Somali nationalism

Chapter one: About somali

 Somali has a border on the East with Indian ocean, and on the west and north with Gulf of Aden, while its total area is
1.5 km square
 Although somali people have one language, one culture and one religion,
The colony has divided them into five parts :
 Italian colonist ( southern somali )
 British colony ( northern somali, zone five & NED )
 French colony ( Djibouti )
These parties can be divided into
 No country Area percentage
 Somali Republic 637,657 42.44
 Djibouti Republic 7000 0.47
 Somali western kilinka 627, 000 41.72
 North Eastern NFD 231, 000 15.37
 Great somali 1502, 657 100

 There are a lot of somali communities who live in outside of somali like in the neighbouring countries or in Arab
countries and in western countries as refugees
The name of somali
 Somali is the popular name of somali people where ever they are. Its is also the name of somali country and
somali language ( Afsoomaali ).
 The first time when the name of somali was heard was 10 century A.D and it become popular with 12
century where as the oldest document wrote to somali name returns in 15 century
 The problem is that there is no agreement where the origin of somali name comes from ( as language
background). But there three main Translations of somali word:
o Soomaal ( let you milk )
o Samaale ( the father of Somalis )
o Thuumaal ( Arabic, Rich man, the father of Somalis )
Other names
o The Somaliland has also other names like :
 Cush: is now known from South Egypt to somali. This name is very primitive.
 Punt: ( frankincense ) stands for all somali coast which has border with Gulf of Aden
 Berber: is believed to be the most famous name which known to somali people from 1 to 12 century A.D.
 Tontar: means the Gods land according to ancient Egyptians

The somali person

 In culture language and the way of life, the people of Somalia, south western, the western and northern part of
Djibouti are largely one homogenous group.
 Somaliland are parts of Eastern Hams descendants ( progeny ) or cush as they are known.
 Eastern Hams from Red Sea until the entrance of Indian ocean in Somali. They have border with Nile River until the
high lands of Abyssinia.

The most popular groups of Eastern Hams are:

 Egyptians, ●Somalis, ●Afar, ●Nubby, ●Baja
 It is believed that Eastern Hams have emigrated before six thousand years B.D. from Arab peninsula to coats in East
Africa near to Bab Almandab.

Those immigrants settled down between Gulf of Aden to near shabelle River. After they have been
enlarged they became three parties
 Part one immigrated to north land of Danakil and near Red Sea ( Afar & saho )
 Part two moved to north, South and west of Abyssinia (Oromo, Gala)
 Part three are Somalis who moved to any where (Tana River, South East of Ethiopia, west and South Bantu )
Somali nationalism

The social structure of somali family

 The marriage system : the most somali men marry when they are 18 ___25 years of age, but girls are
married when they are 15 _ 20 and after that , it is considered to be late time. This traditions still exists in
urban areas but in big cities, no matter what ever age he/she marries.
 The way of marriage: mostly in Somali Tradition men look for girls and then he has consultations with his
father, mother or close relatives and then stars preparation of the marriage.

Marriage payment and process

 Mostly and always, men carry all necessary of that marriage, they also pay GUNTIN to the girls mother and YARAD
 The man's family will pay Sooryo to the elders and the girls family to build up new family, there are stages
 Engagement ( Doonis )
 Matrimony ( nikaax )
 Marriage or wedding ( Aroos )

These three stages can take place once or different occasions as usually

 After wedding and marriage girl is in her week in her house, Shaaha Saar will occur mostly the 8 day but , in
her 3 Day, some of the girl and man's friends ( only Girls ) come to the marriage and and give her some
presents.
 The new relationship between the two families are called XIDID and the husband of the new family is called
SAY , while the wife is OORI or AFO .
 The first born is called CURAD, where as the last born is YARAAN. But, the only Daughter or son is called
MADI.
 In Somalia. Men can marry four wives. And it is an Islam Based culture. Most can do this only when the get
properly to manage each of the four families. Bust mostly, men do this for more children.
 In this case the first wife is called MIN WEYN
 Second wife is called MIN YARO
 The relationship between the ladies is called DANGALO
 Every family separately is called BAH
 The men with Two, three or four Wives is called GODODLE
o In Somalia, when man's wife dies, the wife's family give the man another lady and this is called XIGSIISAN.
o On the other hand, if the husband dies, the men's family prepares to marry the widower and in this case is
called DUMAAL.

Traditional ways or systems in Somali marriage

 The somali marriage shapes have been so many kinds, according to our heredity and religion and are
included.
o Request manner (Geed fadhiisi )
o Elopement (Masafeysi )
o The lady is given by her Dad ( Bixin)
o Marriage seeker ( Heerin )
o Force marriage ( Dhabar garaac )
o Forbidden a deep seated feeling of resentment (Godob reeb )
o To Deficiency lady's Eyes by man ( Limeyn )
o A shame impacted Ex pregnant girl By man Before law ( Ceebeyn )
o Fiance (Alkumasho/ Dun ku xirasho

somali traditional socialism

o The early traditions of somali people were very deep seated and inter breaded system and are included:
o A poor with some livestock ( xool Goyn )
o To back livestock to marriage girl ( Xoolo Celin )
o Quickly livestock to marriage girl after visiting ( Dhibaad
o To give the marriage girl and her new born ( Diiqo )

Somali traditional hospitality

Somali nationalism

 Somali people have very high and irremoveble manner of traditional hospitality. This especial shape of
somali earlier hospitality called LOOG and it is usually used when there is a new arrival guest.
 Other side, when there is someone or residence who was not fully achieved this somali traditional
Hospitality, he/she was impacted a very hard punishment by the somali traditional sanctions or embargo.
 This sunction was coused to him/her an impose of marriage and all other interrelations between these
crimed people and all somali clans.
 Not only the above mentioned punishment of crimed persons but also several other punishments to them
 Somali Asylum system
 In the somali culture, there no body who can touch or even could see with a bad eye all parts of Asylum
seekers. There are eight persons which is forbidden to effect each of them ( Biri Ma Geydo ) , even in the
fight areas. These are :
o A travel person
o An injury person
o A Give up person
o A child person
o A woman person
o An old person
o A traditional leadership
o Religious person

Housing
 There are two main types of traditional houses they are:
o The typically African rounded house ( Mundul /mudul )
o The Arab influenced rectangular house ( Cariish ) with a corrugated steel roof, prevailing in the
Coastal Regions and northern somali.
o The strong influence from Arabians, Persia, India and Italian colony has shaped the face of old
coastal towns, where as remote agriculture and pastoral areas can still been seen MUNDUL and
Aqal Soomaali

Social structure and its legal implications

 Traditionally, the somali people had no central Government. Instead, the people organize in a loose kit community in
which thousands of small group are linked together by ties established through either or contract.

How a clan is organized

 While we often use term “loosely in this slide a detailed look at the somali social structure is helpful in understanding
somali law and somali society:
 Qolo ( the super clan )
 Jilib ( a sub of super clan )
 Jufo ( a sub group of jilib )
 Reer ( a sub group of juffo )

Persons of especial statues and non clan members statues

 Political,jural and religious dignitaries of a clan are expected to be have as exemplars. Therefore. If they misbehave
with the law,they must pay higher fines and penalties than others.
 On the hand, foreigners don't have legal personality of their own, butare treated as guests of the clan among whom
they live with.
 Foreigners get patron or guardians from whom they live with and they cannot have land but can lease land from their
patron clan.
 Patron of jilib pays a compensation when they transgress a foreigners of other patrons.
 Former Bondmen or serfs used to lack legal personality and would be attached to host jilibs.
 More recently, many former serfs have formed their own jilibs. However, they are not yet allowed to won land or
camels.
The judicial process
 Only the victims immediate family, not the clan or a third part, has standing to bring a procedure before the court.
Somali nationalism

 If the victim is a man, his father, brother or uncle can bring comlaints.
 If the victim is a woma, comlaints can be brought by men in her own family, or by men in her husband's family.

The role of the judge

 To become a judge in Somali, one first has to become the heard of extended family because of his wisdom and
knowledge of the law.
 Yet no formal training is required from the judge and he is free for developing his own doctrines and legal principles.
 If the judge's verdicts don not resonate with the feelings of fairness with in the community, he will simply not be
asked to preside again.

The court in session

 The traditional forum for these arbitrations is under a bit tree. But, more modernly meeting halls are used to
gather decision makers.
 Each part has the right to appoint a repetitive to make the presentation on his/her behalf.
 If the truth are not agreed or if there is a dispute over the issue witness may be needed to swear on Allah

Compensation For Bodily Harm

 Below is a table of the legal maximum of compensation owed to a victim unintentional bodily harm. If the
harm was done intentionally, the compensation will be doubled the parties are free, however, to agree on
less than these values
 Killings compensation
 Man killed 100 camels
 Woman killed 50 camels
 A Baby boy killed 30 camels
 A Baby girl killed 15 camels

Compensation for theft, accidental Damages and penalty fines

 A)compensation for theft : if a person steals an animal from another, he has to return two similar ones to
the victim.
 B) Accidental damages : when a person accidently damages the property of another, he has to pay the
victim as much as necessary for the latter to replace the item.
 penalty fines : penalty fines may be imposed when wrongdoers refuse to honor a verdict. Fines are owed to the
victims family and are usually paid by the wrongdoers entire family.

Chapter two: Colonialism and somali

 The meaning of colonialism is practice by which a powerful country directly controls less than powerful
country and use its resources to increase its own power and wealth. It has many types like :
o Protection
o Delegate or mandate over
o Trusteeship
o Full colonialism
 After Barlin conference in 1884 and its decision of colony especially African countries, Somalia has got its
partition for three European colonialism whom are :
o Italian
o Britain
o French
 The aim of colony, social, economy and religion, because these colony wanted to control all important paths
in the world specially third world
 The European colony in Africa started and advanced in steps.
o First, they started to travel journeys in Africa to know how Africans live and their culture to know
the weak point of those nations.
o The second step was creating special business companies to hand the economy of Africa, almost
those companies have signed agreement with elders of those explored regions, persuading them
Somali nationalism

co operation and businesses relationships after that they monopolized all African economy with
their banda

The political situation in Somalia before the colonialism

 In 19 century the political situation in Somalia was very critic and upset, after the defeat of imam Ahmed
gurei in 1543.
 After that period, all these sultanate faced a very difficult times and invasion from Abyssinians and Gala and
they were weakened by inside conflicts until they became small governments with no powers.
 This weakness fastens the callapse of the sultans because they couldn't be able to defend their selves from
outside invasions.
 The first country who entered Somalia was Egyptians and that was 1875. But British government pressured
to Egyptians to withdrew in Somali coasts in 1882.
 After withdrawal of Egyptians, the only authority which remained in Somalia was clan basic authority in the
hand of elders ( Ugaas ) , and every clan tried to control the land, the wells and the water areas, and this
created a conflict between somali clans, whereas Europeans began to arbitrate between somali clans.
 Although, somalians are known their proud and braveness, but other hands they were not very armed so
they couldn't face their enemy and colonialism, and after the enemy studied the cultural behaviour of
somali people they started to take the policy ( separate and rule )

The Division of land (Gaalo Imaad )

 The second part in 19 century British, Italian and French competed the colony of somali territory specially in
coastal regions like:
 Berbers
 Marka
 Mogadishu
 Bravo
 Zayla
 Obokh
 Almost the colony system, this period was under cover of business companies which has got agreementwith
somali elders to control somali business movements.
 The elders didn't know the secret behind these agreements, as happened in Arab, Indian and South
American countries, where those agreements were the first step of colony.
 But after period, when somalis recognised The secret of these agreements, they started armed resistance
but it was too late, because the colony has already

The Division of somali land

The division of somali land was like this :

 The Northern part of somali become under protection of British government in 1884 -1960.
 There was many agreements between somali elders in North somali and British government,
and the first agreement was in 1884 and the last agreement was in 1896.
 B)NFD province became under protection of British government in 1891. Until that time,
those province were part of British colony before they were deliberately joined in Kenya in
1963
 somali coast know as Djibouti which became under the colony of French government up to 1859
o after they had an agreement with Danakil elders in Obokh, and in 1862 the French flag was upper
in Djibouti.
o But the declaration of the colony was in 1881, and there were many agreements the first one was
march, 1862 and the last one was in 1885.
o Somali Djibouti Border were made in 1882 by the hands of British and French governments to
solve dispute of the border between the two countries.
o This colony was known as somali -French until 1896 but in 1967 this region was named “Afar Isse
religion ” and after it has got its independence in 1977 it was named “ Djibouti” as its known
today.
 South somali was under Italian colony in 1889-1960.
o This colony started when Italian government has agreed with somalia elders in 1889.
 Somali nationalism

o During the world war II in 1941, British government captured the south Somali. But united nations
endorsed somali to become under delegate of Italian government and that Was in 1949 . And in
April 1950 that delegation started work in Italian – Somaliland Territory.
o Ethiopians has captured the west of somali in many times. The first time was when they captured HARAR January in
1887.in that Time, British government gave that region to Ethiopians.
o In 1907, 1948 and 1954, British government gave the control of HOWD and reserved area to Ethiopians.

The Resistance army Against colony

o The Resistance against colony started the arrival of colonialism and continued until late time of 20 century. The
most famous resistance was Dervish Resistance and dervish leader, Sayid Mohamed Abdullah Hassan. Beside
Dervish Revolution, there were other revolutions, which we can mention :
o Sheikh Hassan Barsane Revolution ( middle shabelle &Hiiraan 1853-1927 )
o Biyomal Revolution (lower shabelle, 1896- 1908 )
o Sheikh Bashir Revolution ( Togdheer, 1905-1948 )
o The most powerful and fomuos revolution and resistance against colonist was Dervish Revolution ( 1897-1920 )
o This Revolution was complex of nationalism and religious Revolution, its aim was to expel all colonist in Somali
Territory and to to build Islamic somali government in Somali.
o Dervish was built in 1864 by the hands of sayid Mohamed Abdullah Hassan in Nugal region. The idea of resistance
has spread over all Somaliland in short period Revolution continued more the dervish movement had an
essentially military character, and the dervish state was fashioned on the model of a salihiya brotherhood. It was
characterized by a rigid ( fixed ) hierarchy and centralization.
o Thought, Hassan threatened to drive the Christians into the sea, he committed the first attack by launching his
first major military offensive with his 1,500 dervish equipped with 20modern rifles on the British soldiers
stationed in the region.

There were a lot of factors to establish this resistance ( dervish ) like :

o How the colonist behaved

o Preaching Christianity
o Taking the resources of somali people
o Sayid Mohamed was master minded of dervish resistance, and was salihiya group of Sufism. He was famous
poet, so he was able to reach the hearts of somali people.
o Personally, Sayid Mohamed has upgraded in religious environment and this has played a great role of success
how he managed his followers.
o Dervish was military and political party which great support among somali people, and its stronghold was taleh.
o The negative away of dervish was reliance on one person who is Sayid Mohamed and this coused the end of
dervish after the death of sayid Mohamed in Emay by 1920.
o During the resistance era of dervish, they participated great wars against British, Italian and Ethiopian colonist
and it can be said he cultivated the first somali nationalism and patriotism in the heart of somali people.
o In 1920, the dervish state collapsed after intensive British aerial bombardments. And dervish territories were
subsequently turned into a Protectorate.
o ( taleh was the capital of the dervish state )
o Sheikh Hassan sheikh noor Ahmed known as ( sheikh Hassan Barsane ) ( 1853-1927) was another hero who
fought against colonist especially Italian colonists in long period.
o Sheikh Hassan Barsane established Geliyale group near jowhar, where he took later headquarters Geliyale and
dervish had a relationship between them.
o The most powerful wars happened in 1924 when Italians demanded to somalis to surrender and bring their
armies back to Italian, but sheikh Barsane and some somali clans in middle shabelle and hiiraan refused that
proposal, and this caused big wars between somalis and Italian colonists.
o After that wars sheikh Barsane was captured and jailed in jowhar where he died in the prison in 28/1/1927.
o After the fail of these two resistances, there were another revolution which held in Buro' and its leader was
sheikh Basher yusuf, this revolution didn't continue long period and has lasted after the killing of sheikh Basher in
1948 in Ulasan District.
o This Revolution was last revolution before the establishment of SYL.

Chapter three: SYL

Somali nationalism

Italian colony
In the first half of 1940, there were 22,000 Italians living in Somalia, More than 10,000Italians were living in
Mogadishu. The administrative capital of the Africa Orientale Italian, and new buildings were erected in the Italian
architectural tradition , By 1940, the villaggio Ducadegli Abruzzi ( Jowhar ) had a population of 12,000 people, of
whom nearly 3,000 were Italian somalians, and enjoyed a notable level of development with the small manufacturing
area with agricultural industries ( sugar mills, etc ) . The second half of 1940, Italian troops invaded British Somaliland
and ejected the British. The Italians also occupied parts of the British East Africa protectorate bordering Jubaland
around the town's of Moyale and Buna
World war II and the Somalis
During world war II the British protectorate was evacuated ( 1940 ) but was recaptured with Italian somali in
1941, when Ethiopiaalso was liberated. With the exception of French Somaliland, all the somali territories were
then united under British military administration. In 1948 the protectorate reverted to the colonial office; the
western somali and the Hawd were gradually surrendered to Ethiopia ; and in 1950 the Italians returned to
southern somalia with 10 years to prepare the country for independence under a united nations trusteeship.
Taking advantage of the modest progress that the British military administration had affected, the Italians rapidly
pursued social and political advancement, although economic development proved much more difficult.

The British protectorate, in the event, became independent on June 26.1960. On July 1, Italian somali followed
suit, and the two territories joined as the somali Republic.

SYC and SYL

Initially known as the Somali Youth Club ( SYC ), was the first Political Party In Somali. It played a key role in the
nation's road to independence during the 1950s-1960s.

During the second world war, Britain occupied Italian Somaliland and militarily administered the territory from
1941 to 1950 the first modern somali political party , the Somali Youth Club (SYC), was subsequently established
in Mogadishu in 1943. The SYC was the well structured political unit, had renamed itself the Somali Youth league
(SYL) ( 15 may 1943 ) and began to open offices, not only in Italian and British Somaliland, but also, in the
western somali region and in the northern Frontier District ( NFD ). The SYL stated objectives were to unify all
somali Territories, including the NFD and the western somali region ;

SYL policy banned clannishness so that the thirteen founding members, although representing four of somali's
five major clans, refused to disclose their clan affiliations. Although the SYL enjoyed considerable popular support
from northerners, the principal parties in British Somaliland were the Somali National League (SNL ).

The following is a list of the SYL’s 13 original founder members,

1) Yaasiin xaaji Osman Sharmarke

2) Maxamed xirsi nuur ( siidii )
3) Xaaji maxamed xuseen maxaad
4) Cusmaan geeddi raage
5) Dheere xaaji dheere
6) Daahir xaaji cusmaan ( dhagaweyne )
7) Cabduqaadir sakhaawadiin
8) Cali xasan maslax
9) Maxamed cali nuur
10) Maxamed faarax hilowle
11) X. Maxamed cabdulaahi xayeesi
12) Huudow macalin cabdulaahi saalax
13) Maxamed cusmaan baarbe baardheere
Most important issues of the SYL’s policy of principles
The most important issues of the SYL s policy, objectives or principles were:
1. To oppose the return of Italian administration to somali.
2. To achieve independence and unification of all somali Territories, including the NFD and the Ogaden
3. To create opportunities for universal modern education
Somali nationalism

4. To develop the somali language by a standard national orthography.

5. To safeguard somali interests.
Italian return to Italian somali
Demonstration in support of party’s principles were wide spread from Hamar to Harrar. The people strongly protested
against the proposal to return somali to Italian administration. In 1945, the Potsdam conference Was held, where it was
decided not to return Italian Somaliland to Italy.

The United nations opted instead in November 1949 to grant Italy Trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, but only under close
supervisor and on the condition.

To the extent that Italy held the territory by un mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to
gain experience in political education and self government.

There were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new somali _state, did not have.
Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up
for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated.

From independence To forming

British Somaliland remained a Protectorate of Britain until June 26, 1960, when it became independent. The former Italian
Somaliland followed suit five days laters. On July 1, 1960, the two territories united to form the somali Republic.

A government was former by Hajji Basher Ismail Yusuf as the first chairman of the independent somali national Assembly,
with Aden Abdullahi Osman Daar as the first president of the somali Republic, and Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke as first prime
minister.

In November 1963 . The country's first post independence national elections. Again the SYL triumphed, winning 69 out of
123 parliamentary sets.

Aden Abdulle Osman became president again appointed Abdirisak Hajji Hussein as second prime minister.

In 1967, Muhammad Hajji Ibrahim Egal became prime minister, a position to which he was appointed by Sharmarke later to
become president from 1967 __1969).

During the nine year period of parliamentary Democracy that followed Somali independence, freedom of expression was
widely regarded as being derived from a traditional right of every man to be heard .

Independence brought not only unity but Democracy. For the next nine years, the citizens of the new republic enjoyed a
high level of political participation.

Politics was seen as a realm open to every somali, regardless of background. During this era of parliamentary Democracy,
clan and regional differences were worked out through frequent democratic elections involving many political parties.

SYL’s Elected presidents, PMs &speakers of National Assembly

President
 Aden Abdullah Osman Daar: July 1, 1960 -June 10, 1967
 Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke: June 10, 1967- October 15, 1969
Prime ministers
 Abdullahi isse mohamud February 29, 1956 – July 12, 1960
 Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke July 1960- 1964
 Muhammad Hajji Ibrahim Egal: 15, 1967- November 1, 1969
 National Assembly speakers
 Hajji Bashir Ismail yusuf: 1960- 1967

Chapter four: Somali Republic

The Birthday control of Italian won assurance of independence ( the somali Republic )
British control of Italian somali ended in November 1949, when the area became a UN Trust Territory.

Somali Nationalists in the Italian won assurance of independence in a decade.

Somali nationalism

These assurances, in turn, inspired Somalis in the British protectorate to press for independence and unity with Italian
Somalia.

Finally, the two areas were granted independence, and on July 1, 1960 they merged to form the somali Republic.

Independence brought not only unity but Democracy.

The military government ( October Revolution )

By the 1960s, the government was perceived as insufficient and corrupt was accused of improving relations with Ethiopia
at the expense of the its started commitment to Pan- somalism.

In October 1969, one of the Presidents bodyguards motivated by clan animosity assassinated the President in Las Anod,
Sool-somali.

A few days later while politicians have been busy with matters of succession, the army, under Major General, Mohamed
siyad Barre, took over.

The new governing body, the supreme revolutionary council (SRC) named siyad Barre as somali president.

Closely allied with Soviet union, the regime adopted as it screed “Scientific socialism ” based on three elements:

 Community Development Through self Reliance

 A Variant of socialism Based on Marxist principles
 To Develop the economy

The government launched series wasteful “Crush program ” as well as conceived development projects in :

 Infrastructure
 Health
 Education

The Socialist Regime sought to improve the status of minorities and women, and after introducing a
Somali Writing System in 1972, launched a countryside literacy campaign, which received a popular
support.

there were growing oppositions to the regime among Islamic Scholars, in Somalia and abroad, as a
result of the adoption of the Latin Alphabet for the Somali Script and introduction of laws that were
seen to be in conflict with Islamic Law.

The Islamic Opposition was crushed by the military and a number of Islamic Leaders were executed.
Despite the regime popularity, it soon became clear that Somali’s Experiment with Democracy had
ended.

Shortly after taking over, Barre:

 Abolished the National Assembly

 Suspended the Constitution
 Prohibited and form of Political Association
 Put some prominent politicians and members of previous government into custody.

Under Soviet Pressure, the Regime created the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), which is
in Somali “Xisbiga Hanti-wadaagga Kacaanka Soomaaliyeed” (XHKS)., and it was replaced with SRC
as supreme authority in the country.

The Soviet Union Which already had a foothold in the army in the 1960s, became the dominant
foreign influence in the 1970s. It armed, trained and gave development assistance to Somalia.
Somali nationalism

With the fall of the Emperor of Haile Selassie in 1974, political dynamics in the region changed.

Siyad Barre continued to press the new military leaders in Ethiopia for control over the territory in
Somali Inhabited Ogden Region.

In 1977, Somalia invaded Ethiopia to support the Western Somali Liberation Front, a Somali Guerrilla
Association based in Ethiopia that sought to free the Ogaden and unite it with Somalia.

In November 1977, Siyad Barre expelled Soviets from Somalia. By the Spring of 1978, as a result of
the Soviet shift of support to Ethiopia, Somalia lost all the territory it had won.

Abandoned by the Soviets, Siyad Barre turned toward the West. From 1978 onward, closer ties were
created with Europe and United States, as well as with Arab Countries.

Large Amounts of Foreign Aid followed in, some of it in the form of Military Equipment. The Rift
between Somalia and the Soviet Union and the new relationship between the Soviet Unions and
Ethiopia prompted Western Countries to support Somalia Economically and Militarily.

The United States’ Decision to begin a Military Assistance Program in Somalia was precipitated by
the fall of the Shah of Iran, United States’ closest ally in the Gulf.

In Exchange for Defensive Military Equipment, Somalia agreed to provide the United States with
access to Somali Ports, such as airfields in:

 Barbara
 Mogadishu
 Kismayo

In the last years of Siyad Barre Government, the United States reduced its Military and Development
Aid Programs as the Regime became increasingly repressive and guilty Human Right Volitions.

The Opposition and The Beginning Of The Collapse

1970, the Vice President of the SRC was imprisoned, and in 1971, several prominent SRC Members
were executed. But, the first effective opposition did not come until April 1978, after the army’s
humiliating defeat in the Ogaden.

Officers organized Unsuccessful Coup. Some of the Coup Organizers scalped to Ethiopia, where they
organized the First Movement Opposition, which become to be known as the Somali Salvation
Democratic Front (SSDF).

The Movement was supported by Ethiopia and Libya. The Movement provided President Mengistu
of Ethiopia with a golden opportunity to retaliate against Siyad Barre for his support for:

 Western Somali Liberation Movement

 Various Eritrean Fronts
 Oromo Liberation Front
 Other Opposition Groups in Ethiopia

The Problem was made worse by the government involvement in Economic Activities, such as:

 Banking
 Commerce
Somali nationalism

Government Corruption together with Nepotism, Insufficiency and Lack of Accountability resulted in
Gross Inequities through out the country.

In the Northern Part of Somalia formed the Somali National Movement (SNM) in London in 1981 and
soon found a home in Ethiopia from which they could launch Guerrilla Raids into Somalia.

In 1989 another opposition movement, the United Somali Congress (USC) was formed. USC
established guerrilla bases in Ethiopia. By the mid in 1980s, Government and the Opposition
Movements have been turned into Clan Based.

1988, the SNM launched a successful guerrilla attack against government forces in Hargeisa and
Burao in the North. The government were able to regain to cities only by using great force, including
aerial bombardments.

High Civilian Casualties and the Exodus of refugees to Ethiopia further alienated the North. The
government:

 Reintroduced Multi-Part System

 Adopted a New Constitution
 Called For Election

By the end of December 1990, the conflict had spread to the Capital, Mogadishu. On January 27, 991
Siyad Barre’s Regime Collapsed.

Barre fled Mogadishu and based in Sothern Region of Gedo. After twice failing to regain power, he
left the country in early 1992 and asked Political Asylum to Nigeria where he died in 1993.