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Kaplanov Tiger in Sikhote Alin
Kaplanov Tiger in Sikhote Alin
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Kaplanov L.G.
Copyright © L. G. Kaplanov
The main task before us in the winter of 1940 was a census of the tiger
in the nature reserve. All trips that I carried out during that winter
were made in the company of the junior reserve guard, F. A. Kozin. We
needed to cover a network of routes within a very short period of time
(3 months), namely, the greater part of the western side of the nature
reserve, at least along the main natural routes of communication (i.e.,
the river valleys), and at the same time follow the tracks of the tigers
for a long period in order to observe their hunting behavior and way of
life.
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Our fieldwork consisted of a series of short (up to 7 days) trips and one
long (1 month) excursion, during which everything necessary for life
and work in the taiga, including all the equipment and a food supply,
had to be taken with us. In order to ensure maximum mobility and
speed of travel under winter conditions, all the details of clothing,
equipment, and the food supply were carefully thought out beforehand,
and the weight of the equipment was reduced to an absolute minimum.
Under the conditions of the severe Far Eastern winter, we renounced
the use of: a tent with a stove, fur sleeping bags (kukuli), and a sledge,
1
instead walking, using a nod'ya (when camping overnight) and
ourselves carrying everything in a fonaga2. Both participants in the
work were dressed in jackets and trousers (made from the heavy,
coarse cloth that is used for greatcoats), warm underwear, and wool
sweaters, fur caps, fur mittens, and we wore ologi made out of chamois
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leather on our feet. Instead of goat skins and blankets serving as a bed
during life in the taiga, light weight (2 kg) kukhlyanki made out of the
skin of a young reindeer (a neblyui) were used.
1
nod'ya: a special type of fire (cf., the footnote on page 15 of the
Russian original), used while camping overnight in the forest.
2
fonaga: an apparatus for carrying heavy loads that is used by hunters
in the Far East. It has a narrow board or plank with shoulder straps
and smaller straps for the attachment of the load, which is uniformly
distributed along the back of the person carrying the load.
We walked without using skis along the upper reaches of the Iman
River and the left tributaries of the Kolumbe River, where the depth of
the snow cover fluctuated from 20-25 cm (reaching in some cases up to
40 cm); but along the Kolumbe and the Armu, where the depth of the
snow layer amounted to 35-60 cm, we traveled on skis of the Udege
type (which are approximately 2 m in length and 13 cm wide) that
were made out of ash (Fraxinus sp. - Transl.) and which had moose (or
elk, Alces alces - Transl.) skins glued to the bottoms of the skis. Each
participant in the walking tour had a "kabargonza" in his hands--a
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During the march along the Kolumbe and Armu Rivers, we were
accompanied by two dogs, which we led on leashes. These dogs were
taken as an untouchable, self-transporting food supply in the case of
any sort of accident or misfortune in the taiga (the illness of one of the
participants in the trip or a deep snowfall) and for pulling a sledge, in
case the manufacture of one was necessary along the route. We fed
them with the remains of the prey of tigers, wolves, and yellow
martens.
During trips of short duration, the tiger tracks sometimes led us far
into the taiga, so that, on two occasions, we had to walk almost without
any food, one time for 24 hours and the other time for 48 hours. Due
to unforeseen circumstances, we had to remain without food over the
course of three days while completing the long route.
In the winter of 1940, we walked with knapsacks on foot and on skis for
1,232 km (completing 28 overnight stays under the open sky) and
surmounted 14 mountain ridges, several of which exceeded an
o
elevation of 1,000 m. In January 1940, the frosts reached -48.3 C
(according to data from the Ust'-Kolumbe meteorological station in
Sidatun). In the winter of 1941, fieldwork took place in the
economically developed and well-known territory of the eastern part of
the nature reserve (in the basin of the Kema River). Here I alone
conducted semi-stationary observations on the way of life of the tigers,
but I made use of the nature reserve guards (and horses in harness)
with regard to the provision of food and transportation from place to
place. The trips were carried out by walking on skis without carrying
any load in a knapsack in the near vicinity of houses and cabins. At the
end, a hike (of approximate length 133 km) was completed from the
Kema River across the middle part of the eastern slopes along a line of
Manchurian pine [or Korean Pine, Pinus koraiensis - Transl.] groves to
the south up to Ternei that involved the traversing of three mountain
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ranges and three overnight camps in the snow. The equipment was
identical to that used in the winter of 1940, and as well one dog
accompanied me. In order to lighten the weight of the knapsack
during the crossing of the eastern slopes in the presence of very steep
relief, deep snow and frequently recurring heavy snowfalls, the only
food supply taken was a concentrate, consisting of cocoa, sugar and
butter which had to be dissolved in boiling water. This food, though
lightweight, ensured a supply of energy and a very good physical
condition during difficult and rapid mountain travel on skis in severe
cold.
According to data from our census (cf., below), only 10-12 individual
tigers of various ages lived in the central Sikhote-Alin Mountain Range
(also including tigers living in the nature reserve), in an area of
2
approximately 30,000 km , mainly along the basin of the upper Iman
River. The tiger has been absent along the Bikin River for a number of
years. According to information received from a hunting guide K. G.
Abramov (from the Khabarovsk Provincial Department of the State Fur
Industry), tigers were found in the following sites in the Far East
during the 1939-1940 season: 1) in the upper reaches of the Anyui
River (a hunting guide from Glavpushnina (the Central State Fur
Industry), Comrade Shumeiko, observed the tracks of a small tiger at
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the beginning of 1939; 2) along the Sutar River (the upper reaches of
the Bira River) in Birobidzhan (a female with three year-old cubs, two
of which--a male and a female--were caught by a brigade from the
Khabarovsk 'zoobaza',[ i.e., trading and veterinary center -Transl.], and
it was assumed that this family came from Manchuria); 3) near Tyoplye
Klyuchi ["Warm Springs" - Transl.] in Birobidzhan, where a tiger cub
weighing 10 kg., which had been abandoned by its mother, was caught
in the winter of 1939.
1
A communication from A. Kuznetsov, a hunting guide from the
Primorskaya Kraipushnina (District Fur Industry).
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Tambovsk on the Amur River (the district of the Gorina and Khungari
Rivers), where, according to local inhabitants - the indigenous
Nanaitsy--tiger tracks were observed twice over the last 5 years.
Accidental visits of tigers were noted as far away as Lake Kizi and Lake
Khadi at the mouth of the Amur River and to the north of the Birinzha
River, a tributary of the Tyrma River (in the basin of the Bureya
River). A. V. Afanasiev (4) recorded the case of a visit of a tiger in the
upper reaches of the Amgun River during the summer of 1931.
Tigers Inhabiting the Iman River Area During the Course of the Last
Ten Years (1930-1940), the Tiger Hunting Industry and its Effect on
the Population of the Species:
Over the last ten years, tigers continuously inhabited the upper part of
the Iman River near the Khantun, Lyuchikheza, Ankheza,
Syao-Sinancha and Orochenka Rivers. Having come from the Noto
River (a tributary of the Ulakhe River) and having descended the Iman
River along Krasnaya Stream, the 'Old Believers' [followers of
non-orthodox wing of the Russian Church - Transl. ] founded a village,
"Verkhnii Khutor" (or khutor "Khantun" [khutor = village or farmstead
- Transl. ]) in 1929 at a distance of 15 km above the mouth of the
Kolumbe River on its right bank. And they found several tigers there
that had permanently inhabited that site. This settlement no longer
exists, but tigers are encountered most frequently here along this part
of the Iman River (just as in previous years). Tigers also inhabited
other parts of the Iman River basin, along the headwaters of Beitsukhe,
along the Tatibe, Armu, and Kolumbe Rivers, the headwaters of
Naitsukhe and along the Ta-Sinancha River.
The geographic distribution and the exact sites inhabited by tigers are
most graphically visualized by listing the adult animals killed and the
litters of cubs captured in recent years (Table 1 and the diagram on
page 22 of the Russian original).
Table 1.
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and Tigers
Weight
1926-1927 4
Beitsukhe Adult
River, female
Tu-Nantsa and 3
cubs,
each
weighing
20 kg
1929-1930 1
Ta-Sinancha Adult
River female
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dead)
1930 Ankheza ? ?
1932 3
Lyuchikheza Small
cubs
1931 Tatibe 2
Found on
a trail, 2
dead,
emaciated
cubs
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1935 Tatibe, 3
Tu-Nantsa
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This map was produced for the translation based on the original map
using Free GIS GRASS. The original map scan can be found here.
Ten litters of cubs were captured over the course of the last 10 years;
several litters were found dead or had been killed (in 1932, two small
dead tiger cubs were found at Naitsukhe). The total number of tiger
cubs that were taken alive is 40, while this number amounted to nine
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tigers for the capture of adult animals (and one adult tiger was found
dead). Out of the total number of litters captured, 4 litters were caught
along the upper reaches of the Iman River (along the Sonancha,
Ankheza, and Lyuchikheza Rivers), one litter (caught at Beitsa) came
from along the Armu River, 4 litters were taken from along the Tatibe
River and one litter each was taken near Vakhumbe and along the
Orochenka River.
Two sites that are favorite birthing sites of tigers, where they often
have their litters, are indicated. This forces the hunters to assume that
they are litters from one and the same tigress. Normally, the female
leads her cubs for 3 years, i.e., she gives birth only once in a
three-year period. Having lost her offspring, the tigress soon mates
again.
In recent years, before the organization of the nature reserve, when all
hunting lands had been developed to a considerable degree (and had
been frequently visited by people), the capture of tiger cubs (due to
the high value placed on the animals) became an attractive sort of
industry in which almost all the litters were caught. In the event of the
slaughter of adult females, the tiger cubs died of starvation, and
recruitment into the tiger population was almost non-existent. The
animals, having reached old age (the length of life for tigers is 40-50
years), had already become incapable of breeding, a fact, which can
probably also explain the existence of "bachelor" (i.e., unmated)
females at the present time. Another cause could also be the great
rarity of individual tigers, which do not encounter each other during
the mating period (the female's estrus period), a factor that has been
mentioned by Yu. A. Salmin (11). However, knowing the ability of
tigers to cover enormous areas over a short period of time and looking
at the records on the frequency of encounters with the tracks of tigers
of opposite sexes in sites continually inhabited by tigers (for example,
the upper reaches of the Iman River), it is difficult to agree with this
point of view.
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Stream and along the Beitsa River (a tributary of the Armu River), and
while descending along the latter river to the village of Laulyu. Yu. A.
Salmin, a zoologist from the nature reserve, having completed a
journey in that same year along the Armu and Nantsa Rivers, saw the
tracks of a solitary tiger (a male) along the middle course of the Nantsa
River and an old tiger trail that ran along the Armu River, above
Bailaza. In the summer of 1933, the tracks of a very large tiger were
observed in the upper reaches of the Kolumbe River by a zoological
expedition of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (with the
participation of K. K. Flerov and N. T. Zolotarev). In 1930, the tracks of
a small female, which had brought down a moose [or elk, Alces alces -
Transl.], were seen by the senior guard of the nature reserve, A. I.
Kuklin, along the upper reaches of the Ta-Nancha River (a tributary of
the Kolumbe River). K. G. Abramov and Yu. A. Salmin did not see even
a single tiger track while traveling over a route from Sidatun-Kolumbe-
Nancha-Ternei during the winter of 1934-1935. In 1924, A. A. Kuklin
observed the tracks of a tiger along the upper reaches of the Tun'sha-
Sankhobe Rivers (near Koshkin Stream).
In June and July of 1938, a group of workers from the nature reserve,
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which had ascended along the Armu and Nantsa Rivers up to their
headwaters, twice found the tracks of adult tigers (and they heard the
roar of a tiger on one occasion) along the Armu River above Bailaza
and along the Nantsa River at one day's journey from the mouth of that
river (A. I. Kuklin and A. A. Kozin). In February, 1938, according to
our observations, a tiger of average size (the width of the print of the
front paw was 15 cm) had ascended along the Nantsa River (a
tributary of the Armu River) from the mouth of the upper Sitsa River
up to a burned-over clearing in the forest located at a distance of 5 km
from the Sikhote-Alin, where the tiger hunted moose and lived for a
period of several days. On December 23, 1938, a tiger of average size
(the width of the prints of the front paws was 16 cm) ascended along
the Nantsa River (a tributary of the Armu River), into the uppermost
reaches of this river and descended to the Ta-Kunzha River (a tributary
of the Kema River). And, on January 1-2, 1939, the tiger continued its
descent, going in the reverse direction along the Nantsa River. At a
distance of 50 km from the headwaters of the Nantsa (above where
Sintsa Stream flows into it) there turned out to be many tracks made by
this tiger, old tiger prints, and one old print from a small tiger cub
(less than a year old). We observed the tracks of a small tiger at the
end of December 1938, at the headwaters of the Kolumbe River in
forest burns above extensive salt licks. On March 9, 1939, the tracks
of a tigress with two small cubs were discovered. The animals had
emerged from the area near the Orochenka River and had departed
toward Ankheza Stream. Up until this time, the tigress had lived near
the forks of the Syao-Sinancha River at a distance of 20 km from the
mouth of the river (F. A. Kozin). On May 18, 1939, F. A. Kozin, who
had arrived at the Syao-Nancha River by following a 97 km-long trail to
the salt lick "Mineral'nye Vody", [ i.e., "Mineral Waters" - Transl.],
discovered a moose calf there that had been eaten by a tiger at the end
winter. And not far away, he found two large piles of dung where
apparently the tiger cubs had defecated many times in one place. The
dimensions of the droppings were no greater than those of dogs. On
June 4, the tigress once again visited this site. On April 15, 1939, the
prints of a tigress with one small cub emerged from the left bank of the
Kolumbe River, crossed Zhdanov Stream, and went away toward the
Ta-Beicha River (I. Sereda, senior guard of the nature reserve). On
June 11, 1939, a large dead male tiger which had no external injuries
was found in an entirely fresh state of preservation along the Tatibe
River at a distance of 40 km from the village of Sibichi, and the tracks
of an animal of intermediate size (apparently a female) were observed
(A. A. Kozin).
The observations from March 9, May 18 and April 15, 1939, pertain to
one and the same litter. Probably, one of the tiger cubs had died in the
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period prior to April 15, 1939; the subsequent fate of the litter is
unknown to us. The tigress had a small footprint. Thus, we see that
from 1935 to 1940 tigers continuously inhabited the western slope of
the nature reserve along the upper reaches of the Iman River near the
Ankheza and Lyuchikheza Rivers and along the lower reaches of the
Kolumbe River as well as along the middle course of the Armu and
Tatibe Rivers. From there, they penetrated into the uppermost reaches
of the Armu River, and into the Nantsa and the Kolumbe Rivers up to
the Sikhote-Alin. And in the case of individual animals, tigers were
descending along the eastern slope, along the Sitsa-Sankhobe Rivers,
along the Kema River, and along Ta-Kunzha and Taratai Streams. In
1940, for the first time in 25 years, an entire family of tigers which had
abandoned the upper reaches of the Armu-Beitsa Rivers established
themselves in the Kema River area. At the present time they live along
the basins of the Kema and Belimbe Rivers while also visiting the
western slopes.
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Basing our estimate on the data produced (cf., appendix) and on our
acquaintance with the ecology of the animal, the dimensions of the
hunting territory of each individual tiger and the length of their
travels, and also taking into account the distribution of tigers in this
territory over the last 10 years, the status and the nature of the tiger
catching industry and the losses of tigers, we determined the total
number of tigers in the indicated area of Ussuri krai to be 10-12
individuals, and together with those killed in 1940, to be 12-14
individuals. The tigers were distributed in the following way (cf., the
diagram on page 25 of the Russian original) in individual sectors of this
area:
Kolumbe River:
1) an old, solitary female, which left the nature reserve for the
Syao-Sinancha River during the spring.
2) a male, which had departed, heading upstream at the beginning of
January. It is entirely possible that this is the very same tiger whose
tracks we saw at the end of February at the headwaters of the
Nantsa-Armu Rivers, and that he was the same one present on
February 16-18 in Kema.
Armu River - along the upper reaches of the Nantsa and Beitsa Rivers,
along Deupikhe Stream and along Chanza Stream.
Kema River: the upper reaches of the Ta-Kunzha and Taratai Rivers,
Pravaya Akhte Stream, Teniguza River, Izyubrevyi Stream, and the
Kema River at a distance of 27 km from Yasnaya Polyana.
3) an old male
4) an old female
5) a year-old cub with a male that was 3 years old (killed by V. E.
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Ta-Sinancha River:
8) a solitary female
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tiger in July 1940, and he saw the tiger itself near the village of
Khantun in September. On October 12, I saw the tracks of a tiger on a
trail at a distance of 12 km from the mouth of the Kolumbe River. Over
the course of the winter season of 1940-1941, journeys by a tiger in
the vicinity of the upper Iman River were discovered on three
occasions: along the Kolumbe River and the Syao-Sinancha and
Lyuchikheza Rivers. The visits of a tiger (probably a female) into the
upper reaches of the Sitsa-Sankhobe Rivers (along Yakova Stream up to
the 68-km mark on the path from Ternei-Sidatun) and near Medvezhii
Stream were observed in November 1940, and in February 1941.
The tiger preys upon: wild boar (Sus scrofa), Manchurian red deer
(Cervus elaphus xanthopygus - Transl.), sika deer (Cervus nippon -
Transl.), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus - Transl.), musk deer (Moschus
moschiferus - Transl.), hares (Lepus sp.- Transl.), bears (Ursus sp. -
Transl.), lynx (Felis lynx or Lynx lynx - Transl.), wolves, grouse, and
also fish. The main item in the diet of the Ussuri tiger is generally
considered to be wild boar (Sus scrofa - Transl.). Let us therefore
describe the spatial distribution and the population dynamics of this
species in the nature reserve.
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This map was produced for the translation based on the original map
using Free GIS GRASS. The original map scan can be found here.
The wild boar feeds mainly on pine nuts and acorns, but in years when
these crops are poor, it feeds on horsetails, winter sedges, roots of
lespedeza (bush clover, Lespedeza - Transl.), and shoots of shrubs, for
example, Actinidia (a winter food). In the summer, the wild boar also
eats plant roots, insects and their larvae, berries, fish and other animal
food. In accordance with the distribution of the types of vegetation,
the wild boar occupies mainly the lower reaches of rivers on the
eastern and western slopes [of the Sikhote-Alin Mountain Range -
Transl.], where it lives along the bare slopes of low mountains, which
are occupied by stands of Korean pine, and in Manchurian riparian
forest, which are densely covered with stands of horsetail, which are
more common on the western slopes. The spatial distribution of the
wild boar in the nature reserve changes depending on the sizes of the
crops of pine nuts and acorns.
Since the conditions of existence for the wild boar are different on the
western and eastern slopes, the biological state of the population also
varied. In one and the same year (as was the case in 1939-1940), the
wild boar living along the Iman River were thin during the middle of
winter, but along by the coast they were well-fed and fat. The
nutritional state determines the vital resistance of the herd and its
reproductive rate in the following season. The population size of the
herd of wild boar in the district that includes the nature reserve
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Bears, both the brown bear (Ursus arctos - Transl.) and the Asiatic
black bear (or Himalayan bear, Ursus thibetanus - Transl.), are very
numerous in the nature reserve. It is difficult to say to what degree
they become the prey of a tiger. In any event, an animal specializing
on this type of prey could find them at any time of the year and in the
necessary numbers.
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difficulty bit into the neck vertebrae at the back of the head. The skin
of the sole pad on one of the front paws of the female bear was torn off
and the digits were ripped up. Scratches from the claws of the tiger
remained on the trunk of the Korean pine in several places at the
opening of the den, scratches that had deeply cut into the bark and the
wood. A small trampled down area with traces of blood was also
present around the Korean pine tree. The tigress dragged the female
bear downward for a short distance. And she totally consumed the
bear over the course of several days, leaving the head, the front and
rear feet with the tubular bones (the caput of the bone was gnawed)
and shreds of fur. All the remaining parts, including the bones, the
intestines and the skin, were consumed. There were several piles of
excrement located nearby and also on the trail at a distance of 10-15 m
from the first site.
The bear cubs, which were yearlings and each of which weighed about
30 kg, were apparently killed while still in the den (the skulls were
bitten through), since the walls and the ceiling of the den were
splattered with blood. While still warm, the bear cubs were taken 30 m
down the slope, where they were placed untouched under a fir (Abies
sp. - Transl.) tree. No tracks were present along one side of the
carcass, since the tigress lay during all this time in front of the bear
den, spending not less than 8 days here (from February 6-13). The
female bear was small, not more than 80-100 kg. The tigress departed
toward the Kolumbe River, without once deviating from her path.
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The tiger hunts bears more frequently than one might suppose. On
November 9, 1940, the reserve guard, V. Spiridonov, observed that a
tiger, having coming upon the track of a bear while going downstream
along the Kema River (up to its tributary the Chima River), followed
after the bear. On three occasions, we happened to observe brown
bears wandering in deep snow during the middle of winter in those
districts in areas where tiger tracks had been observed. This might be
a coincidence, but it is also possible to suppose that the bear had been
driven out from its den by tigers when the tiger had for some reason
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On December 26, 1938, along the upper reaches of the Kolumbe River,
I encountered the fresh tracks of a medium-sized bear, which had
walked downstream over the ice. At precisely this location, there was
the track of a tiger which had walked there several days earlier and
which had left in the direction from which the bear had come (from the
Malaya Kolumbe River). In December 1940, a large bear was
wandering outside the nature reserve along the Chima River, the left
tributary, in snow what was already of considerable depth. A male
tiger passed through at the beginning of December, walking along the
Chima River (V. E. Spiridonov observed it). In January 1941, I
encountered the prints of a very large brown bear near the mouth of
the Ta-Kunzha River, a tributary of the Kema River; this animal, which
had accidentally come across a tiger family on the trail, abandoned this
path at a gallop. At another site, he came across the track of a male
tiger and also turned away from the tiger's track.
The tiger kills all types of prey almost instantaneously, biting through
the neck vertebrae at the back of the head with canine teeth that reach
6 cm in length. Only large bears, due to the fat layer at the nape of
their neck, cannot be immediately killed. The tiger does not follow the
tracks of animals for long periods, with the only exception to this being
herds of wild boar. His hunting path during which he sometimes
captures prey by directly encountering an animal or by stealing up to
it forms a more or less of a straight line. During the summer the tiger
lies in wait for animals, especially Manchurian deer, at backwaters of
streams where they come to forage, at a watering place, and, especially
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often, at salt licks. Tigers visit salt licks very frequently, both in
summer and winter, as do other predators - bears, wolves and lynx.
Since 1940, the tracks of tigers have often been observed at the
"larger" Kolumbe salt licks.
Having completely consumed the prey or having left part of the meat,
the animal heads through its hunting territory. At first, the tiger lies
down in the snow every 100-200 meters, leaving spots of blood in the
snow where the tiger's body has left an impression. For this reason, it
is possible to determine that the animal had recently left its kill. The
tiger frequently lies down on its abdomen, urinates, defecates,
scraping the snow and earth with its paw, and, having covered ten or
more kilometers in this way, the tiger lies down somewhere on an area
warmed by the sun that is not shaded by trees. At night, in contrast,
the tiger selects for its rest a dense thicket of spruce forest, where it is
several degrees warmer than in less dense stands of trees. After
walking over the ice of a river, the tiger selects for a brief rest a place
on the shore in a thicket that has a clear field of view of the river over a
great distance, and he lies there on his abdomen, having stretched out
his forepaws in front of him. Tigers, both adults and young, especially
love to warm themselves in the sun for which purpose they frequently
select open steep and rocky slopes covered by post-fire regrowth.
After a rest which lasts 12 hours or more, the animal once again sets
out on a route and only interrupts it from time to time by lying or
rolling in the snow.
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In the nature reserve, where the animals are not disturbed, they most
readily make their way along the ice of streams, especially those
covered over with an ice crust. But, if the snow on the ice is deep, the
animal follows the shore under the shelter of conifers, since there is
less snow and it is easier to walk there. The tiger continues on this
route with periodic rests (but also sometimes without stopping) for
several days and covers many tens of kilometers. Over the course of 24
hours, the tiger covers a distance of 20-50 km, and, according to N. A.
Baikov (6), even 100 km. And the entire winter life of a solitary tiger
takes place as a sequence of long journeys, each of several days
duration, in devouring the prey that it has captured and in rest near
the kill over the course of 5-10 days, depending on the size of the
prey.
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An adult male, which had inhabited the Kema River region during the
winter of 1941, was found walking along the Chima River, a left
tributary of the Kema River, at a distance of 24 km from the sea
(outside the nature reserve). Then he headed upstream along the
Kema River and its tributary, the Ta-Kunzha River, which flows into the
Kema River at a distance of 50 km from the sea. Along the Ta-Kunzha
River and without making any stops, this animal headed upwards along
Ivanyutin Stream in the direction of the Sikhote-Alin. Several days
later, this very same tiger descended from the right side of the Kema
River along Syao-Kunzha River. In order to have turned up there, the
tiger had to have walked along the western slopes, traversed a sector
of the basins of the Armu and Kolumbe Rivers, once again crossed over
the Sikhote-Alin, descended along the Belimbe River and from there he
still needed to walk along the Syao-Kunzha River to the Kema River.
After this, he headed upstream along the Kema River and along the
Sitsa-Slantsevaya River which flows into the Kema River (on the right)
at a distance of 80 km from the sea, and he then crossed over the
Sikhote-Alin Mountains once again. On January 20, he again
descended along the Kema River on the right via Kuimo Stream, a
tributary of the Syao-Kunzha River, also from the basin of the Belimbe
River. From there, he again headed upstream along the Kema River
covering a distance of 80 km, then the tiger went farther - probably to
the upper reaches of this river, and five days later, on January 29, he
descended along the Kema River down below Pravaya Akhte Stream.
At this location, the tiger disappeared from the area covered by my
investigations. Over a time period lasting approximately two months,
this animal traveled all over an enormous region of taiga on both slopes
of the Sikhote Alin mountains, while still mainly inhabiting the basin of
the Kema River. This tiger covered a thousand or more kilometers over
an area of dimensions 80 km x 40 km (and possibly even a greater
distance).
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During his travels, the tiger does not walk only during the night but
also travels during the daytime, and he passes fresh tracks of wild
ungulates or accidentally encountered animals without paying any
attention to them. It may be assumed that tigers live a more settled life
during the summer, not completing such enormous journeys. But
along the eastern slopes during the summer and autumn of 1940,
tracks of these animals were encountered at sites that are very distant
from each other: in the upper course of the Kema River, at the forks of
Ta-Kunzha Stream, at a distance of 22 km from the Kema River, along
the upper reaches and the middle course of the Belimbe River and in
the lower reaches of the Kema and Belimbe Rivers, in total at distances
of 10-20 km from the sea. The number of tigers in the nature reserve is
not so great that it can be thought that different animals were present
at all these sites.
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All the tigers inhabiting the nature reserve periodically go outside its
boundaries. After walking over a given part of his hunting territory,
the tiger once again moves along this same route after a certain period
of time, either in the same direction or in a direction opposite to that of
his earlier tracks. The "bagging" of a tiger at sites where gun traps
have been set up, which is now a forbidden method, was based on this
characteristic of the animal.
Tigers walk with equal readiness in Korean pine forests and spruce
forests, and they also walk along open, burned-over forest areas, which
are occupied by deciduous scrub forest or oak forests with hazelnuts
(or filberts, Corylus sp. - Transl.). They are attracted to such areas by
the large numbers of Manchurian deer and moose that live there.
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are even left alone for two weeks. If the tiger cubs are small, the
mother does not transport them from place to place, but rather she
brings a freshly killed prey animal to the site of a prey animal that she
had brought down at an earlier time. Near Ankheza Stream, F. A.
Kozin saw that the mother brought a roe deer and a wild piglet to the
cubs left near a Manchurian deer that she had killed before.
The cubs trample down an extensive area near the meat, playing near
the prey and gnawing around twigs and shoots during play. During
this time, the tigress roams in search of new prey, completing long
hunting journeys. If she does not succeed in getting meat over a long
time period, which in the presence of an abundance of animals in the
Ussuri taiga and with the exceptional hunting abilities of the tiger
probably occurs very rarely, then the cubs, having consumed the prey
that had been brought, starve and even begin to gnaw on pieces of
rotten wood. In the presence of a large number of animals, especially
of wild boar, tigers do not need to complete prolonged journeys, and
the family can live for a long time within a limited area. Tiger hunters
usually discover a litter when the mother leads the cubs to a new kill.
Three-year-old cubs probably follow their mother all the time,
accompanying her during hunts. In the case of younger offspring, the
tiger catchers search by following the track of the female, for which
purpose they walk along her track or follow on her heels until they find
the offspring or until it becomes clear that the tigress is a solitary
animal (i.e., one without cubs). Sometimes this requires as long as 8
days of uninterrupted walking.
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Photo 3. The tracks of a tiger, which had dragged the carcass of a wild
boar through the snow (photo by the author)
The litter lived for a long time at a single location within a limited area
and, based on their tracks in the snow, I was able to reconstruct their
life over the period of time from December 24, 1940 to January 15,
1941. Apparently, the tigress had also given birth to the cubs
somewhere nearby, since in June 1940 the reserve guards V. E.
Spiridonov and P. L. Kosyuk had already heard the thrice-repeated
roar of a tiger (which was somewhat reminiscent of the roar of a
Manchurian deer bull, only without the 'razvod' [dilution of the sound -
Trans.] at the end) at a distance of 5 km from this site. Possibly, the
tigress had expressed her dissatisfaction with the presence of people
near her lair. Over the course of the spring and autumn of 1940 a
small tiger remained near this site during this entire period. And
prints which were apparently those of this tigress were seen by the
reserve guards on November 8 and December 11, 1940 at a distance of
30-60 m from the barracks of 'Dal'lesa' [the Far Eastern Forestry
Industry - Trans.] serving as a cordon for the nature reserve.
In this sector, the right bank of the Kema River is occupied by Korean
pine-deciduous riparian forest, former logging areas, and the slopes of
the low coniform hills are covered with more or less pure stands of
Korean pine. To the right flows a large tributary with a spread-out
basin that is approximately 20 km in length. A little lower down, also
to the right, flow two small streams: Kabanii and Mud'e. At the mouth
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The greater part of the time, the litter stayed on the right bank of the
Syao-Kunzha River at the foot of a hill in Korean pine stands and only
one kilometer from the barracks. The tigress was cautious and did not
go far away from her offspring. But the tigress approached the houses
in order to verify whether or not there were people there (there were
none in fact from December 20, 1940 to January 9, 1941, when I and a
guard from the reserve arrived in this area). Having left the cubs
behind, the mother killed a three-year-old wild boar male at a distance
of several hundred meters from the cubs and then led the cubs to it,
the cubs following her in single file but taking steps that were half as
long as those of the mother and drawing the snow by their side. The
dimensions of the tracks of these tiger cubs were (in cm): width of the
footprint--9.5, length of the footprint-10, width of the "heel" (i.e., the
big sole pad)--7.5, length of the heel--7. The dimensions of the
footprints of the female: width--12, length--13, width of the heel--10,
length of the heel--9. The claws of the cubs were much thinner than
those of the mother.
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The wild boar had been brought down several tens of meters from the
banks of the unfrozen Syao-Kunzha River in dense thickets of cherry
(Padus - Transl.) and shrubs piled up with slash. Here there was a
large trampled down area which was completely invisible even at a
distance of several meters to one side of this site. Paths led from it to
both water and to a close cavity in the ground which seemed as though
purposely barricaded with tree trunks. Here the tiger cubs played.
Nearby stood a tree that had been scratched by the claws of the tiger
cubs. The tigress caught a piglet at a distance of two hundred meters
from the Syao-Kunzha River and carried it in her teeth to the cubs,
while the piglet's carcass from time to time drew an impression in the
snow to one side of the tigress' track. No tracks could be found to any
side of the path, and it was only possible to discover the path along
which the litter had been led to the meat from a logging trail by which
we walked. The family then went for a walk, having consumed
everything there [only the four feet with the skin, the bones and a
small quantity of meat, the skull with the snout, part of the skin, and
part of the spinal column and ribs of the wild boar and the rear feet of
the piglet (bones and hooves with skin) remained].
The tigress led her litter along the left bank of the Kema River where
they ascended a steep southern slope which was overgrown with thin
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deciduous forests and oak forests (on an old burn). Here the entire
family rested in the sun, frequently dispersing along various paths.
The tiger cubs played, wrestled, rolled along a steep slope in the snow,
ran up and down and later on descended again toward the Kema River
below the mouth of the Syao-Kunzha River. There they rested on the
riverbank in thickets of shrubs and probably suckled from their
mother. Right there and from the walking, the tigress caught a roe
deer, and the cubs ate it with only two small scraps of skin left over.
The tiger cubs together with their mother walked a great deal along
the Kema River and played along the riverbank at only 400 m from the
huts. Then they walked downstream for two kilometers along the
floodplain of the Kema River, for three kilometers along a hill-side and
along the floodplain of the left bank, and after reaching the rocks near
a waterfall they returned. About January 6-7, the tigress brought
down a red deer bull again quite close to the huts, but she was now
already on the right side of the Kema River in a Korean pine forest on
an old logged site. The bull had been killed on a bare open site and
then dragged over a distance of more than ten meters to some
windfallen trees. Soil on which the tigress had lain was seen under
their trunks. There were very many prints around it, and at a distance
of 15 m from this site there was a large heavily tramped area hidden by
thickets and by the trunks of fallen trees, a lot of twigs and branches of
which gnawed by the cubs. Here the tiger cubs played, and the
mother fed them on milk. The cubs had also bitten through branches
that were found near the site where the Manchurian red deer had been
killed on January 9th. When I found the Manchurian deer and the
tigers located near it, the carcass had been approximately
half-consumed. The tigers came once again during the night, and on
the morning of January 10 I examined the carcass in detail. Only the
head, the four feet with gnawed bones, one rear haunch, and part of
the spine (with the ribs on one side) remained of the Manchurian deer.
All the rest had been eaten. To one side lay a gnawed shoulder blade,
and at 5-6 meters apart there were three piles of excrement, judging
by their size, of the female. The Manchurian deer had been killed at a
distance of 40-50 m from the road and at a distance of 400 m from the
depot at the Syao-Kunzha River. The offspring which had been scared
away from the remnants of the Manchurian deer, headed toward a hill
located between Mud'e and Kuimo Streams. The most remarkable
aspect was the fact that several small herds of wild boar, and also
solitary wild boar, and several Manchurian deer small herds lived there
in the immediate vicinity of the offspring. And yet the tigress did not
frighten these prey animals away as she hunted, bringing down the
animals at a distance of not more than 500 m from the offspring that
she had left behind.
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Apparently, the tigress carried out night hunts with exceptional ease
and without making any noise. Thus, I saw quietly foraging pigs and
piglets at half a kilometer from the litter of tiger cubs. The offspring
repeated in miniature form the actions of a solitary adult tiger. After
devouring the prey over the course of several days, they completed a
walk of several kilometers in length following their mother through
burned-over forest areas and walking along steep southern slopes on
the left bank of the Kema River. And then they once again returned
along the right bank of the Kema River to the Korean pine forest under
the hill below the mouth of the Syao-Kunzha River. Based on the
example of this litter of offspring, I was able to realize how difficult it is
to discover a tigress with cubs in the enormous territory of the nature
reserve, in the abundance of ungulates, as from December 24, 1940 to
January 15, 1941, they inhabited an area of less than 5 km x 3 km
without leaving any footprints outside this area. On February 9, the
offspring were discovered upstream along the Syao-Kunzha River at a
distance of 12 km from the site where they had originally been
discovered. A tigress with older cubs, naturally, travels for a greater
distance.
Tigers do not always travel and hunt as solitary animals. We were able
to observe three young tigers that were traveling together in 1940
along the Kema River. According to the tiger catcher, A. G. Kozin, at
an earlier time, when tigers were numerous in the Far East, a group of
tigers consisting of 7-13 individuals apparently comprised of several
litters that had joined together was seen near the Daubikhe River.
Tigers catch hazel grouse, just as lynx do, by stealing up to them and
seizing them in the holes in the snow where the grouse spend the
night.
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Solitary tigers are always fatter, with a thick layer of fat, which is laid
down not along the backbone, but on the belly and in the groin
regions, in the abdominal cavity of the body and as a greater thickness
of the muscles. The melted fat of a tiger is completely white with a
weak, specifically "tiger" smell, and is similar in its melting
temperature to pork fat.
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with the Tungus hunter Dyachkovskii, hunted tigers with the aid of
mounted-up latch cross-bows. And over a short period of time, five
tigers fell to their arrows, four of these tigers then died from their
wounds. Apparently, two of these animals were later eaten by other
tigers, and not one of them was captured alive. From 1910 to 1915,
the number of tigers on the eastern slopes rapidly decreased, and,
beginning in 1916, they were practically absent there. During this
time, four tigers were killed along the Sankhobe River (in addition to
those that had died from arrows): one of them was a male killed by I. S.
Kuklin upstream along the Sitsa River, one was killed by local
inhabitants at a distance of 6 km from the sea, and one was killed by
the hunters Polchkov and R. Derevnin along the Tun'sha River at the
Fata River. The last-mentioned of these hunters had his arm bitten by
the wounded tiger, for which he received the nickname "the tiger's
leftovers", a name that he has kept up to the present time.
The last tiger in Ternei was killed in 1915 near the confluence of the
Sitsa and Tun'sha Rivers by Dyachkovskii, I. G. Labetskii, and I. S.
Kuklin. This was an adult male which was extremely emaciated, with
shriveled musculature and a stomach and intestines that were
completely empty. Approaching traps and the hunting cabins, he then
devoured kolinsky (Siberian weasels, Mustela sibirica - Transl.), and
attempted to capture dogs.
In 1914, a tigress was killed and small cubs were captured along the
Takema River; they killed tigers in Belimbe. The tigers living to the
south and to the north of the present territory of the nature reserve
were killed, but the number of tigers killed was not big enough to lead
to the extirpation of the tiger species which was rather numerous in
Primor'ye during those years.
Due to the exceptional depth of the snow cover (100-150 cm), the year
1914 was critical in the life of ungulates in the central Sikhote-Alin
Mts., especially for the wild boar and Manchurian deer, which are the
main items in the diet of the tiger. Almost all wild boar perished, and
during the 3-4 years following this year of deep snow this animal was
present in extremely low in numbers. Only a few of the strongest
individuals survived, having devoured their own kind (their younger
and weaker conspecifics) during the snowy winter. Apparently, the
Manchurian deer did not themselves perish, but their numbers were
extremely reduced by hunters who had killed many animals only for the
sake of their tails and the skins of the unborn fawns (embryos). Thus,
approximately 1,500 Manchurian deer were killed in Dzhigit. In
Tavaiza, near Ternei, only two hunters, Sedymov and I. Sakhalinets,
alone killed 200 Manchurian deer and captured 16 live adult
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The rapid decrease in the species comprising the tiger's diet after
1914 could not fail to have a negative effect on the tiger's continued
inhabiting of this region and on its later disappearance. D'yachkov's
and Labetskii's killing of an extremely emaciated adult animal in 1915,
which weighed only 70 (!) kg (in comparison with a normal weight of
200-250 kg) should possibly also be linked to the snowy year of 1914.
In that same year (1915), I. G. Labetskii found some bodies of
emaciated lynx in the forest.
After the restoration of the numbers of wild ungulates, the fur industry
development on the maritime side of the Sikhote-Alin prevented the
settlement of the tigers there, their number had dropped. But it
cannot be doubted that tigers disappeared on the eastern slopes prior
to the time that these slopes were developed by the industry. Since
1916, tigers had completely disappeared as permanent inhabitants on
the maritime side. Tigers only now and then wandered into the
uppermost reaches of the streams that flow into the Sea of Japan from
the western slopes where tigers have lived up to the present time.
Thus, a tiger was observed in 1924 along the upper reaches of the
Tun'sha River (a tributary of the Sankhobe River) along Koshkin
Stream, and one was seen in 1929 in Takme along the Taratai River
and the Teniguza River. Right up until the organization of the nature
reserve, entries of a solitary tiger into the upper reaches of the
Sankhobe-Sitsa Rivers were observed almost every winter, a
phenomenon that was also observed in 1935-36 and in 1936-1937; and
a tiger entered this region at the beginning of November 1940, and in
February 1941.
So what are reasons for that the tigers had abandoned the eastern
slopes of the Sikhote-Alin but continued to inhabit the western slopes?
It is necessary to seek an explanation in the characteristics of the
hunting areas and in the degree to which they have been developed.
The eastern slopes are small in extent. The coastal zone is only
separated from the divide by a distance of not more than 60-80 km. It
has favorable conditions for transport (trails for pack animals, more
frequent winters with little snow, rivers covered with frozen pools and
little snow). Most importantly, there grow Korean pine forests of high
quality which are the main hunting areas for squirrel and wild boar
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The wide zone of spruce forests, which is the most remote and out-of-
the-way part of the taiga, was visited only by sable hunters and only in
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The winter conditions along the eastern slope are especially favorable
for ungulates. This is explained by the abundant amount of food
produced by the vegetation (within the boundaries of the nature
reserve) and in general by the entire ecological complex. Therefore,
the population density on the eastern slopes of the main species of
ungulates--wild boar and Manchurian deer--is significantly higher than
on the western slopes. This, naturally, also created the most favorable
conditions for the tiger.
The orographic and climatic conditions of the two slopes in the central
Sikhote-Alin are also dissimilar. Higher and steeper mountains and a
warmer winter with a lower average depth of snow cover are
characteristic of the maritime side (in contrast with conditions on the
western slopes).
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The depth of the snow cover in the conifer middle-dense stands toward
the end of winter in 1940 were the following:
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On the entire eastern slope, the snow depth was not more than 10 cm
in the winter of 1939, with the south-facing slopes being completely
bare (excluding a zone located 5-10 km to the east of the Sikhote-Alin,
where the depth of the snow cover fluctuated from 60-40 cm to 15 cm
while going down the slope). And over the course of the entire winter,
forest fires were observed near the coast. In comparison with the Iman
side, extremely favorable conditions for wintering for the wild boar
arose on the eastern side, but we did not observe any migrations of
wild boar.
While wintering each year since 1937 in a remote part of the nature
reserve (in the upper reaches of the western slopes), we had the
opportunity to observe how the tigers successfully expanded their local
range and how they took over lands that they had not occupied earlier
in the year after the establishment of peace and quiet and after the
disappearance of people from the territory of the nature reserve. In
February 1938, I saw the tracks of a solitary tiger which had been
hunting moose at a distance of only several kilometers from the
mountain pass on the eastern slope in the upper reaches of the Nantsa
River (a tributary of the Armu River), where according to local hunters
tiger prints had not been seen for a long time--for over 20 years. In
December 1938, we once again succeeded in observing the prints of a
solitary tiger along the upper reaches of the Nantsa River. On this
occasion, the tiger descended (over a five-day period) along the upper
reaches of the Ta-Kunzha River, a tributary of the Kema River, and
once again departed going downward along the Nantsa River. At the
same time, I encountered the prints of a solitary tiger along the upper
reaches of the Kolumbe River, where according to local hunters tigers
had been absent during the winter for a long time. In January 1939, I
discovered the footprints of a tigress with cubs that had been born in
1938 along the upper reaches of the Nantsa River at a distance of
35-40 km from the Sikhote-Alin. In February 1940, a group of tigers
which included a female, her three-year-old offspring and a male,
appeared along the middle course of the Kema River. They had arrived
from the basin of the Armu River along the Nantsa River and
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Reserve guards from the Kema sector did not see any tiger tracks on a
route from Yasnaya Polyana up to the coast on December 15, 1939; on
a route from Kema along Tantsa Stream to the upper reaches of the
Nantsa River (a tributary of the Armu River) on January 22; neither on
having been stationed at a depot of Dal'les [the Far Eastern State
Forestry Industry - Transl.] at the mouth of the Syao-Kunzha River
(located 46 km from the sea) up until January 26, 1940. Having
arrived on February 12th on the Syao-Kunzha River, they went
upstream toward Yasnaya Polyana on February 16th and saw the first
tiger prints at a distance of 55 km from the sea, above the "larger"
waterfall on the Kema River. Here a young female tiger had descended
along the ice and then reversed her path. Higher up on the ice, there
were many prints of walking, running and leaping, and the impressions
of the bodies of three animals that had rolled in the snow, and that had
been walking together. Continuing farther upstream along the Kema
River on sledges, somewhat below the Teniguza, along the left bank of
the Kema River, near Izyubrinii Stream, the guards observed two
animals which they took to be wolves that were leaping as they ran
along a steep hillside that was free of snow. Having left the horses on
the ice, the guards ran off toward the mouth of Izyubrinii Stream
(outside the nature reserve), the valley of which at this place is a
narrow canyon between steep slopes. To his surprise, V. E. Spiridonov
saw a tiger which was calmly examining him from a hillside at a
distance of 12 m from him. V. E. Spiridonov let off two shots from an
Enfield 303 rifle to bring the tiger down and killed the animal by
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These were the same tigers whose prints were observed at the
waterfall; two of them were smaller, and the larger one was the one
killed. These were either three young three-year-olds or one of them
was an adult tigress, since later they followed the tracks made by the
sledge on which the tiger that had been killed was transported. These
three animals had descended along the Pravaya Akhte Stream, walking
onto the ice of the Kema River near the burn on spur between Pravaya
Akhte and Teniguza Streams.
In February 1940, six tigers appeared all at once along the middle
course of the Kema River (as determined by the guard, V. E.
Spiridonov); one of these tigers was later killed. In March 1940, the
solitary travels of a small tiger across the Kema River were noted along
the Kema River below the nature reserve and along the borders of the
reserve (at a distance of 27-40 km from the sea). But beginning from
the "larger" waterfall, no fresh tracks were present over the course of
54 km. In April, tiger prints were observed at the depot at
Syao-Kunzha, and over the course of the summer tiger tracks were
observed along the Kema River at "Vorota" [i.e., the "Gates" - Transl.]
and at Cheitlinova pad' [pad' - a forested river valley - Transl.], only at
10-12 km from the sea. The guard V. E. Spiridonov observed the
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In the summer the tigers expanded their local range here. But during
the autumn and winter seasons, they retreated into the depths of the
refuge, almost never emerging beyond the boundaries of the nature
reserve, the border of which runs here at distances of 36-44 km from
the sea (i.e., exactly along the zone of Korean pine forests).
In the upper reaches of the Iman River, tigers live in the immediate
vicinity of people. Here the large village of Sidatun is located opposite
the mouth of the Kolumbe River. The village of Verkhnii Khutor
(Khantun) existed until 1937, being located at a distance of 15 km
upstream along the Iman River, where now are several vacant houses
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Tigers often cross roads, even during the daytime, or they walk along
sledge roads, or, in summer, along trails. In the summer season of
1939 one tiger was twice encountered on a trail near "Soplivaya
Sopka", and it was observed at a distance of 20-30 m, in one case by
the junior guard of the nature reserve, F. A. Kozin, and the second time
by the director of the zone, Comrade Didyuk. These animals had
apparently already become habituated to the proximity of inhabited
sites and to people, and did not pay any attention to them.
The tigers that had appeared along the eastern slopes in the Kema
River region very often stayed near a old depot of Dal'les located near
the Syao-Kunzha River and even approached to within 60-30 m of the
house where our naturalists lived. In their absence, the tigers even
looked in the windows. They went past the old huts along the
Ta-Kunzha River, which the animals had generally ceased to fear (and
Manchurian deer even entered such huts). On January 24, 1941, a
male tiger boldly walked along the ice past some structures built in
1938 on the shore of the Kema River at Yasnaya Polyana. And on
January 29, 1941, when I myself lived there, he merely circled it at a
distance of only 100 m from the shore. Finally, a family of tigers on
which I conducted observations lived only half a kilometer from the
inhabited huts. In summer and autumn, horses owned by a guard
grazed near these huts. And the tigers which were present in the
immediate vicinity did not bother them, although, for example, snow
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During the course of at least two decades, there has not been a single
case of an attack by a tiger on anyone living along the Iman River, as
was also true for the entire Far East region. Attempts by tigers to prey
on domestic livestock were extremely rare and occurred only in places
that were both densely populated and lacking in wild ungulates.
Attacks by tigers on people belong to the realm of history at the
present time, since the individuals from present population of tigers
frequently come into contact with humans and are very cautious,
avoiding direct encounters. And in earlier years such situations had
been extremely rare as well and taken place only during massive
migrations of these animals from Eastern Manchuria into the Ussuri
krai, when tigers passed by densely populated areas that had few wild
animals. Such was the case in 1913, when, according to A. G. Kozin,
there was a "nomadic tiger that had come from China lands". V. K.
Arseniev presented evidence of migration of tigers and indicated is
direction: "According to him (i.e., Dersu), tigers moved from the west
to the east during two successive winters twenty years ago (in 1886 -L.
K.). All tiger prints went in the same direction. According to him, this
was a massive movement of tigers from the Sungarii province into the
Sikhote-Alin". But the tiger perhaps fears man to the least degree of
all large terrestrial mammals of our fauna, and not exposing itself to
danger, sometimes behaves very boldly, but not dangerously for
humans.
Even during the capture of tiger cubs, when the offspring are taken
away from their mother, the tigress does not attack a man. Not a
single case of such an unfortunate incident has occurred during the
capture of cubs in the Russian Far East since 1911, despite the fact
that hundreds of litters have been captured during this period.
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The sole domestic animals perishing here from the teeth of a tiger are
hunting dogs. Only a few dogs will go after a tiger, namely only those
belonging to a good breed of dog (a husky, or laika). Having come
upon the fresh prints of a tiger, such a dog will chase after it just as it
would after the tracks of any other animal. The tiger, which possesses
very acute senses of hearing, smell, and sight, hears the approach of a
dog from a great distance and lies down. The approaching dog is
instantaneously seized by the tiger, which makes an unexpected spring
and kills it. During such a situation, good hunting dogs sometimes
perish in the presence of the hunters. Thus, a very good male dog and
a bitch belonging to A. A. and F. A. Kozin perished in December 1938
at the Syao-Sinancha River. And a male dog that belonged to me (and
which I had brought from Western Siberia) perished in December 1939
along the upper reaches of the Armu-Nantsa Rivers.
In earlier times, when tigers were more numerous in the Far East, the
well-known hunter and tiger catcher, A. G. Kozin, killed several adult
tigers while hunting with dogs. In general, however, adult animals are
mainly "bagged" with a gun trap [a cocked rifle attached to a trip wire
-Transl.], as was also mentioned by Yu. A. Salmin. Sometimes, usually
at night, tigers prey on dogs taken directly from a hunting camp or
near cabins. One tigress, after her cubs had been taken from her "near
Chup" behaved very boldly during the autumn of 1936 along the upper
reaches of the Iman River. At first, the tigress had been aroused
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Photo 4. The prints of a tiger and the prints of a wolf in the snow. Kema
River, 1941. (photo by the author)
A tigress having lost her cubs (especially when the cubs are very
young), follows people carrying them. But, as indicated above, many
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years of experience with this type of hunt did not record even a single
unfortunate incident. Two-year-old or older tiger cubs are abandoned
immediately, and after they have been captured, the tigress does not
return.
During the winter of 1941, along with the tigers that were living in the
areas near the Kema and Belimbe Rivers, I also encountered wolves,
though only a few. Both species were so few in number in comparison
with the enormous area that they might almost never encounter each
other. I saw the tracks of a wolf that had followed upon the heels of a
tiger (cf., page 40 in the Russian original), but I nowhere observed a
hunt by the tiger on the wolf. Wolves often passed over the ice of the
Kema River near the site where a tiger family was located.
The bear also serves as food for the tiger, but at the same time, it is
necessary to note the appearance of a distinctive sort of
commensalism. Thus, A. A. and F. A. Kozin observed during autumn,
when snow was already on the ground, the almost uninterrupted
pursuit of a small tigress by a very large bear, which took place above
the Iman River. This animal, apparently, finished off the remains of the
tigress's prey. Having observed the movements of the tigress, the
guards two days later saw the impressions of the paws of this same
animal which had followed after the tigress. According to an Iman
tiger catcher, Trifon Kalugin, such cases are not uncommon. A large
bear, having found small tiger cubs at a kill in the absence of their
mother, sometimes kills them.
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Table 2.
Skin (kg) 10 - -
Fat (kg) 30 - -
Internal Organs 10 - -
(kg)
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Height at the 85 - -
Shoulders (cm)
Circumference 30 - -
of the wrist (cm)
Width of the 15 - -
Front Paw (cm)
Distance 55 59 54
between the
Orbits (mm)
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Upper Canine
[from the rear
part of the
alveolus] (mm)
Length of the 42 44 36
Lower Canine
[from the rear
part of the
alveolus] (mm)
Length of the 65 64 64
Upper Row of
Teeth (mm)
Length of the 60 57 47
Lower Row of
Teeth (mm)
I present the dimensions of three tigers (Table 2) from the Far East
from the collection of Moscow University's museum (cf., page 41 of the
Russian original).
The tiger specimen that I obtained was killed by the senior guard of
the Ternei section of the nature reserve, V. E. Spiridonov, along the
Kema River at distance of 60 km from the sea on February 16, 1940.
Unfortunately, I found the specimen to have already been skinned, and
the carcass to have been chopped up. Therefore, it was almost
impossible to carry out measurements and other types of
investigations. The animal that had been killed was one of three young
tigers that had been traveling together and which were apparently
three-years-old. Two of them were female and significantly smaller in
size (and with a small footprint), but the tiger that had been killed was
a male.
In the case of the male (cf. Table 2), the teeth were small and white.
The very small head (and, correspondingly, the small dimensions of the
skull) draws attention to itself in comparison with the large size of the
body. This apparently is a feature of the age-associated variation of
tigers at that age (3-4 years old). With regard to body size and to the
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The tiger cubs from the litter from which a male had been killed had
probably only been traveling without the mother for one year. And
possibly they had not yet caught any prey by themselves, since an old
female with a small cub was living not far away. The fur was relatively
short, though somewhat shaggy, being 50 mm in length along the
spine and 30 mm along the sides, of an ochreous-yellow color that was
somewhat more intense along the spine and paler on the belly. On a
yellow background, there were laid down narrow and sparse,
matt-black or black-brown stripes, which numbered about 15 stripes
along each side. Several of these stripes were doubled, with many of
the stripes not reaching the middle area of the animal's side. A longer,
dingy-white fur with dark-gray stripes was present on the abdomen.
There were 9 incomplete rings on the tail with a gray spot on a dark
background on the dorsal part of the tail.
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Photo 5. The skin of a three-year-old male Ussuri tiger, which had been
killed by the senior guard of the Ternei section of the nature reserve,
V. E. Spiridonov, on 16.II.1940 along the Kema River at a distance of
60 km from the sea. The skin had been brought by L. G. Kaplanov to
Moscow in 1941. (photo by D. M. Vyazhlinskii)
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probably only an extreme type that falls within the range of individual
variability of the Amur tiger (Panthera (Punthera) tigris longipilis
Fitzinger).
1) Males:
2) Females:
3) Cubs:
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Conclusions:
Adult animals, although they too are rare, are also killed, and so the
population which would be insignificant in numbers even without this
factor decreases still further. In the winter of 1939-1940, 3 tigers
were killed throughout the entire Far East (in the central Sikhote-Alin),
and two tiger cubs were captured (in Birobidzhan). Other two
tigresses were killed in Birobidzhan in the winter of 1940-1941.
While it is true that the annual value of the food eaten by an adult tiger
(the meat of wild animals) reaches up to 12,000 rubles for dressed
meat, and for a tiger cub (up to one year in age) more than 5,000
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the ban should be in effect should be such that young tigers that are
present now or that might be present in the future reach sexual
maturity and produce offspring in their turn. Upon the reaching of
sexual maturity by the tigers (at an age of 4-5 years), the ban should
be set at 5-7 years for the entire Far East.
Adult animals can, without any effort, be killed by "gun traps" (cocked
rifles attached to trip wires) set up on the river ice or at cliffs near
waterfalls, and this possibility has already been taken into account by
local hunters. A litter of cubs being located at the very borders of the
nature reserve is subjected to the danger of being captured or killed
whenever the cubs go beyond the boundaries of the nature reserve.
The number of adult tigers that are able to live in the nature reserve
without negatively affecting the natural rate of increase and
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For the capture of animals, we should not employ people of all sorts,
but should perhaps form a permanent brigade of tiger catchers
comprised of naturalists and scientific workers from the nature reserve
as well as experienced hunters, knowledgeable about the techniques
and the practical aspects of the matter, and also versed in the way of
life of tigers (as well as being knowledgeable about the nature reserve
and the locations of birthing sites of the animals).
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Appendix
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tracks of two individuals--a male and a female, which lived during the
first half of the winter in the district that includes the Ahkheza and
Lyuchkheza Rivers, along the lower tributaries of the Kolumbe River
(especially the Syao-Nancha and Ta-Nancha Rivers) and the left
tributary of the Iman, the Syao-Sinancha River. Along the route from
Ternei to Sidatun, F. A. Kozin and V. K. Yarovoi observed the tracks of
three individuals along a length of the trail from the 82-km mark to the
mouth of the Kolumbe River between 21 and 23.XII. 1939: a small
female, a large male which was injured, probably in his rear foot, since
he could not keep up pace with it and placed it somewhat obliquely
(such tracks had not been observed earlier in this district), and an
animal of undetermined sex.
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2) 2.I. 1940. Fresh prints of the very same tigress crossed the Kolumbe
River below Nizhnii Sklad ("Lower Depot") from the right side to the
left (into the nature reserve).
4) On about 8.I. 1940, the very same female emerged onto the trail at
the 94-km mark from the right bank of the Syao-Nancha River, walked
along the trail, then on the ice and across inlets in the upper reaches
of the right fork of the Syao-Nancha River, and crossed over into the
Ta-Nancha River at the 78-km mark on the Ternei-Sidatun trail. She
crossed at the headwaters of Ta-Nancha River and headed off toward
the Nancha River. For the entire winter, she lived in the Kolumbe
River area and along the Nancha River, mainly between 35 and 45 km
stretch of the Kolumbe River (sometimes reaching up to the 75 km).
And, by 21.II.1940, she had emerged at the Syao-Nancha River (on the
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right side) near the 111-km mark of the trail; she departed along the
left fork of the Syao-Nancha River and then went across the Iman River
from the nature reserve to the Syao-Sinancha River, where she also
spent time in the district located at a distance of 10 km from the mouth
of the river until my departure from the Iman River area on
22.III.1940.
9) Summer 1940, a party exploring for gold along the Kolumbe River
saw the tracks of a tiger in the district located 40-50 km from the
mouths of the Nantsa and Beitsa Rivers.
10) 12.XII 1940, the tracks of a medium-sized tiger, which had been
walking downhill, were observed at a distance of 12 km from Sidatun
on the Ternei-Sidatun trail (L. G. Kaplanov).
11) Over the course of the summer of 1940, one tigress stayed in the
district of Verkhnii Khutor during the entire period, and, apparently, a
different tigress with small prints lived along the middle course of the
Kolumbe River (F. A. Kozin).
12) Winter 1940, three crossings of tigers were noted near the
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3) The guards of the nature reserve who were patrolling a sector along
the Iman River from the village of Laulyu to the mouths of Tyangou and
Kuala Streams (which flow into the Iman River on the right) did not see
any tiger tracks there during the entire length of the season.
4) 25.II. 1940, a path made by a large tiger was observed along the
upper reaches of the Nantsa River, a tributary of the Armu River. It
was impossible to determine its sex, since the prints were filled up with
snow, but apparently it was a male. The path ran from the mountain
pass at the Ta-Kunzha River downstream along the Nantsa River for a
distance of 40-50 km, not reaching the left tributary of the Nantsa -
the Sintsa. From 5.II. until 19.II., this animal descended along the
Ta-Kunzha River and then apparently returned (as all the signs
indicated) going back into the basin of Beitsa Stream across Deupikhe
Stream (its left tributary). The tiger successfully hunted moose along
the upper reaches of the Nantsa River and along the upper reaches of
the Sitsa River.
(a left tributary of the Iman River, located outside the nature reserve)
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V. Syao-Sinancha Stream
VI. Iman River between the Armu River and the Kolumbe River
1) From 15.II. until 1.III. 1940, there were no tiger tracks on a section
from Sidatun up to the Irtysh and Krasnaya Rechka. [Nikolai
Kelindzyaga (Tsailin), an inhabitant of Sidatun].
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2) From 15.II. until 1.III.1940, , the tracks of this animal were absent
along Orochenka Stream. Along the upper reaches of Shubikha
Stream, old tracks (which had been covered with snow) from two
tigers--a male and a female--were discovered. [Shilo (a hunting guide),
and Aleksei Sigde and Ivan Kelindziga, who are both Udehe hunters
from the village of Sanchikheza]
2) 18.II. 1940, the same large male descended along the Kema River to
Teniguza Stream and then left there to follow the tracks of wild boar on
the left side of the Kema River. On that same day, a large tigress with
one approximately one-year-old cub, emerged from the area near Akhte
Stream, and the tigress also followed the same tracks of wild boar on
the left side of the Kema River in the district of Teniguza Stream (V. E.
Spiridonov).
5) In June 1940, the tracks of a tiger were observed along the Kema
River at a distance of 12 km from the sea, at the "Arches" and in
Chailinova pad' [a deep, narrow forested valley - Transl.] (V. E.
Spiridonov)
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9) 9.XI. 1940 a tiger walked downhill toward the Chima River and saw
the tracks of a bear before reaching the river, then followed after him.
11) 11.XII. 1940, fresh tracks of a small tiger were observed near
Syao-Kunzhinskii waterfall close to a house. The tiger had stepped off
the ice of the Kema River onto a stone and had walked over to "zabol"
[a flooded or boggy area - Transl.] near the houses. (observer: I. L.
Kosyuk).
IX Belimbe River
4) 7.I. 1941, the prints of two tigers, which were walking there
simultaneously, were observed near a depot. They came from above
and went downward, one of them descended as much as to the lower
depot at 25 km from the sea. (observer: A. A. Perfiliev).
X. Sankhobe-Sitsa Rivers
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Tigers and their tracks had already been absent for three years
throughout the entire basin. The tracks of a female were observed in
1936 along the Biomu River (in its upper reaches), the latest; the
tigress then departed, heading to one side of the Khor River. (A. A.
Kozin).
Tiger prints were absent both there and in the adjoining territories.
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Moscow.
12. Shklyar, N. G. 1935. A Story about a Zoo. Moscow.
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