Universitas Negeri Jakarta

Psychological
Disorders
Deasyanti, Ph.D
OUTLINE
Defining and Explaining Abnormal Schizophrenia

Anxiety and Anxiety-Related Disorders Personality Disorders

Disorders Involving Emotion and Mood Suicide

Psychological Disorders and Health and

Dissociative Disorders Wellness
 DEFINING AND EXPLAINING
ABNORMAL

Abnormal behavior is behavior that is deviant, maladaptive, or

personally distressful over a relatively long period of time.

Abnormal behavior is deviant. Deviant means that a behavior

does not conform to accepted social standards.

Abnormal behavior is maladaptive. Maladaptive behavior

interferes with a person’s ability to function effectively in the
world.

Abnormal behavior involves personal distress over a long

period of time.
 Theoretical Approaches to Psychological
Disorders

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH

This approach is part of the medical model, which describes
psychological disorders as medical diseases with a biological
origin.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH

The psychological approach emphasizes the contributions of
experiences, thoughts, emotions, and personality characteristics
in explaining psychological disorders.
 Theoretical Approaches to Psychological
Disorders

THE SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH

The sociocultural approach emphasizes the social contexts in
which a person lives, including the individual’s culture.

THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL

vulnerability-stress hypothesis or diathesis-stress model Theory
suggesting that preexisting conditions—such as genetic
characteristics, personality dispositions, or experiences—may
put a person at risk of developing a psychological disorder.
THE SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH
 Classifying Abnormal Behavior

THE DSM CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

In 1952, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) published the first

major classification of psychological disorders in the United States, the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

The World Health Organization devised the International Classification of

Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10), which includes a chapter
on mental and behavioral disorders.
CRITIQUES OF THE DSM

A central criticism that applies to all versions of the DSM is that it

treats psychological disorders as if they are medical illnesses,
Another general criticism of the DSM is that it focuses strictly on
problems.
It relies too much on social norms and subjective judgments.
Too many new categories of disorders have been added, some of
which do not yet have consistent research support and would lead to a
significant increase in the number of people being labeled as having a
mental disorder.
Loosening the standards for some existing diagnoses will add to the
already very high rates of these.
CRITIQUES OF THE DSM

Sample of Changes in DSM-5

AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER

Autism spectrum disorder refers to a range of

neurodevelopmental disorders involving impaired social
interaction and communication, repetitive behavior, and
restricted interests. Like many other neurodevelopmental
conditions, autism spectrum disorder refers to a range of
symptoms, and there is no single identified cause for the
disorder.
SOMATIC SYMPTOM DISORDER

Somatic Symptom Disorder A psychological disorder in which a

person experiences one or more bodily (somatic) symptoms and
experiences excessive thoughts and feelings about these
symptoms that interfere with everyday functioning.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) A common

psychological disorder in which the individual exhibits one or
more of the following: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
 ANXIETY AND ANXIETY-RELATED
DISORDERS

Disabling (uncontrollable and disruptive)

psychological disorders that feature motor tension,
hyperactivity, and apprehensive expectations and
thoughts.
 Four of the most common anxiety
disorders:
Generalized Anxiety Specific
Disorder Phobia

An anxiety disorder Panic An anxiety disorder in Social Anxiety

marked by Disorder Disorder
which the individual
persistent anxiety experiences an
for at least six An anxiety disorder in An anxiety disorder in
irrational,
months, and in which which the individual which the individual
overwhelming,
the individual is experiences recurrent, has an intense fear of
persistent fear of a
unable to specify the sudden onsets of being humiliated or
particular object or
reasons for the intense terror, often embarrassed in social
situation.
anxiety. without warning and situations.
with no specific cause.
 Two disorders that are not classified by
DSM-5 as anxiety disorders but are related
to the experience of anxiety:

Obsessive-Compulsive
Disorder

Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Psychological disorder in which the individual has anxiety-provoking thoughts

that will not go away and/or urges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviors to
prevent or produce some future situation.

Factors Contributing to OCD : Among the theories about the causes of OCD,
most researchers agree that there seems to be a genetic component.

OCD-Related Disorders : Hoarding disorder, Excoriation disorder (or skin

picking), Trichotillomania (hair pulling), Body dysmorphic disorder.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Psychological disorder that develops through exposure to a traumatic event, a
severely oppressive situation, cruel abuse, or a natural or an unnatural disaster.

The symptoms of PTSD vary but include:

Flashbacks in which the individual relives the event as if it is happening all
over again.
Avoidance of emotional experiences and of talking about emotions with
others as well as emotional numbing.
Feelings of anxiety, nervousness, excessive arousal, and an inability to
sleep. Difficulties with memory and concentration.
Impulsive behavior.
 DISORDERS INVOLVING
EMOTION AND MOOD

Our emotions tell us how we are doing in life. For

some individuals, the link between life
experiences and emotions is off-kilter. Many
psychological disorders involve this kind of
dysregulation in a person’s emotional life. In this
section we examine two such disorders:
depressive disorders and bipolar disorders.
 Depressive Disorders

Depressive disorders are disorders in which the individual suffers from

depression—an unrelenting lack of pleasure in life.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) involves a significant depressive

episode and depressed characteristics, such as lethargy and
hopelessness, for at least two weeks.MDD impairs daily functioning,
and it has been called the leading cause of disability.
The symptoms of major depressive disorder may include:

Depressed mood most of the day

Reduced interest or pleasure in activities that were once
enjoyable
Significant weight loss or gain or significant decrease or
increase in appetite
Trouble sleeping or sleeping too much
Fatigue or loss of energy
Feeling worthless or guilty in an excessive or inappropriate
manner
Problems in thinking, concentrating, or making decisions
Recurrent thoughts of death and suicide
No history of manic episodes (periods of euphoric mood)
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
The biological factors implicated in depressive disorders include genes, brain
structure and function, and neurotransmitters.
Genes appear to play a role in depression, but they may do so in conjunction with
experiences, again suggesting a vulnerability-stress association. For instance,
depression has been linked to particular features of the serotonin transporter
gene, called the 5-HTTLPR.
In addition, specific brain structures are involved in depression. For example,
depressed individuals show lower levels of brain activity in a section of the
prefrontal cortex that is involved in generating actions.
Depression also likely involves problems in neurotransmitter regulation,
particularly serotonin, norepinephrine, and others.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

The course of depression can be influenced by not only what people think but also
how they think. Depressed individuals may ruminate on negative experiences and
negative feelings, playing them over and over again in their mind. One behavioral
view of depression focuses on learned helplessness.

Pessimistic attributional style means blaming oneself for negative events and
expecting the negative events to recur in the future. This pessimistic attributional
style can be contrasted with an optimistic attributional style. Optimistic
attributional style has been related to better outcomes, ranging from lowered
depression, less distress, and decreased suicide risk in a variety of samples.
SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS

Individuals with a low socioeconomic status

(SES), especially people living in poverty, are
more likely to develop depression than their
higher-SES counterparts. Increases as
standards of living and employment
circumstances worsen. Women are nearly
twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with
depression a gender difference that is
consistent across many cultures.
 Bipolar Disorder

Bipolar disorder is characterized by extreme mood swings that

include one or more episodes of mania—an overexcited,
unrealistically optimistic state.

Two types of bipolar disorder.

Bipolar I disorder refers to individuals who have extreme manic
episodes during which they may experience hallucinations—
that is, seeing or hearing things that are not there.
Bipolar II disorder refers to the milder version in which the
individual may experience a less extreme level of euphoria.
 Bipolar Disorder

An individual with an identical twin who

has bipolar disorder has about a 70
percent probability of also having the
disorder, and a fraternal twin has a more
than 10 percent probability
 Bipolar Disorder

Brain Metabolism in Mania and Depression

These images are of PET scans for an individual
with bipolar disorder, who is described as a rapid
cycler because of how quickly severe mood
changes occur. The scans on the top and the
bottom show the person’s brain in a depressed
state. The scans in the middle show the person
in a manic state. The PET scans reveal how the
brain’s energy consumption falls in depression
and rises in mania. The red areas in the middle
row reflect rapid consumption of glucose.
 DISSOCIATIVE
DISORDERS

Psychological disorders that involve a sudden

loss of memory or change in identity due to the
dissociation (separation) of the individual’s
conscious awareness from previous memories
and thoughts.
Dissociative Amnesia

Dissociative disorder characterized by extreme memory loss that is caused

by extensive psychological stress.

A person experiencing dissociative amnesia still remembers things like how

to hail a cab or use a phone. Only aspects of the individual’s own identity
and autobiographical experiences are forgotten.
Dissociative Identity
Disorder
Dissociative identity disorder (DID), formerly called multiple personality
disorder, is the most dramatic, least common, and most controversial
dissociative disorder.

Dissociative disorder in which the individual has two or more distinct

personalities or selves, each with its own memories, behaviors, and
relationships; formerly called multiple personality disorder.
 SCHIZOPHRENIA

Severe psychological disorder characterized by

highly disordered thought processes; individuals
suffering from schizophrenia may be referred to as
psychotic because they are so far removed from
reality.

Psychosis is psychological state in which a person’s

perceptions and thoughts are fundamentally removed
from reality.
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
POSITIVE SYMPTOMS
Hallucinations :
Sensory experiences that occur in the absence of real stimuli.
Delusions :
False, unusual, and sometimes magical beliefs that are not part of an
individual’s culture.
Thought Disorder :
The unusual, sometimes bizarre thought processes that are
characteristic positive symptoms of schizophrenia.
Referential Thinking :
Ascribing personal meaning to completely random events.
Movement Disorders :
The unusual mannerisms, body movements, and facial expressions
that are characteristic positive symptoms of schizophrenia. catatonia
State of immobility and unresponsiveness lasting for long periods of
time.
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS

Reflect social withdrawal, behavioral deficits,

and the loss or decrease of normal functions.
One negative symptom is flat affect, which
means the display of little or no emotion.
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
COGNITIVE SYMPTOMS

Cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia include

deficits in executive functioning, including
difficulty sustaining attention, problems
holding information in memory, and inability to
interpret information and make decisions
Causes of Schizophrenia

BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIOCULTURAL

FACTORS FACTORS FACTORS

Genes Psychologists used to explain Sociocultural factors do appear

Structural Brain schizophrenia as rooted in to affect the course of the
Abnormalities childhood experiences with disorder, or how it progresses.
unresponsive parents. Across cultures, individuals with
Neurotransmitter
Contemporary theorists do schizophrenia in developing,
Regulation recognize that stress may nonindustrialized nations tend to
contribute to the development of have better outcomes than those
this disorder. in developed, industrialized
nations.
 PERSONALITY DISORDERS

Chronic, maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns

that are thoroughly integrated into an individual’s
personality.
DSM-5 lists 10 personality disorders. Below, we survey the two personality disorders
that have been studied most extensively: antisocial personality disorder and
borderline personality disorder.
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Psychological disorder characterized by guiltlessness, law-breaking,
exploitation of others, irresponsibility, and deceit.

ASPD is characterized by
Failure to conform to social norms or obey the law
Deceitfulness, lying, or conning others for personal profit or pleasure
Impulsivity
Irritability and aggressiveness, getting into physical fights or
perpetrating assaults
Reckless disregard for the safety of self or others
Consistent irresponsibility, inconsistent work behavior, not paying bills
Lack of remorse, showing indifference to the pain of others, or
rationalizing, having hurt or mistreated another

Psychopaths are one subgroup of individuals with ASPD. They are

remorseless predators who engage in violence to get what they want.
Examples include serial killers > John Wayne Gacy (who murdered 33 boys
and young men) and Ted Bundy (who confessed to murdering at least 30
young women).
Borderline Personality Disorder
Psychological disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of
instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image,and emotions and
by marked impulsivity beginning by early adulthood and present in a
variety of contexts.

Four essential features characterize BPD :

Unstable affect
Unstable sense of self and identity, including self-destructive
impulsive behavior and chronic feelings of emptines
Negative interpersonal relationships, which are unstable, intense,
and characterized by extreme shifts between idealization and
devaluation
Self-harm, including recurrent suicidal behavior, gestures, or
threats or self-mutilating behavior

Individuals with BPD also display hypervigilance: the tendency to be

constantly on the alert, looking for threatening information in the
environment

Individuals with BPD are very sensitive to how others treat them. They
tend to see the world in either-or terms, a thinking style called
splitting.
 SUICIDE

Thinking about suicide is not necessarily

abnormal, but attempting or completing the
act of suicide is.
Biological Factors

Genetic factors appear to play a role in

suicide, which tends to run in families.

Poor physical health, especially when it

is chronic, is another risk factor for
suicide.
Psychological Factors

Psychological factors that can contribute to suicide include psycho- logical

disorders and traumatic experiences.

The most common disorders among individuals who commit suicide are
depression and anxiety.

An immediate and highly stressful circumstance— such as the loss of a loved

one, losing one’s job, flunking out of school, or an unwanted pregnancy—can
lead people to threaten and/or to commit suicide.
Sociocultural Factors

Suicide rates vary worldwide; the lowest rates occur in countries with cultural
and reli- gious norms against ending one’s own life.

Within cultures, economic conditions and ethnic contexts may contribute to

suicide risk.

Suicide rates were found to be higher in states with a culture of honor.

There are gender differences in suicide as well. Men are four times more
likely to complete suicide than women.
 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
AND HEALTH AND WELLNESS
Putting a label on a person with a psychological disorder can
make the disorder seem like something that happens only to
other people. The truth is that psychological disorders are not
just about other people; they are about people, period.

Psychological disorders present a challenge to living a healthy,

fulfilling life. For the many individuals who are diagnosed with
one or more such disorders, a significant obstacle in the pursuit
of that life is the fear of stigma, stereotypes, prejudice, and
discrimination
Consequences of Stigma
Stigma can create a significant barrier for people coping with a psychological disorder, and
for their loved ones. Fear of being labeled can prevent individuals from getting treatment
and from talking about their problems with family and friends.

PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION PHYSICAL HEALTH

The stigma attached to psychological disorders can Compared to their psychologically

lead to prejudice and discrimination toward
individuals who are struggling with these problems.
In fact, individuals with psychological disorders are
more likely to be the victims of violence than the
perpetrators
healthy counterparts, individuals with
psychological disorders are more likely
to be physically ill, to be obese, to
smoke, to drink excessively, and to lead
sedentary lives.
Overcoming Stigma
We can help to combat stigma by acknowledging
the strengths and the achievements of individuals
coping with psychological disorders.

By creating a positive environment for people with

disorders, we encourage them to be open about
their struggles and to thrive, with the result that
they can become positive role models for others.
 ankyo
h
T

u
Do you have any questions?