Communication and Homeostasis Syllabus statements:

4.1.1 (a),(b),(c)
1) The need for communication

Stimulus – any change in the environment that causes a response

Response – a change in behaviour or physiology as a result of a
change in the environment

 Animals increase their chances of survival by responding to changes in their external environment
E.g. avoiding harmful environments such as places that are too hot or cold
 They also respond to their internal environment to make sure that the conditions are always optimal
for their metabolism
E.g. removing toxins from tissue fluid
 Plants also respond to changes in their environment

 Multicellular organisms are more efficient than single celled organisms as its cells can be differentiated
(specialised to perform particular functions)
 A good communication system will
o Cover the whole body
o Enable cells to communicate with each over
o Enable specific communication
o Enable rapid communication
o Enable both short-term and long-term responses

 Cells communicate via a process called cell signalling

o One cell releases a chemical that is detected by another cell which responds
 There are 2 ways cells communicate via cell signalling
o Neuronal System – Network of neurones that signal to each over across synapse junctions they
can conduct a signal quickly enabling a rapid short term response
o Hormonal System – Uses the blood to transport chemical messengers called hormones which
are recognised by specific target cells enabling a long term response
Communication and Homeostasis Syllabus statements:
4.1.1 (d), (e)
2) Homeostasis

Homeostasis – is the maintenance of the internal environment in a constant despite

external changes

 Various conditions inside the body need to be kept constant e.g.

o Body temperature
o Blood glucose concentration
o Water potential of the blood
o Blood pressure
o Carbon dioxide concentration
 Enzymes require certain conditions to work efficiently and to prevent denaturing
o Suitable pH
o Suitable temperature
o Aqueous conditions
o Freedom from toxins and inhibitors
 The conditions cannot be kept perfectly constant they will deviate around the mean or optimum condition
 As long as that deviation isn’t too large the conditions will remain acceptable

Negative Feedback – is a process that brings about a reversal of any change in

conditions. It ensures that an optimum steady state can be maintained.

 A change in the internal environment must be detected and signalled to other cells a response must
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 For negative feedback to work effectively there must be a system coordinated by cell signalling

Cell
Stimulus Receptor Effector Response
Signalling

Positive Feedback – a process that increases any change detected by the receptors it
tends to be harmful and does not lead to homeostasis

 Positive feedback is not involved in homeostasis

 Positive feedback is a lot less common than negative feedback e.g. oxytocin
o Oxytocin increases the uterine contractions during pregnancy which stretches the cervix more
o As the cervix stretches the pituitary gland is stimulated to release more oxytocin

Communication and Homeostasis Syllabus statements:

4.1.1 (f)
 3) Maintaining Body temperature

Ectotherm – an organism that relies on external Endotherm – an organism that can use internal
sources of heat to regulate its body temperature sources of heat to maintain its body temperature

Ectotherm
Can’t control their body temperature internally they
must alter their behaviour e.g. basking in the sun
Internal temperature is dependent on external
temperature
Their activity depends on the external temperature
(more active at higher temperatures vice versa)
Variable metabolic rate generating very little heat
Endotherm
Control their body temperature internally by
homeostasis and can also control their temperature by
behaviour
Internal temperature is less affected by external
temperature
Activity level is largely independent of the external
temperature
Constantly high metabolic rate to generate a lot of heat

 Behavioural mechanisms to maintain body temperature in ectotherms

o Expose body to sun to absorb more heat
o Orientate body towards sun to expose larger surface area
o Orientate body away from sun to expose less surface area
o Hide in burrow to reduce heat absorption
o Increase breathing rate to evaporate more water reducing temperature

 The peripheral temperature receptors in the skin monitor the external temperature if external
temperature changes too much it signals to the hypothalamus
 The hypothalamus in the brain monitors the temperature of the blood and signals to return to
optimum temperature if its not

Temperature Regulation in Endotherms

Component of body
Sweat glands in skin
Lungs, mouth and nose
Hairs on skin
Arterioles leading to capillaries in
skin
Liver cells
Skeletal muscles
Response if core temp is too high
Secrete more sweat onto skin
using heat from blood to
evaporate water
Panting increases evaporation
using latent heat
Hairs lie flat providing little
insulation thus more heat can be
lost via convection and radiation
Vasodilatation allows blood into
capillaries near the skin thus
more heat can be radiated
Rate of metabolism is reduced so
less heat is produced from
exergonic reactions
No spontaneous contractions
Response is core temp is too low
Less sweat is secreted less
evaporation so less loss of latent
heat
No panting ,less water evaporates
and less latent heat used
Hairs are raised to trap a layer of
insulating air reducing heat loss
from skin
Vasoconstriction reduces blood
flow to capillaries near skin so less
heat is radiated
Rate of metabolism is increased
so more heat is produced from
exergonic reactions
Spontaneous contractions to
generate heat from respiring
muscles

 Endotherms also use behavioural mechanisms to maintain body temperature e.g.

o Move into shade/ Move into the sunlight
o Remain inactive / Move about to generate heat
o Decrease / Increase surface area
Nerves Syllabus statements:
4.1.2 (a), (b)
1) Sensory Receptors and structure of neurones

 The nervous system is made up of a complex network of cells called neurones

 There are 3 types of neurones
o Sensory Neurones transmit nerve impulses from receptors to the central nervous system (CNS)
o Motor Neurones transmit nerve impulses from the CNS to the effectors
o Relay Neurones transmit nerve impulses between sensory neurones and motor neurones

 A stimulus is detected by receptor cells and a nerve impulse is sent along the sensory neurone
 When a nerve impulse reaches the end of a neurone, chemicals called neurotransmitters take the
information across the synapse to the next neurone which sends another nerve impulse.

Stimulus Receptors CNS Effectors Response

 Different stimuli have different forms of energy (e.g. light energy)

 Your nervous system only sends the information in the form of nerves impulses (electrical energy)
 Sensory receptors act as transducers (energy form convertor)

Structure of neurones

 Neurones are very long so they can transmit an action potential over a long distance
 They have sodium / potassium pumps
 Surrounded by myelin sheath(Schwann cells) which insulates the neurone from other electrical activity
and there are gaps in-between called nodes of Ranvier
 Dendrites connect neurones to other neurones
 Cell bodies contain the nucleus, cytoplasm and other organelles
 Axons carry nerve impulses away from the cell body
 Dendron’s carry nerve impulse to the cell body

 This is a motor neurone

 Cell body is located in the CNS
 Long axon carrying nerve impulse
to the effectors

 This is a motor neurone

 Cell body positioned just outside
the CNS
 Long Dendron carrying nerve
impulse from sensory receptor to
cell body
Nerves Syllabus statements:
4.1.2 (c), (d)
2) Resting potentials

 When a neurone is at rest ( not conducting a nerve impulse) there is a potential difference across it
 This is due to an accumulation of positive ions on the outside
 The inside of the cell has a charge of -70 mV compared to the outside
 The membrane is said to be polarised as it has a potential difference across it

 The resting potential is maintained by sodium-potassium pumps and potassium ion channels
o Sodium potassium pumps actively transport 3 Na+ out of a neurone for every 2 K+ in
o Potassium ion channels allow facilitated diffusion of K+ down their concentration gradient
 The membrane is effectively impermeable to sodium ions
 This makes the outside of the cell more positive than the inside

Nerves Syllabus statements:

4.1.2 (c), (d)
3) Generating an action potential

Process
1) A stimulus causes sodium ion channels to open in the cell membrane which becomes more permeable
to sodium
2) Sodium ions (Na+) diffuse into the neurone down their electrochemical gradient making the inside of
the neurone less negative
3) Depolarisation occurs, this is when the threshold potential is reached (50mV) and voltage-gated
sodium ion channels open resulting in more sodium ions diffusing into the neurone. The cell becomes
more and more positive
4) Repolarisation occurs at a potential difference of around +30mV the sodium ion channels and the
voltage-gated potassium ion channels open
5) The membrane is then more permeable to potassium ions so more of them diffuse out of the cell this
starts to restore the membrane to its resting potential
6) Hyperpolarisation then occurs where the potassium ion channels are slow to close so too many diffuse
in resulting in the potential difference becoming slightly more negative than the resting potential
7) The sodium-potassium pumps then restore the membrane to its resting potential

 The Refractory period is a period of time after an action potential when the neurone cannot be excited
as the ion channels are recovering and cannot be made to open

60
4)
40
20
0
3) -20 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-40
-60 6)
-80
-100
Nerves Syllabus statements:
4.1.2 (e)(f)(g)(h)
4) Transmission of action potentials and mylenation

 The action potential moves along the neurone as a wave of depolarisation

 During an action potential some of the sodium ions that enter diffuse sideways causing sodium
channels in the next region of the neurone to open and sodium ions diffuse in
 This results in an action potential and thus the wave of depolarisation travels along the neurone
 The wave moves away from the parts in the refractory period because these parts cant fire an action
potential

 An action potential is an all or nothing response, the neurone either conducts or doesn’t conduct an action
potential and they are all of the same magnitude
 A bigger stimulus won’t cause a bigger action potential but it causes them to be fired more frequently
 A higher frequency of signal therefore means a larger stimulus

 Some neurones are myelinated whereas some or not

 Mylenation refers to the neurone being wrapped by an electrical insulator in the form of Schwann cells
 In myelinated neurones there are gaps between the Schwann cells with bare membrane called nodes
of ranvier
 Depolarisation can only occur at the nodes of ranvier in myelinated neurones therefore the sodium ion
channels are concentrated at the node of ranvier
 The depolarisation jumps from node to node
 This is referred to as saltatory conduction and is very fast

 In non myelinated neurones the action potential travels as a wave along the whole length of the axon
membrane
 This is slower than saltatory conduction
 Cells that carry signals over long distances ( up to 1m) are usually myelinated

Nerves Syllabus statements:

4.1.2 (i), (j)(k)
 5) Synapses – Fundamentals

 A synapse is a junction between two or more neurones/effectors cell

 The tiny gap between the cells at the synapse is called the synaptic cleft (around 2nm)
 Consists of a pre and post synaptic neurone

 The pre-synaptic neurone has a swelling called the synaptic knob

 This contains synaptic vesicles which contains chemicals called neurotransmitters
 Neurotransmitters are chemicals that diffuse across the cleft of the synapse to transmit a signal to the
postsynaptic neurone
 The most common neurotransmitter is acetylcholine and a synapse that uses this is called a cholinergic
synapse with cholinergic receptors
 When an action potential reaches the end of a neurone is causes neurotransmitters to be released into
the synaptic cleft
 They diffuse across to the post synaptic membrane and bind to specific receptors
 This may cause an action potential, a hormone to be excreted from a gland or a muscle to contract

 Neurotransmitters are removed from the cleft so the response doesn’t keep happening
o Either taken back into pre synaptic neurone or broken down by enzymes

 There are many different neuro transmitters e.g.

o Acetylcholine, Noradrenalin
 Acetylcholine is broken down by the enzyme acetyl cholinesterase (AchE)

 The synaptic knob has many specialised features

1) Many mitochondria – indicating that it is an active process requiring ATP
2) A large amount of smooth ER – synthesising enzymes
3) Vesicles containing Ach – substance that will diffuse across synaptic cleft
4) Voltage gated calcium ion channels in membrane

Nerves Syllabus statements:

4.1.2 (j), (k)
 6) Synapses – Process and role

 This is how neurotransmitters transmit nerve impulses between neurones:

1) An action potential triggers calcium influx:

1) An action potential arrives at the synaptic knob of the pre-synaptic neurone

2) The action potential stimulates the voltage-gated calcium ion channels in the pre-synaptic neurone to
open
3) Calcium ions diffuse into the synaptic knob (they are pumped out afterwards by active transport)

2) Calcium influx causes Neurotransmitters to be released

1) The influx of calcium ions causes the synaptic knob causes synaptic vesicles to move to the pre-
synaptic membrane
2) The vesicles fuse with the pre-synaptic membrane and release the neurotransmitter into the synaptic
cleft (exocytosis)

3) The neurotransmitter triggers an action potential in the post –synaptic neurone

1) The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific receptors on the post-
synaptic membrane
2) This causes sodium ion channels in the post-synaptic neurone to open
3) The influx of sodium ions into the post-synaptic membrane causes depolarisation
4) This results in an action potential on the post-synaptic membrane to be generated if the threshold is
reached
5) The neuro transmitter is removed from the synaptic cleft so the response doesn’t keep happening

Role of synapses in the nervous system

1) When one neurone is connected to many the neurones signal can be dispersed to different parts of the
body this is called synaptic divergence
2) When many neurones connect to one neurone information can be amplified this is called synaptic
convergence

3)If a stimulus is weak only a small amount of neurotransmitter is released and may not be enough to
excited the post-synaptic neurone to threshold level
4)Summation is where the effect of neurotransmitter released from many neurones is added together to
reach the threshold

5)Synapses make sure the impulses are transmitted one way

6)Receptors for neurotransmitters are only on the post-synaptic membranes therefore they can only
travel in one direction

Hormones Syllabus statements:

4.1.2 (a)(b)(c)
 1) Fundamentals

 Hormonal system is made up of endocrine glands and hormones

 The hormonal system sends information as chemical signals
 Hormones cause a specific response in target cells /tissue
o Target cells posses specific receptors that have a complimentary shape to the hormone

 Hormones can be steroids (e.g. testosterone), protein (e.g. insulin) or amino acid derivatives (e.g. adrenaline)
 Protein hormones and adrenaline bind to receptors on plasma membrane
 Steroids and thyroxine pass through the plasma membrane and binds with the nucleus regulating DNA
transcription

 Hormones are secreted when an endocrine gland is stimulated

o can be stimulated due to change in concentration of a specific substance or an electrical
impulse
 Endocrine glands is a gland that secretes hormones directly into the blood and has no ducts
o Hormones diffuse directly into the blood and are taken all over the body
 Exocrine glands secrete chemicals through ducts into cavities or on the surface of the body
o Usually secrete enzymes (e.g. digestive gland)
 Some organs have both endocrine and exocrine tissue (e.g. pancreas)

 A hormone is called a first messenger as it carries the chemical message the first part of the way
 When a hormone binds to its receptor it activates an enzyme in the cell membrane
 The enzyme catalyses the production of a molecules inside the cell called a signalling molecule
 The signalling molecule is called a second messenger because it carries the chemical message the
second part of the way signalling to other parts of the cell to change how the cell works
 The second messengers activate a cascade (a chain of reactions) inside the cell

 The adrenal glands are endocrine glands found above the kidney
 The cortex secretes steroid hormones (e.g. cortisol for stress)
 The medulla secretes catecholamine hormones (modified amino acids) e.g. adrenaline

 The hormone adrenaline is a first messenger

o Adrenaline binds to specific receptors in the cell membranes of many cells (e.g. hepatocytes)
o When adrenaline bind it activates an enzyme in the membrane called adenylate cyclase
o Activated adenylate cyclase catalyses the production of a second messenger called cyclic AMP
(cAMP)
o cAMP activates a cascade (e.g. makes more glucose avaliable)

 Adrenaline has many function including

o Increase cardiac output
o Relax smooth muscle in bronchioles
o Increase heart rate
o Dilate pupils
o stimulate conversion of glycogen to glucose etc

Hormones Syllabus statements:

4.1.2 (d) (e)
 2) Pancreas

 Pancreas is an organ found below the stomach and has both exocrine and endocrine functions
**LOOK AT DIAGRAMS PAGE 24 OCR TEXTBOOK**

 Exocrine functions of pancreas

o Most of the pancreas is exocrine tissue
o The exocrine cells are called acinar cells
o They’re found in clusters around the pancreatic duct (duct goes to duodenum)
o The acinar cells secrete digestive enzymes which digest food (e.g. amylase break down starch)
 Endocrine functions of the pancreas
o The areas of endocrine tissue are called the islets of Langerhans
o They are found in clusters around blood capillaries
o They secrete hormones directly into the blood
o They are made up of two types of cell
 Alpha α cells – secrete a hormone called glucagon
 Beta β cells - secrete a hormone called insulin

 Eating and exercise change the concentration of glucose in your blood

o Drops after exercise rises after eating

 When blood glucose concentration is too high insulin lowers it

1) Insulin binds to specific receptors on the cell membranes off hepatocytes and muscle cells
2) it increases the permeability of cell membranes to glucose so cells take up more glucose
3) Insulin activates enzymes that convert glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis)
4) Cells are able to store glycogen in their cytoplasm as an energy source
5) Insulin also increases the rate of respiration of glucose

 When blood glucose concentration is too low glucagon raises it

1) Glucagon binds to specific receptors on the cell membranes of liver cells
2) Glucagon activates enzymes that break down glycogen into glucose (glyogenolysis)
3) Glucagon also promotes the formation of glucose from fatty and amino acids (gluconeogenesis)
4) Glucagon decreases the rate of respiration of glucose in cells

Hormones Syllabus statements:

4.1.2 (f)
 3) Insulin

 Beta cells secrete insulin when they’re depolarised

 β cells contain insulin stored in vesicles and they secrete insulin when they detect high blood glucose
concentration this is the process:

1) When blood glucose concentration is high, more glucose enters the β cells by facilitated diffusion
2) More glucose in β cells causes the rate of respiration resulting in an increase of ATP
3) This increase of ATP triggers the potassium ion channels in the plasma membrane to close
4) This means K+ ions cannot leave the cell and accumulate inside the cell making the cell less negative
and the cell membrane becomes depolarised
5) Depolarisation causes calcium ion channels in the membrane to open so calcium ions diffuse into the
β cells
6) This causes vesicles to fuse with the β cells plasma membrane releasing insulin via exocytosis

Hormones Syllabus statements:

4.1.2 (g) (h)
4) Diabetes mellitus

 Diabetes mellitus is a condition where blood glucose concentration can’t be controlled properly
 There are two types Type 1 diabetes (insulin dependent) and Type 2 diabetes (non insulin dependent)

 Type 1 diabetes
o The β cells do not produce any insulin
o After eating the blood glucose level rises and stays high (hyperglycaemia) which can result in death
o The kidneys cannot reabsorb all this glucose so some of its excreted in the urine
o Type 1 diabetes usually develops in children or young adults

 Type 2 diabetes
o Type 2 is usually acquired later in life and often is linked with obesity
o It occurs when β cells do not produce enough insulin or when cells don’t respond to insulin properly

 Benefits of insulin produced by genetically modified bacteria

o Cheaper than extracting it from animal pancreas’s
o Larger quantities of insulin can be produced
o Less likely to cause an immune response
o Some people prefer it for ethical or religious reasons

 Stem cells could be used to cure diabetes

o Stem cells could be grown into β cells
o β cells would then be implanted into the persons pancreas and they would be able to make insulin
o The treatment is still being developed but if effective it will cure type 1 diabetes

Hormones Syllabus statements:

4.1.2 (i)
 5) Control of heart rate

 The heart muscle is myogenic it can initiate its own contractions

 The Sinoatrial node (SAN) generates action potentials that causes the cardiac muscles to contract
 The rate at which the SAN fired (heart rate) is unconsciously controlled by the medulla

 Animals need to alter their heart rate to respond to internal stimuli

 Stimuli are detected by pressure receptors and chemical receptors
o Baro-receptors for pressure in aorta and vena cava stimulated by high/low blood pressure
o There are chemical receptors in the aorta, carotid artery and medulla

 Electrical impulses from receptors are sent to the medulla along sensory neurones
 The medulla processes the information and sends impulses to the SAN along motor neurones
o e.g. baro-receptors detect high blood pressure then medulla sends signal to slow down
heart rate

 The hormonal system helps to control heart rate in these ways

o When an organism is threatened the adrenal glands release adrenaline
o Adrenaline binds to specific receptors in the heart this causes the heart rate to increase