

sensor technologies (5A at 24V DC or 10A at 120V AC
typical vs. less than 1A for proximities or photoelectrics)

Immunity to electrical noise interference

Immunity to radio frequency interference (walkie-talkies)

No leakage current

Minimal voltage drops

Simple Normally Open and/or Normally Closed operation

Shorter contact life than solid-state technology

Limit Switches
APPLICATIONS

Woodworking

Position Verification

Counting and Part Detection

Differential Transformers

• Based on variable inductance principle

• Can be Used to measure displacement
• Most popular variable inductance sensor used for linear
displacement measurement is the linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT)
LVDT
A reliable and accurate sensing
device that converts linear position
or motion to a proportional
electrical output.
LVDT
Primary Secondary
A
A

B B

An inductor is basically a coil of wire

over a “core” (usually ferrous)
It responds to electric or magnetic
fields
A transformer is made of at
least two coils wound over the
core: one is primary and
another is secondary

Vout  VA  VB
Inductors and tranformers work only for ac signals
LVDT Operation

Windings are connected “series

opposing” polarities of V1 and V2
oppose each other if we trace through
the circuit from terminal A to B.
If the core at the center, V1=V2, Vo=0
When the core is away from center
toward S1, V1 is greater than V2 and
the output voltage Vo will have the
polarity V1.
When the core is away from center
toward S2, V2 is greater than V1 and
the output voltage Vo will have the
polarity V2.
LVDT Operation
That is, the output ac voltage inverts
as the core passes the center position
The farther the core moves from
center, the greater the difference in
value between V1 and V2,
consequently the greater the value of
Vo.
Thus, the amplitude of Vo is a function
of the distance the core has moved,
and the polarity or phase indicates
which direction is has moved.
If the core is attached to a moving
object, the LVDT output voltage can be
a measure of the position of the
object.
LVDT Operation
Applications of LVDTs
LDVT-Parameter
• Range: 0.01-24 in.
• Noncontact
• Nonlinearity: 0.10%-0.25%
• Resolution: 1uin.
• Cost: medium
• Lifetime: high
FORCE, LOAD AND WEIGHT
SENSORS
Why Measure Force?

Forces are also described as a push or pull on an object.

They can be due to phenomena such as gravity, magnetism,
or anything that might cause a mass to accelerate.
Definitions
Force
The measurement of the interaction between bodies

Load
The measurement of the force exerted on a body

Weight
The measurement of gravitational forces acting on a body

Unit of Force
The SI unit of force is Newton (N): it is that force which,
when applied to a mass of one kilogram, gives it an
acceleration of one meter per second per second (m/s2)
How to measure Force?
Basic Methods for Force Measurement

Balancing the unknown force against a standard mass

through a system of levers

Known Force
Unknown Force
a a

fulcrum
Basic Methods for Force Measurement

Balancing the unknown force against a standard mass

through a system of levers
Basic Methods for Force Measurement

Balancing the unknown force against a standard mass

through a system of levers
Basic Methods for Force Measurement

Measuring the acceleration of a known mass

e.g. a variable resistor

m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration
Newton Second Law of Motion: F  ma (m/s2)
Basic Methods for Force Measurement

Spring Balance
Basic Methods for Force Measurement

Distributing the force on a specific area to generate pressure,

and then measuring the pressure

F  PA

Area (A) = 16m2

Pressure (P) = 2 Pa
Basic Methods for Force Measurement

Force measurement using hydraulic load cell

Basic Methods for Force Measurement

Force measurement using piezoelectric force transducer

Basic Methods for Force Measurement
SUMMARY
Force Sensors
OUR FOCUS

Strain Gage
Ideally designed for the precise
measurement of a static weight or a
quasi-dynamic load or force

Piezoelectric Quartz Crystal

Quartz force sensors are
suited for the measurement
of dynamic oscillating
forces, impact, or high
speed compression/tension
forces
Strain Gage
BACKGROUND
F
Stress () is the force an object generates
inside by responding to an applied external
force, F


F

Pa or N / m 2 
A

Stain () is the ratio of elongation (or

contraction) to the original dimension
L
Logitudinal Strain = 1 
L
d
Lateral Strain = 2 
d0
Strain Gage
BASIC PRINCIPLE
In its simple form, a strain gage is a wire which is tightly
bonded to a measuring object. Any strain borne by
measuring object elongates or contracts the wire of strain
gage
The elongation or contraction of wire changes its electrical
resistance which is measured and is proportional to the
strain applied L
R
A
Strain Gage
R L
Wire K  K
Area = A
R L
Length = L K = Gage Factor
Resistivity =  2 for copper-nickel alloy
Resistance = R (commonly used)
2 to 4.5 for Metals
> 150 for Semiconductors
Strain Gage
HOW MUCH CHANGE IN RESISTANCE?
Calculate the percentage in resistance change on a strain
gage made up of copper-nickel alloy caused by 1000 x10–6
strain. Generally, the resistance of a strain gage is120Ω

R L
K  K
R L
R 6
 2 000 x10
x1
120
 R  0.24
R In fact, it is extremely difficult to
  0.2% accurately measure such a minute
resistance change using ohmmeter, a
R Wheatstone bridge is used
Strain Gage
MEASURING STRAIN Strain
Gage R + R
R

Input Voltage P Q
VB

R R

Output Voltage
Vo

Determine the mathematical relationship

Strain gauge
• Strain gauges are available commercially with nominal
resistance values from 30 to 3000 
• In practice, the strain measurements rarely involve quantities
larger than a few millistrain. Therefore, to measure the strain
requires accurate measurement of very small changes in
resistance. For example, suppose a test specimen undergoes a
substantial strain of 500 me. A strain gauge with gauge factor
GF = 2 will exhibit a change in electrical resistance of only
2x(500 x 10–6) = 0.1%. For a 120  gauge, this is a change of
only 0.12 .
• To measure such small changes in resistance, and compensate
for the temperature strain gauges are almost always used in a
bridge configuration with a voltage or current excitation
source.
Strain Gage
Strain Gauge Wheatstone Bridge

R1 Note :
R2
dR
GF  R
  GF  dR R

R3 R4
Temperature Compenation
RULES OF THE BRIDGE CIRCUIT
• For increasing the sensitivity of the bridge circuit, similar strains are
given to opposite arms and opposite strains are given to adjacent
arms.

• For temperature compensation the active and dummy gauges are

connected as adjacent arms.
Strain Gage
MEASURING STRAIN
Strain Gage
TYPES: WIRE AND METALLIC STRAIN GAGES

Unbonded Wire Bonded Wire Metal Foil

Strain Gage Strain Gage Strain Gage

Strain Gage
Wire

Widely used Large area

Small Surface Area Stable over
temperature
Low leakage
Thin cross section
High Isolation
Strain Gage
TYPES: SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAGE
Based on Piezoresistive effect i.e. the resistivity of a
semiconductor changes due to applied mechanical force
Semiconductor gages can be produced to have either positive or
negative changes when strained
They can be made physically small while still maintaining a high
nominal resistance
Their change in resistance with strain is nonlinear
Semiconductor strain gage bridges may have 30 times the
sensitivity of bridges employing metal films, but are temperature
sensitive and difficult to compensate
Where sensitivity is important and temperature variations are
small, they have some advantage over metal strain gages
Strain Gage
METAL STRAIN GAGE CONSTRUCTION

A grid-shaped sensing element of thin metallic resistive foil

(3 to 6μm thick) is put on a base of thin plastic film (15 to
16μm thick) and is laminated with a thin film
Strain Gage
MULTIPLE AXIS
Strain gauges may also be used to measure multiple axis
strains by simply using more than one gauge or by
producing them in standard configurations.

Two axis Strain Gage 120o Rosette 45o Rosette

Strain Gage
FEATURES

Most metal gauges have a nominal resistance between 100

and 1000, (lower and higher resistances are available)

Gauge factor between 2-5

Dimensions from less than 3x3 mm to lengths in excess of

150 mm (almost any size may be fabricated if necessary)

Typical sensitivities are 5m

Deformation is of the order of 2-3m/m

Rosettes (multiple axis strain gauges) are available with 45,

90 and 120 axes