Module 03 - Engine Performance

RDDM Turbomachinery Lecture Series – Série de Conférence du Reacture de Gaz
RDDM
Research Design Development Management
Turbomachinery Lecture Series
Module 03 – Engine Performance Cycle Calculations [x]
Presented to - Présenté at
Polytechnique Montréal Carleton University

AER4270: Propulsion Aéronautique AERO 4402: Aerospace Propulsion
MEC6615: Théorie avancée de turbomoteurs
01 January 2022 – 01 Janvier 2022
Copyright Statement - Déclaration de copyright
This course handbook is mainly used as Ce manuel de cours est surtout utilisé
reference material for lectures given at comme la matière de référence pour les
Research Design Development conférences données à Recherche
Management (RDDM) and at educational Design Développement Management
institutions in Canada and U.S.A. Some (RDDM) et aux institutions éducatives au
figures and text used in this volume are Canada et à U.S.A. Quelques figures et
from the references listed in the module. textes utilisées dans ce volume sont de
les références énumérée dans le
module.
Page 1 of 33
REFERENCES
[1] NASA online Propulsion Index

SUBJECT: various topics
[2] textbook, by Robert W. Fox, and Alan T. McDonald, 4th Edition

SUBJECT: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
[3] textbook, by HIH Saravanamuttoo, GFC Rogers, H Cohen, 5 th edition

SUBJECT: Gas Turbine Theory
[4] textbook, by Kenneth Wark, Jr., 5th edition

SUBJECT: Thermodynamics
[5] ASME paper 98-GT-347: Allan J. Volponi

SUBJECT: Gas Turbine Parameter Corrections
[6] NASA/TM-2007-214690, March 2007: Scott M. Jones

SUBJECT: An introduction to thermodynamic performance analysis of aircraft gas turbine engine cycles
using the numerical propulsion system simulation code
[7] SAE, Aerospace Standard, AS755 rev C (for reference use only)
SUBJECT: Aircraft Propulsion System Performance Station Designation and Nomenclature
[8] ASME paper GT2009-60141: Chris Drummond, Craig R. Davison

SUBJECT: Capturing the shape variance in gas turbine compressor maps
[9] Rolls-Royce PowerPoint Presentation, Michael Cervenka, Cambridge University 2000

SUBJECT: The Rolls-Royce Trent Engine
[10] Langston, L. S. (September 1, 2020). ASME. Mechanical Engineering. September 2020; 142(09):
54–55. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2020-SEP4
SUBJECT: Aspects of Gas Turbine Thermal Efficiency
[x] RDDM internal memo

SUBJECT: Gas turbine performance methodologies and equations to be modeled in MDIDS-GT
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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 3
DISCUSSION – The ideal-cycle assumption ............................................................................................. 4
DISCUSSION – The core performance calculation .................................................................................. 5
 The Compressor .......................................................................................................................... 6
 The Combustor ............................................................................................................................ 6
 The Turbine.................................................................................................................................. 8
 Mechanical Losses – Parasitics .................................................................................................. 9
DISCUSSION – Intakes and Exhausts ....................................................................................................... 9
 Intakes or Inlets ........................................................................................................................... 9
 Exhausts, Nozzles, Propelling Nozzles, Exits ........................................................................... 11
DISCUSSION – Putting it all together ...................................................................................................... 17
DISCUSSION – Multi-Spool Cycle Calculations ..................................................................................... 18
DISCUSSION – Gas Turbine Engine Rating Terminology ..................................................................... 23
DISCUSSION – Gas Turbine Performance Analysis Practices............................................................. 25
 Off-Design Full Power Operation (Maximum Power) ................................................................ 25
 Off-Design Part Power Operation (Throttle Curves) .................................................................. 25
 Assessing Preliminary Sea-Level and Cruise Altitude Thrust Requirements............................ 25
DISCUSSION – Gas Turbine Installation Losses ................................................................................... 26
DISCUSSION – Additional gas turbine performance parameters ........................................................ 26
 OPR – Overall Pressure Ratio ................................................................................................... 26
 EPR – Engine Pressure Ratio ................................................................................................... 26
 ETR – Engine Temperature Ratio ............................................................................................. 27
 SFC – Specific Fuel Consumption ............................................................................................. 27
 TSFC – Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption ............................................................................... 27
DISCUSSION – Thermal Efficiency [10] .................................................................................................. 27
DISCUSSION – The Standard Atmosphere ............................................................................................. 30
DISCUSSION – Gas Turbine Parameter Corrections ............................................................................. 31
DISCUSSION – Various available commercial and academic performance analysis codes ............ 32
APPENDIX A – exhaust nozzle thrust derivation ................................................................................... 33
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to Module 03. Not bad so far. Before we dive into this module, let’s first review what we’ve
discussed thus far.
Module 00 – Like any other course, or textbook, we took the opportunity to introduce ourselves to the world
of gas turbines. We saw, at a very high level, what others have said in literature, and decomposed this
complex product into its various configurations, some of the governing concepts, the various technical and
non-technical disciplines involved, and the various physical parts that make up the sum of a gas turbine.
We also had the opportunity to discuss the current-day make-up of the industry in terms of companies,
ventures, and their individual histories.
Module 01 – In this module we took the opportunity to define further the various gas turbine configurations,
and introduced the engine performance parameters of thrust and propulsive efficiency.
Module 02 – Here we distracted ourselves from gas turbine modeling, and dealt more with the various
engineering disciplines, concepts, theories, and equations that make up the physical foundations of this
product. It was useful to define and describe gas turbines in this manner such that the various concepts
do not become too repetitive amongst the various modules. This module should give the opportunity and
fuel for the curious to further explore the various disciplines behind gas turbines, and, for the casual reader
to get up to speed with the terms and concepts used.
Module 03 – In this module we’re going to define the “how to” in terms of understanding gas turbine
performance calculations. We’ll start off with defining the core performance calculations of the compressor-
combustor-turbine system, and then move further out to multiple spool (shaft) calculations. We’ll discuss
intakes and exhausts, and define other gas turbine performance parameters. Also, it’ll give us the
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opportunity to describe the various design procedures and decisions that are taken to design an efficient
gas turbine.
DISCUSSION – The ideal-cycle assumption
Because of the complexities of the actual processes, it is profitable in the initial study of [gas turbine
engines] to examine the general characteristics of the [gas turbine] cycle without going into the detailed
analysis. The advantage of a simple model is that the main parameters that govern the cycle are made
more apparent. By stripping the actual process of all of its complications and retaining only the bare
minimum of detail, the engineer is able to examine the influence of major operating variables on the
performance of the device. However, numerical values calculated from such models may not be strictly
representative of the actual process. Thus modeling is an important tool in engineering analysis, but at
times it is highly qualitative [4].
Saravanmuttoo defines the gas turbine “ideal-cycle” as follows [3]:

a) Compression and expansion processes are reversible and adiabatic (i.e. isentropic)
b) The change in kinetic energy (KE) between the inlet and exit of a blade row is negligible
c) There are no pressure losses in ducting, combustion chamber, heat exchanger, intercoolers,
exhaust ducting
d) The working fluid has the same composition throughout the cycle and is a perfect gas with constant
specific heats
e) The mass flow of gas is constant throughout the cycle
f) Heat transfer is complete (i.e. the temperature rise in the cold side is equal to the temperature drop
on the hot-side)
We could further add the following additional simplifying assumptions to that of the ones above:
g) The radial distribution from the hub to tip of a blade row can be ignored. In other words the inlet
and/or the exit flow profiles do not affect the solution
h) The average flow quantities can be used at the mean radius of a blade row
i) Flow is mixed Instantaneously
j) Energy balance occurs instantaneously
k) Loss development across a gas turbine component is Instantaneous
l) There are no “parasitic” losses
m) The design-point model is representative (in most situations) of an optimal design
n) All flow parameters are known on an inlet and exit basis
From all of the assumptions mentioned above, the only one that is not a simple approximation of reality,
but in itself is a reality, is: “e”, the mass flow of gas is constant throughout the cycle, or more exactly
“there is a conservation of mass”. In an actual gas turbine engine:
o Compression and expansion are entropic and non-adiabatic
o The change in KE cannot be ignored
o There are “parasitic losses”
o The specific heat of a fluid is a function of temperature
o Loss development is not instantaneous
o Energy balance is not instantaneous
o Flow mixing is not instantaneous
A large body of modeling, analysis, understanding, and explanation has been based on the “ideal-cycle”
assumption. The “ideal-cycle” is a good approximation to help understand engine performance without
worrying to much about the fine details, but the gas turbine designer must remember that this is just an
approximation to reflect reality, albeit a pretty good one. The assumptions behind the “ideal-cycle” are good
enough to help locate the design space of a particular configuration, but need to be taken with a “grain of
salt” when dealing with actual engine design and performance assessments.
The ideal TS-diagram of the Brayton (or Joule) cycle best represents the entire process of a gas turbine.
The ideal Brayton cycle assumes an isentropic process for the compression and expansion of the gas, as
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shown in Figure 1a. If we assume an entropic (non-isentropic) process, the cycle is adjusted as per Figure
1b.
P=constant P=constant
T 4 T Heat added 4
Heat added
3 3
expansion expansion
P=constant P=constant
compression compression
5 5
Heat removed Heat removed

2 2
s s
a) b)
Figure 1 – a) Ideal Brayton Cycle, b) non-ideal Brayton cycle
The Brayton cycle best describes the operation of an air-breathing gas turbine engine. The engine consists
of three main components: a compressor, burner, and turbine. For aircraft propulsion the cycle is open,
meaning the turbine exhaust is vented to the atmosphere rather than recirculated back through the
compressor. Chemical energy provided by the fuel is converted to useful work in one of two ways: the
turbine can produce additional mechanical (shaft) power; or, a nozzle can provide a momentum increase
in the working fluid (air) to produce thrust. Due to the complex interactions between the engine components
as well as large changes in environmental operating conditions, computer codes are required to predict the
performance of all but the most simple, ideal engine [6].
DISCUSSION – The core performance calculation
In Module 01 we saw that the generic, or turbo-jet, thrust equation is defined as
Thrust  1  f   m IN  m BLEED V EX  m IN V IN  AEX ( PEX  PIN )
and the propulsive efficiency as

2
P 
VEXHAUST  EX
1
V AIRCRAFT
Now we can ask the following questions: How do we define compressor performance? How does the turbine
power the compressor? What are the other performance parameters of interest? How does pressure ratio
and fuel flow come into play when describing gas turbine performance? How do we marry the compressor
and turbine to each other? How do we calculate the thrust from a performance cycle? We’ll be answering
these questions, and some more, through the next few pages.
If the compressor and the turbine were 100% efficient, the compressor would supply all the air needed by
the turbine. At the same time, the turbine would supply the necessary power to drive the compressor. In
this case, a perpetual motion machine would exist. However, frictional losses and mechanical system
inefficiencies do not allow a perpetual motion machine to operate. Additional energy must be added to the
air to accommodate for these losses. Power output is also desired from the engine (beyond simply driving
the compressor); thus, even more energy must be added to the air to produce this excess power. Energy
addition to the system is accomplished in the combustor. Chemical energy from fuel as it is burned is
converted to gaseous energy in the form of high temperatures and high velocity as the air passes through
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the combustor. The gaseous energy is converted back to mechanical energy in the turbine, providing power
to drive the compressor and the output shaft.
For the current context of engine performance, we will be centering our discussion on the following turbo-
jet engine configuration, with the indicated station numbers as part of our nomenclature [7].
Inlet
COMPRESSOR COMBUSTOR TURBINE
Exit
Rotor Rotor
Disks Disk
Exit
Inlet
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 2 - Gas Turbine Engine and Station Numbers
 The Compressor
The compressor will do work on, or adds energy to, the moving fluid. In doing so, the compressor will
increase the gas pressure and temperature. Since no physical component is perfect, the compressor will
create losses, which in turn will impact its overall efficiency.
Enthalpy  H  m C p TT 23  m C p TT 2  TT 3 

 1
 
T   1  TT 2  PT 3  
C  T 2  PR32  1     1
TT 23   TT 3  TT 2   PT 2  
 
Where  is the Ratio of Specific Heats (Cp/Cv)
The working fluids in a gas turbine compression process can:

o Reach up to 580 psi (4x106 Pa) and 1392 Rankine (500C)
o Produce pressure ratios of 10 to 40, and above
o And can have compressor stage counts of 2 to 17 to attain the required pressure rise
 The Combustor
The combustor will add energy to the moving fluid, further increasing the gas temperature. This energy
addition is achieved by the combustion of fuel and air in the combustion chamber. The assumption of this
process is constant pressure. In reality, the combustion process also generates losses, which will decrease
the overall exit pressure from the combustor. Current day technology produces very efficient combustors.
For the most generic cycle analysis, ignoring combustion pressure losses will not impact the intent of the
performance calculation, however, when dealing with actual data for performance cycle calculation
combustions loses must be accounted for. The pressure at the outlet of the combustion chamber is obtained
from the pressure drop in the combustion chamber. There are two methods to calculate the exit pressure
P04  P03  Pcc
Or
P04  P03 1  Pcc % 
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The temperature at the outlet of the combustion chamber is also the maximum temperature in the engine
and is known in advance. Typical combustion temperatures can be on the order of 2652Rankine (1200C)
to 3190Rankine (1500C). The maximum combustion temperature will be limited by the turbine airfoil
material properties, the amount of cooling air supplied to the turbine, and the type of cooling scheme used
on the turbine airfoils.
The energy balance in the combustion chamber, and its algebraic simplification, may be expressed as:
m air C p , air TT 3  m fuel Q  m fuel C p , fuel Tofuel  m air  m fuel C p , gas TT 4
C p ,airTT 3 
m fuel
Q
m fuel
C p , fuelTofuel 
m air  m fuel  C T
p , gas T 4
m air m air m air
C p ,air TT 3  fQ  fC p , fuel Tofuel  1  f C p , gas TT 4
fQ fC p , fuel Tofuel 1  f C p , gasTT 4

1  
C p ,air TT 3 C p ,air TT 3 C p ,air TT 3
 fQ fC p , fuel Tofuel 
1   
TT 4 C p ,air  C T C p ,air TT 3 
  p ,air T 3 
TT 3 C p , gas 1  f 
  Q C p , fuel Tofuel 
1  f  
 C T C p ,air TT 3 
TT 4 C p ,air   p ,air T 3 

TT 3 C p , gas 1  f  Add Cp,ave analysis table
After some simplifying assumptions, the combustor temperature rise, or combustor temperature ratio, is
given as follows [1]
 
1  f  COMB  Q  TT 4
TT 4  C pTT 3   TT 3
1
 or f 
TT 3 1  f   COMB  Q TT 4

C p TT 3 TT 3
Where
m FUEL
f  Fuel to Air ratio
m AIR
COMB Adiabatic Combustion efficiency
Cp an average Specific Heat Coefficient at constant pressure
Q Fuel Heating Value, usually taken to be the fuel’s Lower Heating Value
Another form of f has been derived below. For the purposes of this turbomachinery lecture series the first
equations above are used.
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 C p ,h  T04 
 1
 C p ,c  T03 
f 
  C 
b  QR C T    p ,h C  T04 T 
 p ,c 04   p ,c  03 
For combustion processes there are two types of heating values:
o HHV, Higher Heating Value

The higher heating value takes into account the latent heat of vaporization of water in the
combustion products, and is useful in calculating heating values for fuels where condensation of
the reaction products is practical. This value is used when water is mixed with the fuel. There are
some gas turbine applications that use water to help boost the combustion process with respect to
efficiency.
o LHV, Lower Heating Value

The lower heating value assumes that the latent heat of vaporization of water in the fuel and the
reaction products is not recovered. Most applications that burn fuel produce water vapor that is not
used and thus wasting its heat content. In such applications, the lower heating value is the
applicable measure.
The difference between the two heating values depends on the chemical composition of the fuel.
With respect to gas turbine aircraft propulsion applications, the most commonly used fuel is
Kerosene. Table 1 gives some data for Kerosene.
Table 1: Kerosene Data (approximate)

Flash point 37 and 65 °C (100 and 150 °F)
Auto ignition temperature 220 °C (428 °F)
LHV (Q) 43.1 MJ/kg (8,500 Btu/lb)
HHV (Q) 46.2 MJ/kg
Specific Heat 2.01 kJ/kg K (0.48 Btu/lb °F)
Name types Jet A (USA only)
Jet A-1 (Worldwide, most common)
Jet B
JP-4
JP-5
JP-7
JP-8
 The Turbine
The turbine will extract work from, or removes energy from, the moving fluid such that it may power the
compressor, a reduction gearbox (RGB), or electrical generator. In doing so, the turbine will decrease the
gas pressure and temperature. Again, since no physical component is perfect, the turbine will also create
losses, which in turn will impact its overall efficiency.
Enthalpy  H  m C p TT 45  m C p TT 4  TT 5 
TT 45 TT 4  TT 5 
T   1
  1
   
 1  
 1  
TT 4 1     
TT 4 1    
  PR45     PT 4 PT 5  
   
Where  is the Ratio of Specific Heats (Cp/Cv)
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 Mechanical Losses – Parasitics
Despite the fact that the turbine will power the compressor for a simple turbojet, the turbine must also do
additional work to overcome the retarding forces of other components such as bearings, gears, and the
fluid friction of the gases on the surfaces of rotating components. Each of these types of losses can be
accounted for separately with specific loss equations, and are usually called “parasitic” losses. Undesired,
yet unavoidable, every component in a gas turbine generates loss at different amounts.
For the purposes of this module we’ll lump all of these parasitic losses into a simple efficiency term.
 para   Parasitic Losses
Saravanmuttoo defines mechanical losses as those losses generated by bearing friction and windage. This
loss is very small and it is normal to assume that it amounts to about 1 percent of the power necessary to
drive the compressor. If the transmission efficiency is denoted by m, we can then calculate the turbine
work output required to drive the compressor including parasitic losses [3]
1
WORK COMP  C p  T32
m
Any power used to drive the ancillary components such as fuel and oil pumps can often be accounted for
simply by subtracting it from the net output of the unit [3].
DISCUSSION – Intakes and Exhausts
Before closing off the topic on core performance calculations, and move on to multi-spooled gas turbines,
we’ll discuss about the inlet and exit of a gas turbine engine. Usually gas turbine inlets are called intakes,
and the exits are called an exhaust or nozzle.
 Intakes or Inlets
The intake is a critical part of an aircraft engine installation, having a significant effect on both engine
efficiency and aircraft safety. The prime requirement is to minimize the pressure loss up to the compressor
face while ensuring that the flow enters the compressor with uniform pressure and velocity, at all flight
conditions. Non-uniform, or distorted, flow may cause compressor surge that can result in either engine
flameout or severe mechanical damage due to blade vibration induced by unsteady aerodynamic effects.
The design of the intake involves a compromise between aerodynamic and structural requirements [3].
As the air is brought from the free stream to the compressor face, the flow may be distorted by the inlet
geometry. At the compressor face, one portion of the flow may have a higher velocity or higher pressure
than another portion. The flow may be swirling, or some section of the boundary layer may be thicker than
another section because of the inlet shape. The rotor blades of the compressor move in circles around the
central shaft. As the blades encounter distorted inlet flow, the flow conditions around the blade change very
quickly. The changing flow conditions can cause flow separation in the compressor, a compressor stall, and
can cause structural problems for the compressor blades. A good inlet design must have the following
design characteristics [1]:
o Produce high-pressure recovery
o Has a low spillage drag
o And has low inlet flow distortion
The design requirements for air inlet are as follows:

o The airflow must reach the compressor at a velocity and pressure that enables the compressor to
operate satisfactorily.
o It must be able to recover as much of the total pressure of the free airstreams as possible and
deliver this pressure to the front of the compressor with the minimum loss. This is known as ram or
total pressure (ram) recovery.
o It must deliver the air uniformly with as little turbulence and pressure variation as possible.
o The inlet must hold the drag that it creates to a minimum.
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Inlet
Ambient Inlet
0 1 2
Figure 3 - Gas turbine intake (inlet)
For cycle calculations, the intake can be taken as an adiabatic duct. Since there is no heat or work transfer,
the stagnation (total) temperature is constant, although there will be a loss of stagnation (total) pressure
due to friction and due to shock waves at supersonic flight speeds. Because the inlet does no
thermodynamic work, the total temperature through the inlet is constant. The inlet total temperature ratio
is TT2 divided by TT0 and is equal to 1.0 [1]
TT 2 1
TT 0
COMMENT: assuming that the inlet duct is adiabatic is a simple and useful assumption. However, there
are configurations and conditions where the heat generated by the gas turbine will find its way into the inlet
duct volume, slightly increasing the airflow temperature. This slight increase in temperature will have an
impact on the assessment of compressor performance. It’s common practice during engine testing to have
temperature sensors at both ends of the inlet duct to capture the impact of the gas turbine heat sources.
The total pressure through the inlet changes because of several flow effects. Aerodynamicists characterize
the inlet's pressure performance by the “inlet total pressure recovery”, which measures the amount of
the free stream flow conditions that are "recovered". The pressure recovery PT2 / PT0 depends on a wide
variety of factors, including [1]:
o The shape of the inlet
o The speed of the aircraft
o The airflow demands of the engine
o And aircraft maneuvers.
There are three intake performance parameters that are of interest. They are: Recovery, Ram Pressure
Rise, and Spillage
Recovery
Recovery losses associated with the boundary layers on the inlet surface or flow separations in the duct
are included in the inlet efficiency factor INLET
 INLET  PT 2 P
T1
For subsonic flight speeds, these losses are the only losses. At supersonic flight speeds, there are
additional losses created by the shock waves necessary to reduce the flow speed to subsonic conditions
for the compressor. Use of the Military Specifications (Mil Spec), from the American Department of
Defense, for loss is a good first estimate of inlet recovery. Actual inlet performance may be greater, but is
usually less than the Mil Spec calculations. The magnitude of the recovery loss depends on the specific
design of the inlet and is normally determined by wind tunnel testing. The Mil Spec calculation for inlet
losses are defined as follows [1]:
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o Subsonic Mach < 1, PT2 / PT0 = INLET * 1
o Supersonic 1< Mach < 5, PT2 / PT0 = INLET * (1 - 0.075 * [Mach - 1]1.35)
Ram Pressure Rise

Since it is the stagnation (total) pressure at the compressor inlet that is required for cycle calculations, it is
the pressure rise of (PT2 - PS1) that is of interest, and is referred to as the “ram pressure rise”. At supersonic
speeds it will comprise the pressure rise across a system of shock waves at the inlet followed by that due
to subsonic diffusions in the remainder of the duct. The ram efficiency RAM is defined by the ratio of the
ram pressure rise due to the inlet dynamic head [3]
PT 2  PS1 ram pressure rise

 RAM  
PT 1  PS 1 inlet dynamic head
At take-off, with close to or zero forward speed, the engine will operate at maximum power and airflow.
o At very low forward speeds, the intake acts as a nozzle in which air accelerates from zero
velocity or low Vabs1 to Vabs2 at the compressor inlet.
o At normal forward speeds the intake performs as a diffuser with the air decelerating from
Vabs1 to Vabs2 and the static pressure rising from PS1 to PS2.
The intake must therefore satisfy a wide range of operating conditions. Current design practices for
compressors require the flow to enter the first stage blade row at an axial Mach number in the region of 0.4
to 0.5.
o Subsonic aircraft will typically cruise at Mach 0.8 to 0.85
o Supersonic aircraft may operate from Mach 2.0 to 2.5 [3]
Spillage
There is an additional propulsion performance penalty charged against the inlet called “spillage drag”.
Spillage drag, as the name implies, occurs when an inlet "spills" air around the outside instead of conducting
the air to the compressor face. The amount of air that goes through the inlet is set by the engine and
changes with altitude and throttle setting. The inlet is usually sized to pass the maximum airflow that the
engine can ever demand and, for all other conditions, the inlet spills the difference between the actual
engine airflow and the maximum air demanded. As the air spills over the external cowl lip, the air
accelerates and the pressure decreases. This produces a lip suction effect that partially cancels out the
drag due to spilling. An inlet aerodynamicist accounts for this effect with a correction factor K, the lip suction
factor, which multiplies the theoretical spillage drag. Typical values of K range from 0.4 to 0.7. However,
for a given inlet the value is determined experimentally. The form of the theoretical spillage drag DSPILL is
very similar to the thrust equation, with a mass flow times a velocity term, and a pressure times area term
[1]:
D SPILL  K  m 1 V abs1  V abs 0   A1 PS 1  PS 0 
 Exhausts, Nozzles, Propelling Nozzles, Exits

All gas turbine engines, especially turbo-jets and turbo-fans, have a nozzle that produces the thrust as
mentioned in Module 01. The nozzle sets the total mass flow rate through the engine (nozzles can be viewed as
valves. The larger the opening the more mass flow can pass through it, the smaller the opening the less mass flow can pass through
it). The nozzle, or exhaust, sits downstream of the turbine stages or the fan stage and, while the nozzle
does no work on the flow, there are some important design features of the nozzle that need to be
considered.
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Exit
Exit
5 6 7 8
Figure 4 - Gas Turbine Nozzle (Exhaust)
Because the nozzle does no thermodynamic work, and it is assumed that there is no heat transfer, the total
temperature TT through the nozzle, to the exit of the nozzle, remains constant. The nozzle total temperature
ratio is TT8 divided by TT5 and is equal to 1.0
TT 8
1
TT 5
Some sources for nozzle performance will state that the total pressure PT across the nozzle will also remain
constant. Hence, the nozzle total pressure ratio is PT8 divided by PT5 and is equal to 1.0 [1].
PT 8
1
PT 5
COMMENT: The above statement is not entirely true. As mentioned in Module 02, and in the section above
for intakes, all gas turbine components produce entropy or loss. An exhaust is no different in entropy
creation as an intake does. The above statement is usually considered as an assumption to simplify
performance cycle calculations.
Since all exit flow from the gas turbine engine must reach equilibrium with the ambient environment, the
static pressure at the exit of the nozzle, PS8, will equal the free stream static pressure, PS0, unless of course
the exiting flow is expanded to supersonic conditions. The ratio of the nozzle total to static pressure ratio is
called the nozzle pressure ratio NPR.
PT 8 PT 8
NPR  
PS 8 PS 0
Usually there are two types of gas turbine nozzles:

o A convergent-divergent nozzle, used in rockets and military fighters, which will produce supersonic
exit flows
o A simple convergent nozzle commonly used for commercial aircraft applications, which will not
produce supersonic exit flows.
Additionally, there are two methods to account for nozzle (exhaust) performance [3]:
o Method 1: isentropic efficiency NOZZLE

NOZZLE is the ratio of the actual total to static temperature difference over that difference if the
nozzle was isentropic.
Page 12 of 33
TT 5  TS 8actual 
 NOZZLE 
TT 5  TS 8 isentropic 
It follows that for a given set of nozzle inlet conditions (PT5, TT5) and an assumed value of NOZZLE,
TS8 is given by
 1
 
P  
TT 5  TS 8
TT 5  TS 8   NOZZLE  TT 5 1   S 8    NOZZLE 
  PT 5     1

  P  
TT 5 1   S 8  
  PT 5  
 
It should be reminded that the nozzle is assumed to be adiabatic, therefore T T8=TT5 in the above
equations.
o Method 2: specific thrust coefficient KF.

Thrust
Specific Thrust  K F   V EX  V IN 
m
The specific thrust coefficient, KF, is defined as the ratio of the actual specific gross thrust to that
which would have resulted from isentropic flow. When the expansion to the ambient condition is
completed in the nozzle KF becomes simply the ratio of actual to isentropic jet velocity, which is the
“velocity coefficient”. This term is often used by steam turbine designers. Under these conditions
NOZZLE = KF2. Although KF is easier to measure on nozzle test rigs, it’s not as useful as NOZZLE [3].
Mixed flow turbofan engines

The cold compressed air leaving the fan will not be directly exhausted too the ambient air, but will flow in a
long duct surrounding the engine core and then mixes with the hot gases leaving the LPT. Thus the cold
air is heated while the hot air gases are cooled. Only one mixed exhaust is found.
When turbofan engines with mixed exhausts are analyzed versus unmixed exhausts, the following points
are found:
1. For a given bypass ratio (BPR) the optimum fan pressure ratio (FPR) for a mixed-flow engine is
generally lower than that for a separate flow engine
2. At a given FPR the mixed-flow engine has a lower BPR and therefore a higher specific thrust
3. The amount of power that the LPT supplies to drive the fan will be smaller
4. Possibly one LPT stage less is sufficient
5. Other features to be considered
 Thrust gain due to mixing
 Noise
 Weight
 Reverse thrust
The requirements for the mixing process are equal static pressures and also equal velocities. The hot
gases leaving the LPT and the cold air leaving the fan bypass are mixed and give new properties at the exit
of the engine. This mixing process is governed by the first law of thermodynamics.
H 0, fan ,exit  H 0, LPT ,exit  H 0 ,engine ,exit
m c C p ,cT0 , fan ,ex  1  f m h C p ,hT0 , LPT ,ex  m c  1  f m h C p ,hT0,engine ,ex
For a better evaluation of the gas properties after mixing we can use a mass-weighted average property of
the gases at the engine exit as follows
Page 13 of 33
C p ,h  BPR  C p ,c
C p ,engine ,ex 
1  BPR
Rg ,h  BPR  Rg ,c
Rengine ,ex 
1  BPR
C p ,exngine,ex
 engine ,ex 
C p ,exngine,ex  Rengine ,ex
Exhaust Thrust Calculation Methodology
We had mentioned above that the nozzle sets the total mass flow rate through the engine. For pressure
up to the critical (choked) value the pressure thrust will become zero since P S8 will equal Pambient. Above
the critical pressure ratio the nozzle is choked, and PS8 remains constant at the critical value PScritical, and
the exit velocity Vabs8 remains at the sonic value (speed of sound). The following approach is used in
MDIDS-GT to calculate the thrust of an exhaust nozzle.
Nozzle exit
Nozzle Assume duct is Nozzle throat
to ambient
Inlet [IN] adiabatic [THT]
[EX]
Figure 5 - Exhaust Nozzle Model

The general compressible flow equations for temperature and pressure, for both choked and unchoked
conditions are
To    1 2  To    1 
 1  M  if M=1 then  1  
Ts  2  Ts  2 
 
Po    1 2   1 P   1  1
 1  M  if M=1 then o  1  
Ps  2  Ps  2 
Temperatures and pressures are related to each other by the following equation
  1
Po  To   1
 Po  
To
  or   
Ps  Ts   Ps  Ts
For thrust calculations of individual nozzles (or unmixed ducts), it is important to first assess if the individual
nozzle is choked or not, since this will modify the pressure thrust term in the overall generic thrust equation.
The calculation process is as follows
1. Calculate the overall engine performance

2. Knowing the exit condition, from either the turbine or fan, calculate the critical pressure ratio

P   1  1
PRcrit  o IN  1  
Pcrit  2 
Page 14 of 33
Po  IN P
3. If  o  IN then Ps-EX will be made equal to Ps-amb, and the pressure thrust will become
Ps  EX Pcritical
zero for that nozzle
Po  IN P
4. If  o  IN then Ps-EX will be made equal to Pcrit and the pressure thrust must be
Ps  EX Pcritical
calculated
Now, considering the energy equation for the nozzle, the specific total enthalpy hT is equal to the static
enthalpy hS plus the square of the exit velocity divided by 2.
2
Vabs
hT 8  hS 8  8
An efficiency factor NOZZLE can be included to account for all the losses in the nozzle, but its value is
normally very near 1.0.
2
Vabs
hT 8  hS 8  8
2  NOZZLE
The exit velocity of the nozzle, after some algebra, will be calculated as [refer to Appendix A for derivation]
 1
 
 1  
VEX  Vabs8  2  NOZZLE  C P  TT 8 1    
  NPR  
 
The above nozzle exit velocity and the mass flow rate through the engine are the values used in the thrust
equation of
Thrust  m V EX  V IN   AEX ( PEX  PIN )  Momentum Thrust   ( Pressure Thrust )
From this derivation two main interesting notes can be seen:

 The nozzle exit velocity depends on the nozzle pressure ratio and the nozzle total temperature.
 The nozzle pressure ratio depends on the exit static pressure and the nozzle total pressure.
Page 15 of 33
Table 2: Simple Turbo-Jet Performance Cycle Equations
TT 2 1  INLET  PT 2 P
TT 0 T1
Intake PT 2  PS1
 RAM 
PT 1  PS 1
0.4 < K < 0.7 D SPILL  K  m 1 V abs1  V abs 0   A1 PS 1  PS 0 

 1
 
T   1  TT 2  PT 3  
Compressor H  m C p TT 32  m C p TT 3  TT 2  C  T 2  PR  1 
 T  T   P   1
TT 32 
32
 T3 T2  T2  
 
 
1  f  COMB  Q 
Combustion TT 4 
 C pTT 3   -

TT 3 1  f 
T 
TT 45

TT 4  TT 5 
 1  1
    
Turbine H  m C p TT 45  m C p TT 4  TT 5   1  
 1 
TT 4 1     TT 4 1    
  PR45     PT 4 PT 5  
   
TT 8 PT 8 PT 8
1 NPR   TT 5  TS 8
TT 5 PS 8 PS 0  NOZZLE   1
 
Exhaust   1
  P  
 1   TT 5 1   S 8  
Vabs8  2  NOZZLE  C P  TT 8 1       PT 5  
  NPR    
 
Mechanical
or 1 1
WORK COMP  C p  T32
Parasitic m  para
Loss
 1
 
 1  
Thrust Thrust  1  f   m IN  m BLEED V EX  m IN V IN  AEX ( PEX  PIN ) VEX  Vabs8  2   NOZZLE  C P  TT 8 1    
  NPR  
 
Page 16 of 33
DISCUSSION – Putting it all together
Thus far we’ve defined the various performance equations with respect to the compressor-combustor-
turbine system. Putting the equations back-to-back will help us see the performance calculations much
clearer. If we take the current compressor-combustor-turbine system, we know that the turbine is used to
power the compressor; therefore, the turbine work should equal the compressor work.
H COMP  H TURB
m C p TT 23  m C p TT 45
Since the compressor and turbine are both imperfect machine components, in other words they have loss
or create entropy, we need to include the component efficiencies into the equations. The turbine will also
need to supply additional energy to overcome any parasitic or mechanical losses
 1
 
    

TT 2   1
  1 
m C p PR32 
 1  m C p T TT 4 1     Equation 1
 C   m   PT 4  
  PT 5  
 
If we assume that the inlet mass flow is constant, and that there are no bleeds, then the above equation
reduces to.
 1
 
TT 2   1  T  1  
Cp  PR32  1  C p TT 4 1    
C   m   PT 4 PT 5  
 
 1
C T  
p T2
 1
  T


C pTT 4 1   1 

 

 PR32  1 
C   m  PT 4 PT 5  
 
NOTE: One must be careful when using Cp. Cp is a function of TS and cannot be considered as constant
throughout a gas turbine engine. For simple performance calculations the use of the following values of C p
suffice:
o For the compressor, or cold section  = 1.400; Cp = 1.0045x103 J / (kg K); Rg = 287;
o For the turbine, or hot section  = 1.333; Cp = 1.1489 x103 J / (kg K); Rg = 287;
COMMENT: There are various codes that calculate the fluid properties based on the calculated fluid states,
such as:
o NRC Canada, gas tables
National Research Council of Canada
o NASA’s GASPLUS, Fowler, J.R., “GASPLUS User’s Manual,” NASA LEW-15091, 1994
o JANAF, Joint-Army-Navy-Air Force, Thermo chemical tables

Currently provided by the National Institute of Standards and technology (USA). JANAF is well
suited to account for mixtures of air and water vapor typically found in gas turbine environments
o CEA, Chemical Equilibrium Analysis

CEA is an implementation of a chemical equilibrium code that accounts for many chemical species
and interactions but at significant cost in computational time and stability. CEA is usually
recommended for combustion analysis. There are both free and commercial versions of this code.
Page 17 of 33
To include the intakes and exhausts of a simple turbo-jet engine is straightforward as shown in Table 2.
Once a set of ambient conditions are chosen, based on altitude and aircraft forward velocity, then it’s a
matter of going through the various components step-by-step, calculating the various changes in pressures
and temperatures. Always remember that the exit conditions of one component become the inlet conditions
of the next component.
DISCUSSION – Multi-Spool Cycle Calculations
The discussions thus far have centered on the context of a simple, single shaft, turbo-jet. How about multi-
shaft (or spool) configurations? Fortunately, it is not too difficult to extend the compressor-combustor-
turbine system to multi-spools. Let’s assume we have a theoretical 4-spool configuration, as shown below.
For a turbo-jet or turbo-fan configuration, we’ll have a set of turbines powering a set of compressors. Each
compressor set will raise the temperature and pressure as it does work on the moving fluid, and each
turbine set will extract work from the moving fluid decreasing the temperature and pressure. Equation 1 will
be repeated 4 times, once for each compressor-turbine set combination.
4
3 4
2 3
1 1 2
Figure 6 - Multi Spool Configuration
4 4
3 4 3 4
2 2 3 2 2 3
1 1 1 1
4 3 4 3
3 4 3 4
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
To complete the multi-spool calculations, we’ll need to know the following:

o The individual compressor and turbine efficiencies
o The compressor work required to produce the desired pressure ratio
o The various mechanical efficiencies of each compressor-turbine combination
Remember that the exit condition of one component becomes the inlet condition for the next component.
Despite being straightforward in concept, the manual calculation analysis of such a multi-spool configuration
Page 18 of 33
becomes cumbersome due to the fact that one usually does not define each compressor-turbine set
performance as a known input. One will tend to impose the desired thrust, shaft horsepower, or required
fuel flow, and based on the component performance characteristics (usually in the form of component performance
maps) will use an engine performance cycle calculation software that will iterate on the total set of Equation
1 until the desired engine condition is found.
40
Pressure
(atmospheres)
0
1500
Temperature
(degrees C)
Figure 7 - Pressures & Temperatures [9]

In the performance analysis of gas turbine engines, it is very desirable to have relationships that describe
the variation in mass flow rate, RPM, pressure ratio, and temperature ratio for each turbomachine in the
model. These characteristics are often calculated by complex codes using velocity diagrams, fluid
mechanics, empirical correlations, and even computational fluid dynamics. The physics of turbomachinery
flow simplify when corrected (or equivalent) airflow is used rather than absolute flow, and corrected (or
equivalent) speed is used for absolute RPM. The calculation of the relationship between corrected flow,
corrected speed, pressure ratio, and temperature ratio (or efficiency) for a turbomachine results in a
collection of data referred to as a “map” [6].
The production of accurate compressor maps is a critical step in gas turbine engine modeling. They are
essential in determining the off-design performance of gas turbine engines. In addition, component models
based on them can be combined to produce accurate simulations, important both in engine design and
diagnostics. However, the generation of such maps is both time and resource consuming. Producing a new
one typically starts with a map for a similar compressor which is scaled to match the required characteristics
at the design point. A commonly used scaling method is to multiply each of its dimensions by a single factor.
This may be satisfactory if the compressor is “sufficiently similar”, an ill-defined concept. Even when it is
sufficiently similar, a considerable amount of fine tuning by an expert will be needed until the map is
acceptable [8].
The figure below shows a compressor map, normally plotted as pressure ratio (across the machine) versus
corrected airflow into the machine. For multiple values of corrected RPM the relationship between pressure
ratio and flow is shown and the line that connects the upper left of each speed characteristic is called the
surge line. Each speed characteristic also has a lower limit: the line becomes vertical as the machine chokes
and no further mass flow can be passed. Finally, values of constant adiabatic efficiency are plotted; these
contours resemble, roughly speaking, a series of concentric ovals and are often referred to as “efficiency
islands” [6].
Page 19 of 33
Choked
Figure 8
Compressor map characteristics [6]
The figure below shows the same map with some of the data values identified. The application of such a
specific compressor map to a complete engine system is quite limited; however, if the map could be scaled
its usefulness would be dramatically increased. [A performance model should] allow the map to be scaled
up or down in pressure ratio, efficiency, flow, or any combination of the three. Assume that the design point
is identified as 100 percent speed and 25 percent surge margin, resulting in an unscaled pressure ratio of
2.0, corrected airflow of 500 lbm/s, and adiabatic efficiency of 87 percent. Further assume that the desired
values of pressure ratio, flow, and efficiency at that point are 1.80, 475 lbm/s, and 87.5 percent respectively.
The ratio of the desired value to the unscaled value of each parameter determines the scale factor applied
to the map (one scale factor for each parameter) [6].
unscaled compressor map [6] scaled compressor map [6]

Figure 9
The scale factors are calculated during the design point analysis and used during the performance analysis
from the following equations:
Wc desired
Flow scale factor 
Wcunscaled
PRdesired  1
compressor PR scale factor 
PRunscaled  1
Page 20 of 33
 desired
Efficiency scale factor 
 unscaled
Note that the limit for pressure ratio is 1, not 0, because the compressor/turbine requires/performs no work
at that pressure ratio; this is why 1 is subtracted from both values in the pressure ratio scale factor equation.
These scale factors are applied to every point in the map: thus all values of corrected flow are multiplied by
0.95, all efficiencies are increased by 0.6 percent, and pressure ratio minus one is reduced 20 percent as
shown by the two points in figures above [6].
There are two peculiarities of the compressor corrected speed characteristic because of its shape ( resembling
a candy cane): first, it is possible to have a particular value of pressure ratio and corrected speed occur at two
values of corrected flow; second, pressure ratio is indeterminate when a particular value of corrected speed
and flow occur on the vertical part of the speed characteristic. Because of this, compressor maps require a
second independent parameter (the first is corrected speed) to uniquely determine the flow, PR, and efficiency:
one commonly used parameter is called the R-line [6].
The figure below shows the compressor map with R-lines included. Typically, the first R-line is given a value
of 1.0 and coincides with the surge line. The remaining R-lines are roughly parallel to the surge line with
increasing R-line value corresponding to higher surge margin. These R-lines have no physical meaning;
they are simply mathematical constructs orthogonal to corrected speed so that any value of R-line and
corrected speed will uniquely position the compressor operating point. In other words, given a R-line value
and corrected speed, the compressor pressure ratio, corrected flow, and adiabatic efficiency are known,
and further, the derivatives of these parameters can be calculated with respect to R-line and corrected
speed which is critical for computational convergence [6].
Compressor map with R-Lines

Figure 10
With regard to efficiency and corrected flow, the scaling of a turbine map is the same as with compressor
maps. Since pressure ratio and speed uniquely determine corrected flow and efficiency, no R-lines are
required for turbine maps [6]. The scale factors are calculated during the design point analysis and used
during the performance analysis from the following equations:
PRdesired  1
turbine PR scale factor 
PRunscaled  1
Page 21 of 33
 desired
Efficiency scale factor 
 unscaled
Some maps have an additional input variable such as inlet guide vane (IGV) setting or nozzle vane angle.
In this case there are multiple compressor and turbine plots that comprise the turbomachine map, one plot
for each value of the additional variable. These are referred to as “stacked maps” or “3–D maps” [6].
Table 3: Scaling Methodologies

Scaling [6] NASA/TM-2007-214690, March 2007: Scott M. Jones
SUBJECT: An introduction to thermodynamic performance analysis of aircraft gas turbine
engine cycles using the numerical propulsion system simulation code
Warping [8] ASME paper GT2009-60141: Chris Drummond, Craig R. Davison
SUBJECT: Capturing the shape variance in gas turbine compressor maps
Warping: The method relies on identifying common points on all shapes, called landmarks, and then finding
the morphological operators needed to warp the points on one shape to those on another. Speed lines are
a central feature of the compressor maps [8].
100%
TURB
Pressure Ratio
75%
% RPM
50%
25%
Pressure Ratio
CHOKE
m TT / P T
RPM / TT
Islands of
COMP
m TT / P T
Pressure Ratio
Figure 11
Typical compressor and turbine component performance maps
The fundamental difference of an engine performance cycle calculation software or solver (“Perf Model” for
short) versus turbine or compressor design software is that the “Perf Model” does not predict loss directly.
Instead it reads the component losses (or component efficiencies to be exact) based on component performance
maps (as shown above) generated by the particular compressor or turbine design software.
Historically, the definition of a gas turbine was segregated into two main components: the compressor and
the turbine. Each discipline was then required to design and optimize the components to various targets
and issue performance maps. A performance (“perf”) model would then take the various maps and run a
solver to obtain the overall engine behavior. This simple process is shown below.
Page 22 of 33
Compressor
Compressor
Design & Optimization
Maps
Software Overall
Performance
Engine
Model
Turbine Performance
Turbine
Maps
Software
Figure 12 - Generic "Perf Model" Process
The current trends in performance modeling are towards the use of “integrated” models. Instead of
generating individual performance component maps, the performance model will directly run the
compressor and turbine design software, and extract the required values as inputs to the “Perf Model”. An
ideal “integrated Perf Model” would have a generic solver for both the compressor and turbine that in turn
call up the various component loss models.
Compressor
Software Integrated Overall
Performance Engine
Turbine Model Performance
Software
Figure 13 - Generic "Integrated Perf Model" Process

In terms of definitions, NASA had defined the “zooming” capability of performance (or zero-dimensional
codes) as follows:
 Zoominq: Current "state-of-the-art" engine simulations are zero-dimensional in that there is there
is no axial, radial or circumferential resolution within a given component (e.g., a compressor or
turbine has no internal station designations). In these zero-dimensional cycle simulations the
individual component performance characteristics typically come from a table look-up (map) with
adjustments for off-design effects such as variable geometry, Reynolds effects, and clearances.
Zooming means a higher order component analysis code is executed and the results from this
analysis are used to adjust the zero-dimensional component performance characteristics within the
system simulation. By drawing on the results from a more predictive, physics-based higher order
analysis code, "cycle" simulations are refined to more closely model and predict the complex
physical processes inherent to engines [NPSS ref].
DISCUSSION – Gas Turbine Engine Rating Terminology
This section lists the various terms used by the gas turbine performance engineer, or analyst, when
describing the gas turbine using standard performance conditions.
 Static Thrust
This is the thrust value of the gas turbine engine when the aircraft velocity is zero.
 Maximum Take-Off thrust, MTO

This is the maximum thrust that the engine can deliver for 5 minutes in the take-off envelope of the aircraft.
Peak thrust is usually achieved when the engine is static, however the most demanding condition for a
modern turbofan engine is end-of-runway or lift-off conditions, typically at a Mach number of about 0.25.
This condition usually generates the highest stresses and temperatures in the engine; hence the use of this
rating is only permitted for up to 5 minutes of operation.
It is used, as the name suggests, for take-off when the aircraft is at its heaviest and has to be accelerated
to take-off speed in a finite runway distance. The higher the thrust that is available from the engine, the
shorter the runway can be, or the greater the aircraft payload can be. This affects which airports an aircraft
Page 23 of 33
can be operated from, and the economics of operation. As an alternative to payload, a higher thrust rating
allows more fuel load to be carried into the air, so extending the range of aircraft operation.
These trade-offs between available thrust, runway length, aircraft weight and range may need to be
assessed for each flight, and is part of a commercial pilots’ preparation prior to take-off. An aircraft may
take-off with less than maximum take-off thrust to reduce wear on the engine and extend its life. This is
usually termed a “reduced thrust” take-off, and is used to reduce engine maintenance costs.
It is a condition of certification that an aircraft should be able to take-off if one engine fails at the most critical
point in the take-off run, when it is going too fast to be able to come to a safe stop in the remaining runway.
In the case of twin-engine aircraft, they have to be capable of taking off on one engine, so that in normal
operation “de-rate” is usually applied, as an excess of thrust is available.
If an engine exceeds its 'redline' speeds or temperatures when running at MTO thrust, it is no longer
considered airworthy.
 Maximum Continuous Thrust, MCT

Outside the MTO flight envelope, the MCT rating defines the maximum thrust that can be demanded by the
pilot from the engine. As such, it has particular significance with respect to engine failure in flight, as the
aircraft will have to proceed to its destination or nearest diversion airport at max continuous thrust. If the
engine cannot achieve this thrust level whilst staying within it operating limits for engine speed and
temperature, (the 'amber line'), it is no longer considered airworthy.
 Maximum Climb Thrust, MCL

This is the thrust rating the manufacturer recommends be used during the climb phase of a typical flight. It
may be the same as max continuous thrust, and usually is for a three or four-engine aircraft. The top of the
climb phase is typically the most challenging condition for a turbofan engine outside the take-off regime,
and is a critical design requirement. “De-rate” can be applied to MCL thrust to extend engine life, but at the
cost of a slower time to climb and slightly increased trip fuel consumption.
 Maximum Cruise Thrust, MCR

Sometimes defined, but not a particularly useful rating since in cruise the pilot/autopilot will use the thrust
required to maintain constant altitude and air speed to meet with air traffic control requirements.
 Flight Idle
The idle rating is the minimum thrust that can be used whilst the aircraft is in flight. It is largely defined by
the requirement to keep the engine running, possibly supplying secondary services to the aircraft such as
hydraulic and electrical power, and, especially at high altitude, to supply passenger air at a minimum
pressure. The flight idle rating is important in that the lower it is, the quicker the aircraft can descend (without
going into a dive). It is often determined by stability considerations such as flutter and surge margin.
 High or Approach idle

In the final phases of approach to landing it is important to be able to provide rapid response to throttle
movements, this may require the engine to be running at a higher speed than ideal to be able to provide
rapid acceleration if required. There may be a maximum response time requirement to achieve “TOGA”
(Take-Off / Go-Around) thrust if a landing is aborted.
 Ground Idle
Used for maneuvering on the ground. Typically defined by the need to keep the engine running and
supplying power and services to the aircraft.
 Flat rated
When an engine is “flat rated” it means that an engine of high horsepower rating is constrained to a lower
horsepower rating. The engine output in this case will always remain the same, but when atmospheric
conditions such as high temperatures and high altitude (“Hot and High”) reduce the power output of the
engine it has more headroom before it falls below the limited maximum output. In some cases, the total
power output of an engine needs to be constrained because the airframe can only handle a certain force.
This is the case with gas turbine engines. Flat rating allows airplanes to operate under more demanding
Page 24 of 33
conditions, without the need for extra structural strengthening due to higher peak power output of the
engine.
DISCUSSION – Gas Turbine Performance Analysis Practices
Cycle analysis of air-breathing engines is done in two stages. First the engine components are sized
according to the inputs specified by the user; this is called the “design case”, “design analysis”, or
“design-point”. The design case can also be considered a “reference condition”. Normally only one design
case is executed for each cycle analysis; if multiple design cases are run then each new case results in a
completely different engine [6].
The second stage of cycle analysis is “off-design” analysis. Here an engine whose design variables are
known has its operating characteristics calculated for a particular flight Mach number, altitude, and throttle
setting. For this reason, off-design analysis is often called “performance analysis”. Hundreds of off-design
cases are run to identify the engine operational envelope as well as any unforeseen complications resulting
from potentially poor design choices. So in design mode the engine physical parameters are set, and in off-
design mode that engine’s performance is calculated over a range of varying conditions (flight speed,
altitude, etc.) [6].
 Off-Design Full Power Operation (Maximum Power)

In the case of a two-shaft turbo-fan, burner fuel flow has a major impact on engine performance and
behavior. If burner fuel is kept constant, while the engine is operated over a flight envelope, the
turbomachinery (mostly the fan and LPC) is forced to ‘odd’ operating points (e.g., fan at extremely high corrected speed,
LPC at low surge margin): it is therefore important for the performance analysis to be able to determine and
control fuel flow as the engine operating conditions change over a specific flight mission.
For off-design analysis it is not sufficient to merely balance engine discontinuities, a definition of full power
operation is required. Examples of full power definitions are:
o Maintaining fan corrected speed at 100 percent,
o Maintaining low spool rpm at 100 percent
o Or maintaining a constant high-pressure turbine entrance temperature.
Once the engine full power operating requirements are set, fuel flow can be calculated and the analyst can
begin to see the effects of design choices on engine performance [6].
 Off-Design Part Power Operation (Throttle Curves)

This is a subset of off-design operation. While an engine may operate at maximum power during the aircraft
takeoff and climb stages, it is necessary to throttle back the engine during long cruise segments and
especially during descent. The essence of part power operation is simply a matter of decreasing burner exit
temperature from the defined maximum at some Mach number and altitude. The approach is to adjust the
burner exit temperature (corresponding to a particular fuel flow) to achieve either a specified engine thrust
requirement or a given fan corrected speed (or high pressure compressor corrected speed for turbojets).
 Assessing Preliminary Sea-Level and Cruise Altitude Thrust Requirements

When developing a gas turbine, the design-point condition is usually taken to be the cruise portion of the
aircraft flight phase, since this phase is usually the longest elapsed time of the flight. Once an engine
configuration is selected for the design-point condition, the configuration is checked at various off-design
conditions, especially for thrust. The figure below is a diagram that may be used to assess the related
cruise to take-off thrust values.
Page 25 of 33
Figure 14 - variation in thrust for a Turbo-fan engine

DISCUSSION – Gas Turbine Installation Losses
Usually, publicly quoted gas turbine engine performance targets, or achievements, are stipulated as
“uninstalled”. The “uninstalled” engine performance is taken from the intake flange to the engine exhaust
or propelling nozzle flange. If the performance targets are quoted to be “installed” then the magnitude of
all the installation effects must be stated, as follows:
 Airframe intake pressure losses

 Airframe jet pipe pressure loss
 Customer auxiliary power offtake
 Customer bleed offtake
 Whether the trust or SFC values quoted take into account the pod drag
ane, fde, hde
DISCUSSION – Additional gas turbine performance parameters
 OPR – Overall Pressure Ratio

Usually used for compressors, OPR is the pressure ratio of the last compressor exit total pressure versus
the first compressor inlet total pressure.
 EPR – Engine Pressure Ratio

The Engine Pressure Ratio is defined as the total pressure ratio across the engine. EPR is the total
pressure ratio of the exit nozzle total pressure, PT8, versus the compressor inlet total pressure, PT2. NOTE:
the subscript “T” denotes the “total” of the pressure value.
PT 8
EPR 
PT 2
PT 3 PT 4 PT 5 PT 8 PT 8
EPR  
PT 2 PT 3 PT 4 PT 5 PT 2
EPR  Compressor PR  * Combustor PR  * Turbine PR  * Nozzle PR 
Page 26 of 33
 ETR – Engine Temperature Ratio
The Engine Temperature Ratio is defined as the total temperature ratio across the engine. ETR is the total
temperature ratio of the exit nozzle total pressure, T T8, versus the compressor inlet total pressure, T T2.
NOTE: the subscript “T” denotes the “total” of the temperature value.
TT 8
ETR 
TT 2
TT 3 TT 4 TT 5 TT 8 TT 8
ETR  
TT 2 TT 3 TT 4 TT 5 TT 2
ETR  Compressor TR  * Combustor TR  * Turbine TR  * Nozzle TR 
In Module 01 we introduced two performance parameter calculations of thrust and propulsive efficiency.
However, neither of the two indicates how efficient the gas turbine is with respect to fuel consumption. To
do so we need to define another performance term as follows.
 SFC – Specific Fuel Consumption

SFC represents the amount of the fuel-air ratio for the net work output of the turbine section of the gas
turbine.
 m FUEL   m FUEL 
f  m
   m
 
SFC   AIR 
 AIR 
W NET W NET WT  WTC
3600  f
NOTE SFC  to convert f from kg/hr to kg/sec
W NET
Using SI units
SFC Specific Fuel Consumption [kg / kW hr]
f fuel-to-air ratio
W NET kW sec / (kg of air)
WT work output of turbine section
W TC compressor work required by turbine
 TSFC – Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption

TSFC represents the amount of the fuel-air ratio for the specific thrust output of the gas turbine engine as
follows
Thrust
Specific Thrust   V EX  V IN 
m AIR
 m FUEL   m FUEL 
f  
mCORE 
  m CORE  m 1  BPR 
TSFC       FUEL
Specific Thrust Thrust Thrust Thrust
m AIR m CORE 1  BPR 
DISCUSSION – Thermal Efficiency [10]
« In the family of heat engines, the gas turbine is unique in that it is used to produce two different kinds of
useful power. By converting combusted fuel heat into work, a gas turbine engine can produce external shaft
power (e.g., to drive a connected electric generator) or jet power (e.g., as a jet engine, to produce thrust
Page 27 of 33
forces to propel an aircraft). This means that the gas turbine’s thermodynamic figure of merit, thermal
efficiency, is multifaceted, and calls for a nuanced examination. » [10]
« The shaft power category here, covers the market for non-aviation gas turbines. The jet power category
covers the market for aviation gas turbines, be they turbojets, turbofans, turboprop and helicopter engines,
or auxiliary power units (APUs) (all of which, of course, have internal shaft power). » [10]
« Thermal efficiency, η, is defined in simple words as useful output divided by costly input. The input is the
rate at which energy is supplied to the gas turbine engine, calculated from a measured fuel flow rate and
the fuel’s heating value. The output power for a shaft power gas turbine can be measured under test [TE-
1] by a dynamometer or even a calibrated electrical generator. However, the power output of a jet engine
in flight is difficult to measure directly. This would entail measuring the rate of production of kinetic energy
of the gases passing through the engine, as well as engine thrust and flight velocity. Instead, jet engine
OEMs measure engine thrust directly on a static test stand and appraise individual component efficiencies
(compressor, turbine etc.) to infer performance. » [10]
« Since η is such an important parameter in energy considerations, let us look at how it is treated from the
standpoints of shaft power and jet power gas turbines. The ideal pattern cycle for all gas turbines, the
Brayton cycle, will be called upon to provide help with some explanations. » [10]
« SHAFT POWER: The world’s first shaft power gas turbine was built and tested by Swiss firm Brown
Boveri (BB) in 1939. It was a 4 MW output machine, originally installed in the city of Neuchâtel for electric
power generation and is now displayed in a special
museum in Birr, Switzerland. » [10]
« According to our IGTI founder, R. Tom Sawyer, official testing of the world’s first operational gas turbine
began on July 7, 1939. In his 1945 textbook, The Modern Gas Turbine [TE-1], Sawyer reviewed the test
program carried out at the BB works in Baden. This very first shaft power gas turbine power plant had a
thermal efficiency of 17.38%, based on the heating value of the fuel oil rate and the heat equivalent of the
electrical output of the generator. Since the component efficiency of electrical generators is very high, the
generally quoted thermal efficiency, for this very first shaft power gas turbine is η = 18%. » [10]
« Since then, in the intervening 80 years, engineers have greatly increased gas turbine thermal efficiencies,
with output as high as 500 MW. Gas Turbine World [TE-2] cites specifications of simple cycle gas turbines
manufactured by some two score OEMs. The highest measured thermal efficiency is 44.7% for General
Electric’s LMS100 model, an almost factor of three improvement from the Neuchâtel gas turbine. » [10]
« Electric power plant operators have an “upside down” or reciprocal way of representing thermal efficiency
values, going back to the early days of coal use for steam power (coal has a wide range of heating values).
It is called “Heat Rate” (HR) and is defined as the amount of heat supplied (U.S. convention, in BTUs) to
generate 1.0 kWh of electricity. For example, η = 44.7% quoted in the last paragraph, divided into energy
conversion factor 3412 Btu/kWh, yields HR = 7628 Btu/kWh [TE-2]. » [10]
« By the 1990s, gas turbine combustion and hot turbine technology had advanced to yield shaft power gas
turbine exhaust gas temperatures high enough to be used to generate steam to power steam turbines. The
resulting combined cycle power plant (Brayton and Rankine and abbreviated as CCGT) thus generates
electric power from two prime movers using one unit of fuel (usually natural gas). » [10]
« From conservation of energy and the definition of thermodynamic thermal efficiency, η, the combined
cycle thermal efficiency, ηCC, can be fairly simply as, » [1]
𝜂 =𝜂 +𝜂 −𝜂 𝜂 (1)
« where B and R are the thermal efficiencies of the Brayton and Rankine cycles, respectively. Taking B
= 40% (a good value for modern gas turbines) and R = 30 % (a reasonable value at typical CCGT
conditions), the sum minus the product in Eq. (1) yields ηCC = 58%, a value of combined cycle efficiency
greater than either of the individual efficiencies. » [10]
Page 28 of 33
« Currently, CCGTs are achieving plant efficiencies of as high as 64% [TE-2], with outputs in the 900 MW
range. These then, are the most efficient heat engines yet perfected by mankind. » [10]
« JET POWER: The use of an ideal thermodynamic analysis for an ideal turbojet in flight can provide a
straightforward way to shed light on aspects of jet power thermal efficiency, brought about by flight Mach
numbers. » [10]
Figure 15: Ideal Turbojet [10]
« Figure 15 [above], taken from Oates [TE-3] shows a simplified cross section of an idealized fixed turbojet
in an approaching ideal gas flow at flight velocity V0 and Mach number M0. (The numbering of engine
stations conforms to standard practice and the fuel mass addition is neglected.) » [10]
« Figure 2 [above] is a Brayton cycle temperature-entropy (T-s) plot, with labeling to identify each part of
the cycle. In particular, isentropic compression consists of a ram compression part, 0-2, and the compressor
part, 2-3. The latter yields the compressor pressure ratio (total to total), PR. The isentropic expansion is
made up of flow through the turbine, 4-5, with the remainder of the expansion, 5-9, from the turbine exit to
flight atmospheric conditions. » [10]
« Thermal efficiency for the ideal cycle shown in the T-s diagram is also the ratio of the area enclosed by
the cycle to the area under the heat addition process, 3-4. Thus, one can see the area contribution to
thermal efficiency of the flight conditions, 0-2 and 5-9. » [10]
Figure 16: temperature Entropy Diagram [10]
« Using Fig. 16 [above] and ideal cycle analysis, it can be shown [TE-3] that the ideal turbojet thermal
efficiency, η, is given by Equ. (2), where  is the ratio of ideal gas specific heats.» [10]
1
𝜂 =1−
(𝛾 − 1) (2)
1+ 𝑀 𝑃𝑅 ( )⁄
2
« Thus, from Equ. (2) we see that the ideal jet power turbojet thermal efficiency increases with compressor
pressure ratio, PR, and as the flight Mach number M0 (squared) is increased. » [10]
« If we assume PR = 40 (typical of many commercial aviation engines) and an airline cruise Mach number
of M0 = 0.80, Equ. (2) yields a value of η = 69%. For the no-flight case of M0 = 0, Equ. (2) yields η = 65%,
amounting to a 6% decrease from M0 = 0.8. This then gives an illustration of the important difference
associated with ram compression that can arise between shaft power and jet power thermal efficiencies. »
[10]
Page 29 of 33
« LAST WORDS: The two ideal values of η calculated in the last section, 69% and 65%, are greater than
would be expected from a real turbojet, since component losses and real gas effects were not considered.
Each jet engine OEM has their own procedures for accounting for the losses. » [10]
« However, even when these loss effects are taken into account, the values of flight jet engine thermal
efficiencies can still be greater than shaft power gas turbines. For instance, Epstein and O’Flarity [TE-4]
report values of flight jet power thermal efficiencies as high as 55% for large turbofan engines at cruise
conditions, significantly greater than the current measured peak value of 45% for shaft power gas turbines.
» [10]
« In summary, the ideal thermodynamic analysis in the last section showed that the contributions of flight
conditions increased ideal turbojet thermal efficiency as the Mach number squared. » [10]
« An extreme example of this flight enhancement is the performance of the supersonic SR-71 Blackbird
reconnaissance aircraft, which was powered by two Pratt & Whitney J58 turbojet/ramjet engines [TE-5].
Actual engine thermal efficiencies aren’t available, but at its design cruise speed of M0 = 3.20 and an altitude
of 100,000 feet, only 18% of its thrust was provided by its turbojets, while the pressure recovery in the
engine inlets contributed 54%, with the remainder of thrust coming from the engine ejector nozzles. Real
flight conditions do have an effect on enhancing the performance of jet power gas turbines. » [10]
[TE-1] Sawyer, R. Tom, 1947, The Modern Gas Turbine.

[TE-2] “Gas Turbine World 2018 Performance Specs”, 2018, Gas Turbine World, Vol. 48, No. 3, July-
August, p. 11.
[TE-3] Oates, Gordon C. 1984, Aerothermodynamics of Gas Turbine and Rocket Propulsion, AIAA
Education Series, pp. 122-124.
[TE-4] Epstein, Alan H. and O’Flarity, Steven M., 2019 “Considerations for Reducing Aviation’s CO2 with
Aircraft Electric Propulsion”, AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 35, No. 3, May.
[TE-5] Langston, Lee S., 2013, “Powering Out of Trouble”, Mechanical Engineering Magazine, December,
pp. 36-41.
DISCUSSION – The Standard Atmosphere
When calculating the performance of gas turbine engines, the need to consider the effect of forward speed
and altitude on performance is very important.
o Forward speed has a major impact on the fan blade performance of a turbo-fan engine as it will
change the inlet velocity triangles; and forward speed also has an impact on the inlet ducts of high-
speed aircraft.
o Altitude has major impact on performance due to the varying pressure and density, which will
impact overall compressor ratio and mass flow.
It’s common practice to focus either on the design of a gas turbine either on take-off thrust or for cruise
speed at altitude. Long-range civil aircraft require low SFC, while the thrust levels may be determined either
at take-off thrust on the hottest day or at top of climb. For any, and all gas turbine performance analysis,
one needs to start off with a definition of the atmospheric conditions, both at sea level and at different
altitudes. To do so, one needs to define a datum (or base) atmosphere. Such a datum is called the
“Standard Atmosphere”. The table below describes the sea level standard day conditions.
Property Symbol SI Imperial (English)

Temperature T 288 Kelvin 59 F
Pressure P or p 101.325 kPa 14.696 psia
Density  1.2250 kg/m3 0.002377 slug / ft3
Specific weight  - 0.07651 lbf / ft3
Viscosity  1.718x10-5 kg/ms 3.719x10-7 lbf sec / ft3
[Pa sec]
As it can be seen from Figure 4, the various types of aircraft gas turbines are bounded between seal level
and 20 000 meters (or 65 000 feet).
Page 30 of 33
Standard Atmosphere
90000
85000
275000
80000
250000
75000
70000
225000
65000
200000 60000
55000
175000
50000
Altitude [ft]
Altitude [m]
150000 45000
40000
125000
35000
100000 30000
25000
75000
Turbo jets 20000
50000 15000
Turbo fans 10000

25000
Turbo props 5000
0 0
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100
Tem perature [degF]
Figure 17 - Standard Atmosphere
DISCUSSION – Gas Turbine Parameter Corrections
Before closing off this module, we’d like to discuss the topic of performance parameter corrections. As
we’ve seen above, the gas turbine cycle calculations will be dependent on the ambient conditions of the
environment it runs in. Imagine an engine being tested during a hot, humid summer day. Since the inlet
temperature to the gas turbine will be high to start off, the engine will seem to be performing well. On a
cold, dry winter’s day, the engine will seem to be consuming a bit more fuel to produce the same amount
of work. Does it mean that the engine has deteriorated between the summer and winter season? What if
they are two different engines?
The various parameters appearing along an engine’s gas path, such as flows, pressures, temperatures,
speeds, etc., vary not only with power condition but also with the ambient conditions at the engine’s inlet.
Since a change in inlet temperature and/or pressure will contribute to an attendant change in a gas path
parameter’s value, it would be difficult to characterize the aero-thermodynamic relationships between gas
turbine engine parameters (even at a constant engine operating point) unless the ambient condition
conditions are somehow accounted for. This is usually accomplished through the use of corrected engine
parameters [5]. This section is a summary of the commonly used corrections for the “major” gas path
parameters that are used in performance analysis, diagnostics and control design.
For any gas path parameter P, the equivalent corrected parameter will be denoted by P* throughout this
discussion. In general, a change in the inlet conditions (T2 and P2) will be accompanied by an attendant
change in any downstream gas path parameter P. A corrected parameter P* would be constant regardless
of the change in inlet condition and represents the value the parameter P would have at some fixed
Page 31 of 33
reference inlet condition. This reference condition can be whatever you like, however, it is common practice
to select standard day conditions for this purpose [5]:
o Temperature = 518.67 degR
o Pressure = 14.696 psia
A corrected parameter will be corrected using a correction equation, which will take the following form
P Tmeasured Pmeasured
P*  where  
 
a b
Tref Pref
Table 4: Commonly Used Gas Turbine Parameter Corrections

Corrected
Parameter a b Correction
Symbol
N
Rotor Speed 0.5 0 N*

Wa 
Airflow -0.5 1 Wa*

SFC
0.5 Wf Wf
Fuel flow 1 Wf* or
(classical)   a
Fn
Thrust 0 1 Fn*

Horse Power 0.5 1 HP*
Torque 0 1 Q*
1.0 T T
Temperature 0 T* or
(classical)  a
P
Pressure 0 1 P*

Acceleration 0 1 N *
Meta Temp Rate 0.74 0.8 Tm *
DISCUSSION – Various available commercial and academic performance analysis codes
Institution Software Name Availability

NASA NPSS Commercial
Private Author GasTurb ?
NLR ? Academic
Canfield University Turbomatch Academic
Page 32 of 33
APPENDIX A – exhaust nozzle thrust derivation
V V
M  
a RgTs
 1
   1 2   Po 

 Vex  M Rg Ts , 1  M  
 2   Ps 
 1
 
 P  
2
Vex   
o
 1 RgTs
 Ps    1
 
 1
 
2   P  
To
Vex  Rg Ts  
o
 1 , Ts 
 1  Ps     1 2 
  1  M 
 2 
 1
 
2 To  P  

Vex  Rg  
o
 1 , c p  R
  1    1 2   Ps    1 g
1  M  
 2 
 1
   1
2c pTo  P  
    1   P  
Vex   o
  1 , 1  
M  
2 o

   1 2   Ps    2   Ps 
1  M  
 2 
 1
2c pTo  Po     1
 P 
 , NPR   o 

Vex     1
 1
   P 
 Po    Ps  
 s
 
 Ps 
 1
 
 1  
Vex  2cPTo 1     , add  nozzle for losses
  NPR  
 
 1
 
 1  
Vex  Vabs8  2  NOZZLE  cP  To8 1    
  NPR  
 
END OF / FIN DE MODULE
Page 33 of 33

Module 03 - Engine Performance

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RDDM Turbomachinery Lecture Series – Série de Conférence du Reacture de Gaz

Turbomachinery Lecture Series

Module 03 – Engine Performance Cycle Calculations [x]

Polytechnique Montréal Carleton University

01 January 2022 – 01 Janvier 2022

Copyright Statement - Déclaration de copyright

[1] NASA online Propulsion Index

[2] textbook, by Robert W. Fox, and Alan T. McDonald, 4th Edition

[3] textbook, by HIH Saravanamuttoo, GFC Rogers, H Cohen, 5 th edition

[4] textbook, by Kenneth Wark, Jr., 5th edition

[5] ASME paper 98-GT-347: Allan J. Volponi

[6] NASA/TM-2007-214690, March 2007: Scott M. Jones

[8] ASME paper GT2009-60141: Chris Drummond, Craig R. Davison

[9] Rolls-Royce PowerPoint Presentation, Michael Cervenka, Cambridge University 2000

[x] RDDM internal memo

DISCUSSION – The ideal-cycle assumption

Saravanmuttoo defines the gas turbine “ideal-cycle” as follows [3]:

Heat removed Heat removed

DISCUSSION – The core performance calculation

In Module 01 we saw that the generic, or turbo-jet, thrust equation is defined as

Thrust  1  f   m IN  m BLEED V EX  m IN V IN  AEX ( PEX  PIN )

and the propulsive efficiency as

Figure 2 - Gas Turbine Engine and Station Numbers

Enthalpy  H  m C p TT 23  m C p TT 2  TT 3 

The working fluids in a gas turbine compression process can:

C p ,air TT 3  fQ  fC p , fuel Tofuel  1  f C p , gas TT 4

fQ fC p , fuel Tofuel 1  f C p , gasTT 4

Cp an average Specific Heat Coefficient at constant pressure

For combustion processes there are two types of heating values:

o HHV, Higher Heating Value

o LHV, Lower Heating Value

Table 1: Kerosene Data (approximate)

Enthalpy  H  m C p TT 45  m C p TT 4  TT 5 

 para   Parasitic Losses

DISCUSSION – Intakes and Exhausts

The design requirements for air inlet are as follows:

Ram Pressure Rise

PT 2  PS1 ram pressure rise

D SPILL  K  m 1 V abs1  V abs 0   A1 PS 1  PS 0 

 Exhausts, Nozzles, Propelling Nozzles, Exits

Figure 4 - Gas Turbine Nozzle (Exhaust)

Usually there are two types of gas turbine nozzles:

o Method 1: isentropic efficiency NOZZLE

o Method 2: specific thrust coefficient KF.

Mixed flow turbofan engines

H 0, fan ,exit  H 0, LPT ,exit  H 0 ,engine ,exit

Exhaust Thrust Calculation Methodology

Figure 5 - Exhaust Nozzle Model

1. Calculate the overall engine performance

Thrust  m V EX  V IN   AEX ( PEX  PIN )  Momentum Thrust   ( Pressure Thrust )

From this derivation two main interesting notes can be seen:

Table 2: Simple Turbo-Jet Performance Cycle Equations

0.4 < K < 0.7 D SPILL  K  m 1 V abs1  V abs 0   A1 PS 1  PS 0 

o JANAF, Joint-Army-Navy-Air Force, Thermo chemical tables

o CEA, Chemical Equilibrium Analysis

DISCUSSION – Multi-Spool Cycle Calculations

Figure 6 - Multi Spool Configuration

To complete the multi-spool calculations, we’ll need to know the following:

Figure 7 - Pressures & Temperatures [9]

unscaled compressor map [6] scaled compressor map [6]

Compressor map with R-Lines

Table 3: Scaling Methodologies

Figure 12 - Generic "Perf Model" Process

Figure 13 - Generic "Integrated Perf Model" Process