MODERN

CONSTB TION
ENVELOP
ANDREWWATIS

MOD ERN CONSTRUCTION SERIES

fl SpringerWienNewYork
 2 3
INTRODUCTION 6 METAL WALLS 12 GLASS WALLS 74 CONCRETEWALLS 156
Int ro ductio n 6 ( I) Sheet metal: 14 ( I) Stick glazing: 76 ( I) Cast in sit u /
Envelopes and digital Fixing method s Syste m assembly cast -in-place: 158
fabr ication 8 Openings Framing profi les Parapets, drips and cills
Envelopes as form-defining Substrates and Opening light s Finishes
systems 10 suppo rt ing wa lls Corner s As-cast finish
Corn er s, parapets Spandrel panels Was hed finish
and cills Po lished finish
(2) Uniti sed glazing: 86
(2) Profiled metal cladding: 24 jo int ing panels (2) Storey height
jun ct ion s Opening light s precast panels: 168
Parapets and gutters Corner panels, parapets and cills Panel ty pes
W indow/door o penings Penetrations Therm al Insulati o n
Insulation , liner trays Silicone-bond ed glazing joints
D evelopm ents Ac id etc hed finish
(3) Clamped glazing: 96
(3) Composite panels: 34 Patch plate glazing (3) Small precast/GRC cladding
Parapets and cills Clamped glazing panels: 178
W indow/door o penings Opaque glazing Individually suppor te d
D evelopm ents Sealing clamped glazing panels
Corn er s Self suppor t ing
Therm al br idges at cills (4) Bo lt fixed glazing: 106 stacked panels
Support meth od s Parapets and cills
(4) Metal rainscreens: 44 Bottom suppo rted glazing Openings
Mater ials Top hung glazing Sand blasted finish
Fixing method s Corner s and t oo led finish
Backing walls Seals and int erfaces
Constru ction sequence
W indow/door o penings (5) G lass blocks: 11 6
Parapets and cills Fixing glass blocks
Support fr ames and walls
(5) Mesh screens: 54 Cast glass channels
Rigid mesh
Meshes flexible in (6) Steel w indows : 126
one direction Small-scale glazing
Fully flexible mesh Large-scale glazing
Mesh used o n curves
Perforated metal (7) A luminium and PVC-U
w indows: 132
(6) Louvre screens: 64 W indows in o penings
Metal lo uvres W indow wa lls
Glazed lo uvres Composite w indows
Solar shading
W alkways (8) T imb er w indows: 146
Window wa lls
W indow design
W indows in op enings
 CONTENTS
4
MASONRY WALLS 188
( I) Masonry loadbearing walls: Plastic-based cladding ( I) Cladding the t imber
Brick, sto ne and ( I) Sealed panels: 242 frame: 264
concrete block 190 GRP panels Timber frames
Mortars Polycarbonate cladding Ground level
Parapets Upper fl oors
Cills and openings (2) Rainscreens: 252 Corners
Flat polycarbonate sheet Roof eaves and parapets
(2) Masonry cavity walls: Multi-wall polycarbonate sheet
Brick 200 Profi led polycarbonate sheet (2) Cladding panels
Ground level Plastic-composite fi at panels and rainscreens: 274
W indow and door openings UPVC board cladding Timber boards
Eaves and parapets UPVC windows Finishes
GRP panels Cladding panels and rainscreens
(3) Masonry cavity walls: Plywood sheets
Sto ne and concrete block 2 10
Wall structures
Ground level
Openings in walls
Eaves and parapets

(4) Stone cladding: 220

Fixings
Cladding to precast concrete
panels
Joints
Closed joints
Movement joints
Sto ne fi nishes

(5) Terr acotta rainscreens: 230

Manufacture of panels
Corner pieces
Fixing syste ms
Panel sizes
Openings
 7 8 9
METAL ROOFS 284 GLASS ROOFS 336 CONCRETE ROOFS 388
( I) Metal standing seam 286 ( I) Greenho use glazing and ( I) Co ncealed mem brane 390
Site-based meth od capped systems 338 Mat erials
Prefabricated method s Greenhouse glazing Str uctural joint s
Sealed and vent ilate d ro ofs Mo dern roof glazing Parapet upstands
Roof o penings Capped systems Balustrades and plinths
Ridges and valleys Rainw ater o ut lets
Eaves and parapets (2) Silicone-sealed glazing Penetratio ns for pipes and ducts
and roofii ghts 348
(2 Profiled met al sheet 296 Silicone-sealed syste ms (2) Exposed membrane 406
Profiled met al decks Juncti on s Po lymer-based membr anes
as substrates Use of capped profi les PVC membranes
Profiled met al roof sheet ing Ro ofiights FPO (T PO) membranes
Sealed and vent ilate d meth od s Mechanically fixed method
Tw in skin const r uction (3) Bo lt fixed glazing: small scale Bo nded fixing meth od
Ridges ro ofiights 358 Parapets and upstands
Openings Generic struct ural suppo rt Ballasted ro ofs
Eaves and parapets meth ods
Ridges and valleys Supporting brackets (3) Planted 4 10
Bo lt fixings System design
(3) Composite panels 306 A rrangeme nt of bolt fixings Planted roof com po nents
Single wall composite panels Glazed unit s So il dept h
Tw in wall panels O verfiow s
Ridges (4) Bolt fixed glazing: large scale Roof junctions
Verges ro ofiight s 368 Rainw ater o ut lets
Eaves Base of glazed ro of Balcony planter s
Parapets and valley gutters Exte rnal and int ern al fo lds
Small glazed roofii ghts
(4) Rainscreens 3 16 Larger roofiight s
Panel arrangement
Parapets (5) Bonded glass roofii ghts 378
Mo no pit ch ridges and verges Generic conical roofiight
Roof geomet ry Generic rect angular roofiight
Roof soffits Generic mo nopitch ro ofiight
Glass roof decks
(5) Met al cano pies 326
Bo lt fixed panels
Fixed metal lo uvre cano pies
Electrically o perate d louvres
 CONTENTS
10
TIMBER ROOFS
( I) Flat roof Bitumen -based
420 PLASTIC ROOFS
( I) GRP ro ofi ights
462
464
~~ ~
( I) ETFE cushions 486
I IN DEX
A ut horship
51
5 16
sheet membran es 422 Eaves and upstands Cushions Index 518
Th e mater ial Verges A ir supply
Roof build-up A but ments Th e mater ial
Solar protection Sliding ro of panels Fabri cation
Fixing methods Durabi lity
Parapet upstands (2) GRP panels and shells 474 Performan ce in fire
Junction w it h til ed roof Smaller panels and shells
Eaves and verges Larger panels and shells (2) Single membrane:
Con e-shaped roof 496
(2) Pitched roofTil es 432 Fabri c roof prin ciples
Plain t iles Fabr ic t ypes
Interlocking til es Comparison of ty pes
Vent ilat ion Th erm al insulati o n
Eaves Aco ust ics
Ridges Durability
Verges Performan ce in fire
Hip s and valleys Cond ensation
A but ments
(3) Single membrane:
(3) Pitched roof Slates 442 Barrel-shaped roof 506
Roof fo lds Membrane roof fabrication
Vents Membrane ro of edges
Mon op itch ridges Suspension points
Dormer w indows Membrane fold s
A but ments

(4) Pitched ro of Metal 452

Standing seam co ld roofs
Eaves and valley gutters
Ridges and abutm ents
Penetrations
Metal ti led ro ofs
Intra uction
MODERN CONSTRUCTION SERIES
Th e series is based aro und th e Mod ern Co nstr uct io n H and-
book.Top ics from th e Walls and Roofs chapte rs from th e MCH
are develop ed to provide more comprehensive information.
Bo oks in th e series discuss mater ial syste ms based o n th e pr ima-
r y mater ial used.Th e series current ly comprises Mod ern Con -
st ruct io n Facades, Mo dern Co nstr uctio n Roofs and Modern
Con stru ction Envelop es.
AIMS O FTHIS BOOK
Mod ern Con stru ction Envelo pes combines th e earlier Mod -
ern Co nst ruction Facades and Mod ern Con stru ction Roofs into a
single book w it h updated illust rati o ns and more exploded views
of materi al systems.This is a t extbook for st udents of architect ure ,
as we ll as st udents of st ruct ural and enviro nmenta l engineering
w ho w ish t o broaden th eir study beyon d th e information provid-
ed in th e Walls and Roofs chapte rs of th e Mod ern Co nst ructio n
H andbook. It shows th e pr inciples of th e main facade t ypes used
t oday and illustrates thi s th rou gh t ypical generic details.Th e six
chapte rs examine envelo pes from th e standpo int of th e pr imary
materi al used in th eir const ructio n, from metal t o glass, concrete,
masonry, plastics and t imber. Each set of five doub le page spreads
explains a specific form of co nstr uct io n w hich is accompanied by
drawn and annotated det ails.Th e t echniques describ ed can be
applied int ernati o nally.
METAL WALLS
Char:>ter I
Th e Metals chapte r explores th e use of sheet metal from a
materi al fully suppo rte d o n a subst rate t o its use as a self-sup-
porting materi al in th e form of profiled decking and composite
panels.Th e use of profiled decking in th icknesses normally used
for shipping containers, rath er th an buildings,has led t o t he intro -
duction of semi-mo noco que co nstr uct ion w it h thi s materi al.
Some composite panel syste ms are being manufactured w it ho ut
an o ute r facing of metal sheet t o allow a separate wate rproo fing
layer t o be added.
GLASS WALLS
Chapter 2
Th e Glass chapte r investigates th e range from framed systems
t o po int fixed glazing.W indows and shop fronts are discussed as
separate systems w hich can be used as full glazing syste ms in th eir
ow n right.
MC E 6
CONCRETE WAL LS
Chapter 3
Th e Con crete chapte r compares in-sit u (cast-in-place) con-
crete, and its use of form work o n site, w it h precast concrete and
it s use of mou lds in a factory away from th e site . In th e use of
eit her t echnique, th e constraints of th e panel sizes imposed by cast-
ing methods influence th e use of th e material.
MASONRY WALLS
Chapter 4
In th e Masonry chapter th e construct ion meth od o logy is clas-
sified by wall construction: loadbearing, cavity wall o r cladding
attac hed t o a backing wall.W it hin each construct ion method , th e
use of materials is very similar from brick t o sto ne and concrete
block.Th e differences in th e specific use of a particular mater ial are
shown in th e details.
T he Plastics chapte r explores th e range of plastics from cellu-
lar mater ials, such as po lycarbonate, t o composite mat er ials such
as GRP, w hich is a combinat ion of a wove n fibrou s mater ial and a
polymer matri x. N ewer compos ite materials combine th e econo-
my of plastic w it h th e durability and st iffness of metal in com posite
sheet materials.Th e recent re-introduction of plastics int o main-
stream construct ion has been possible due t o th e improved quali-
ty and colour durability of th ese materials.A n advantage of plastics
in wa ll const ruction is th at th ey can provide translucency,rath er
th an t he transparency associate d w it h glass, combined w it h high
levels of th erm al insulation.
T he Timb er chapte r shows bot h recent developments in tim -
ber walls and developm ent s in tradit ion al t echniques.Th e low lev-
els of em bod ied energy in thi s materi al, parti cularly in locally
grown t imber, have helped th e revival in th e use of th is mater ial.
Traditionally shunned for large-scale applicat ions due t o its poor
fire resistance, particularly in Europe, th e use of t imber is now bet -
te r understood to reduce th e spread of fire.Timber ty pes are also
discussed as t heir selection has considerable enviro nmental impact.
METAL ROOFS
Chapte r 7
Th e Metals chapte r discusses th e use of met al sheet in ro ofs
both as a substrate and as a wa te rt ight cove r ing.W hen used as a
substrate, in th e form of profi led met al decking o r co m posite pan-
els,a wate r proof membrane can be formed in different materials.
U sed as a cove r ing materi al, m etal sheet can be em ployed in
standing seams, profiled sheet and rainscreens. Solar shading devic-
es formed from met al are also discussed.
GLASS ROOFS
Chapter 8
Th e G lass chapte r sets o ut th e use o f th e mater ial as both
ro ofii ght s and as large glass ro ofs. St ick fr amed ro ofii ghts and
glazing syste ms are related t o th o se used for wa lls, but are usual-
ly fixed w it h pressure plates o n th e t w o sides parallel w it h th e
line o f slo pe . Bolt fixed glazing systems for roofiights and roofs
fo llow principles used in wa ll co nst r uct io n. Bond ed glass decks
and roofiights are a developm ent o f glass bloc k deta ils, w hich are
also discussed . Finally in th is chapte r. glazed cano pies are dis-
cussed, fo cusing o n th o se th at use point fixin gs w it h a minimum
of suppo rt st r uct ure .
CO NC RETE ROOFS
Chapter 9
Ro of decks co nstr ucte d in co ncrete are cove red w it h a var iety
of wate r proof membranes and finishes.W hen th e membrane is
applied directly t o th e co ncrete, th erm al insulation and finishes,
such as plantin g, paving slabs or timber decking, are applied. Con-
str uct io n can also be finished w it h anot her ro ofing syste m, such as
met al standing seams, o r rainscreens in ot her materi als.A ll th ese
ty pes are discussed in th is chapte r.
iTIMBER ROOFS
Chapter 10
Tim ber roofs are a traditi on al form o f co nstr uct io n th at use
mainly t iles, slates and shingles in hou sing proj ects. In recent years,
th e increased use of met al sheet o n timber roofs has led t o an
increase in more co m plex geo met r ies th at do not need t o fo llow
th e principles of th o se tradition al lapped ro ofing mater ials. Flat
timber roofs, thin planting and met al sheet, in addit io n t o th e more
tradition al single m embrane finishes, are set out here.
PLASTIC ROOFS
Chapter I I
Po lycarb on ate panels have th e advantage of providing we ll
insulated translucent panels th at are more eco no m ic th an th o se in
glass. Th ey are mu ch light er th an glass, allowing more visually deli-
cate suppo rt str uct ures t o be used for th ese panels. G lass rein-
forced pol yester (G RP) can produce opaque ro of form s th at are
free of joints, forming co nt inuo us roof str uct ures such as shells and
dom es co m pose d of a mon olith ic, light w eight mater ial w it h a
watert ight finish o n its o utside face. A ll th ese ty pes are ex plained
in th is chapte r.
Th e Fabr ic chapte r discusses t ensile ro of str uct ures, air sup-
po rted t ypes and smaller scale cano pies. PT FE membranes can be
st retc hed ove r suppo rting st r uct ures, ty pically stainless stee l cables
w it h tubu lar steel suppo rts. PTFE sheet is also used t o form inflat -
ed 'air pillow s' th at are suppo rted o n an alum inium fr ame.Th eir
advantage o f high th erm al insulat ion and light ness in we ight is mak-
ing th em an increasingly preferred o pt io n for ro of str uct ures.
QUALIFYING COMMENTS
Th e building t echniqu es discussed and th e built exam ples
shown are designed t o last for an exte nded per iod w it h a rela-
ti vely high perform ance. Co nsequent ly, buildings for ex hibit io ns
and for t emp orary use are excluded. In addressing an int ernati o n-
al reader ship, references t o nation al legislation, buildin g regulation s,
co des o f practi ce and nation al sta ndards have spec ifically not been
inciuded.T his bo ok ex plains th e pr inciples of accepte d building
t echniqu es curre nt ly in use. Building co des th rou ghout th e wo r ld
are und ergoing increased harm on isat ion because of increased
eco no m ic and intellectu al glo balisat io n. Building co m po nents and
assem blies from m any different co unt r ies are ofte n used in a sin-
gle buil ding. Since building co des are w ritte n t o protect users of
buildings by providing for th eir health and safety, goo d co nstr uc-
ti on pract ice w ill always uph old th ese codes as we ll as assist th eir
advanceme nt. T he co m po nents, assem blies and det ails shown in
thi s bo ok describe many of th e building t echniqu es used by th e
building indust ry t od ay, but t his bo ok do es not necessar ily
endorse o r ju stify th eir use since t echn iques in building are in a
co nt inual state o f change and development. A ll deta ils shown aim
t o d em on str ate co nt inuity in th erm al insulati o n and wate rproof-
ing, t ogeth er w it h t w o defences against rainw at er penetrati on.
W here spec ific it ems are not clear ly present o n draw ings, th ese
prin cipl es sho uld st ill be foll ow ed.
MC E 7
Panelisation for manufacture , using 3-D parametric software,
Fixing detail for panels using a minimum set of cast and extruded components,
While th e building envelope syst ems
described in t his book are most ly described
through rectilinear building form s,th ey can
equally be applied t o complex geo met ries
and assoc iate d mass customisat ion t ech-
niques described in t he int ro duction essays in
th e seco nd edit ion of t he Modern Con stru c-
t io n H andbook,
A n example is describ ed here w here th e
aut hor, a directo r of N ewtecnic, facade
designers based in Lo ndon, wo rked w it h t he
United A rab Emirates' based co nt racto r,A ra-
bian Profiles (A PL) o n an exte rnal envelope
of complex geomet ry,T he proj ect w as a cul-
tu ral cent re in A zerbaijan, w hich involved t he
Panelisation of geometry for manufacture, manufacture of 16,000 cladding panels.These
MCE 8
panels w ere eit her single curved or double
curved t o pr ovide a co nt inuously curved sur-
face made from a combinat ion of GRC (glass
reinfo rced co ncret e) and GRP (glass rein-
forced po lymer) t ypes,Th e GRC is used
mainly o n surfaces t hat are walked upo n in
th e plaza spaces aro und th e building,w hile
t he GRP is used as roof cladding panels
w hich are light er in w eight and have a com -
parable co lour and surface finish, Panels we re
manufact ured w hich follow ed t he geomet ry
required by th e architect w it ho ut th e need
for flat o r facetted panels, w hile being eco-
nomi c in th e met hod of manufacture.Thi s
o utco me was achieved by translating th e dig-
ital 3D mod el describin g th e geomet ry into
Triangulated roof structu re to which envelope system if fixed
12·- - ---..,....,- -
::. .:-... .
....,
-,
.....
....
~ ...,
~.-
Panelisation of geometry for manufacture,
Panelisation of geometry for manufacture ,
individual panels w it h data th at co uld be
used in flex ible mou lding t ables t o fabr icate
th e panels using a meth od of mass customi-
sat io n.T he mou lding t able was designed by
th e manufacturer of th e panels,A PL, w ho
make envelope systems th at focus o n realis-
ing ambit ious architect ural designs using mass
produ ct ion o r mass customisat ion t ech-
niques,The three dim ension al form w as
descr ibed by a grid of po ints linked by regu-
lar curve s th at create th e single curve d form s
w it h non -r ectilin ear edges.T he flexible
mou lding t ables use digital input t o create
visually co mplex form s w it ho ut th e need for
hand-m ade co mpo nents w it h th eir associat -
ed fabrication t o lerances,
:'-.
<,
Panelisation of geometry for manufacture ,
Th e use of a flexible mou lding t able
allow s co mplex panel shapes form ed in single
curved geomet ry t o be manufactured quickly
and eco no mically t o a high standard. D igitally
co ntro lled devices are used t o adjust th e
shape of th e panel w it h data provided by th e
3D mod el. Informat io n for edge returns for
th e panels, used t o stiffen panels at th eir
edges, was pro vided by 'developed', o r
unro lled, shapes offset from th e curved
shapes in th e 3D mod el generate d by th e
architect,Thi s avoidance of purely hand craft -
ed t echniques ensures th at th e manufacture
of syste ms for co mplex buildings can be
applied t o large-scale building envelopes,
Met hod of identifying panels for manufacture and installation
MC E 9
 Envelope option of hexagonal unitised panels based on triangular units set into them.
Th is project, designed by N ewtecnic, for new
facades of an exist ing airport building show
how tw o quite different approaches can be
t aken w here th e exte rnal envelope is used
t o re-mod el an exist ing building w it hout th e
need for demolishing th e prim ary st r uct ure.
fJtJ~
This approach ensures th at existing buildings
can be re-used, ofte n w it h quite different
function s w it hin th e building.
....-
The design on th e left hand page is gen-
Sequence of assembly
erate d aro und th e use of a cladding syste m
based on th e hexagonal shape of th e plan of
th e exist ing pr imary st r uct ure, a panel
geomet ry w hich lends itself in th e plane of
th e ro of The hexagonal panel shape is also
used for th e facades,spanning from flo or t o
floor. A covered at rium space is create d
from th e cent ral courtya rd, w it h th e int er-
face of th e ro of and wall foldin g down t o
MC E 10
create a single set of's hards' t o create a
combined st ruct ure and envelope solut ion.
The facade geomet ry is composed of a uni-
t ised syste m of glazing, insulat ed panels, and
integrated shading devices.Thi s approach
allows th e st raight forward removal of exist-
ing rectangular precast concrete cladding,
w it h th e new facade panels being lifted int o
position and fixed simply t o th e ex ist ing pri-
mary st ructure.Th is solut ion ensured th at
both facade and ro of used a secondary stee l
suppo rt syste m th at did not require changes
t o th e exist ing pr imary st ruct ure.
The design on th e right hand page is
based on a CFD (computat ional fluid dynam-
ics) st udy of th e high-wind enviro nment of
th e site. The roofscape was digitally generat-
ed by draping th e existing building form and
applying the prevailing w ind condit ion t o the
Envelope option of rainscreen cladding panels on a continuous waterproof metal deck.The design is based on prevailing wind movement across the site.
resultin g surface.T he flowin g fo rm, striate d
t exture and longit udinal glazing st rips fo llow
t he aerodynam ic requirement s of visual fluidi-
ty and air flow, ensuring t hat t he exte rnal
envelope allowed w ind from th e prevailing
directio n to slip across it s surface, away from
peop le ente ring t he building from th e adja-
cent car parking area.
The external envelope co nsists of a do u-
ble-skinned rainscreen system and glazed
facade co nnected by steel trusses.W hile th e
glazing is seen t o visually 'cling' t o t he ex ist ing
building struct ure, t he ot her visually 'billows:
revealing t he steel t russes th at ho ld t he
exte rnal envelope in place.T he glazed roof
syste m is used t o visually cut th rou gh th e
roof t o define new spaces w it hin t he existing
building struct ure as we ll as draw ing light int o
th e internal spaces.T he o paque roo f panels
/
,...
I
...-"",'
are made from GRP (glass reinfo rced po ly-
mer) as used in th e digita l fabrication exam-
ple in Aze rbaijan, in t he pr eviou s page spread.
T he design uses a lightweight rainscreen
roo f assemb ly envelo ping th e exist ing building
st ruct ure.T his system allows for th e realisa-
ti on of curved geomet ries as th e result of a
combinat ion of suppo rt ing st ruct ure for
facade and roo f. creat ing a smoot h, co nt inu-
o us form. T he rainscreen is backed by an
eco nomic st r uct ural deck, w it h incorporated
closed cell th erm al insulation and wate r-
proofing memb rane; a co nstruct ion met hod
w hich provides a visual co nt inuity t o th e
fo rm of t he exte rnal envelope, in co nt rast
w it h th e panel compo nent -based so lut io n of
t he hexagonal panel design.
Panel connections for the hexagonal based option
on previous page.
M C E II
METAL WALLS
(I) Sheet metal:
Fixing methods
Openings
Substrates and
supporting walls
Comers. parapets and (ills
(2) Profiled cladding:
Junctions
Parapets and gutters
Window/door openings
Insulation. liner trays
Developments
(3) Composite panels:
Parapets and cills
Window/door openings
Developments
Comers
Thermal bridges at cills
(4) Metal ralnscreens:
Materials
Fixing methods
Backing walls
Construction sequence
Window/door openings
Parapets and cills
(5) Mesh screens:
Rigid mesh
Meshes flexible in
o ne directio n
Fully flexible mesh
Mesh used on curves
Perforated metal
(6) Louvre screens:
Metal louvres
Glazed louvres
Solar shading
Walkways

MC E I]
f1 etalWalls 0 I
Sheet metal
Horizontal Section I : I0, Seam profile options
3-D cut-away view of typical folded metal sheet
cladding construction ,Type 2
Sheet met al is used for t he rich surface t ex-
t ures t hat can be achieved w it h relati vely soft
mater ials applied t o a cont inuo us suppo r t ing
substrate ,T his meth od does not provide t he
sharp lines and fiat surfaces associated w it h
rainscreen panels or composite panel co n-
struct ion.T he m ost commo n metals used are
copper. lead, zinc. Mo re recent ly,sta inless
steel has come int o use, but primarily as a
roofing material. Co pper sheet is a ductile
mat er ial, but not as malleable as lead. It s char-
acte ristic green patina w hen fully weat hered
gives a consiste nt appearance, Lead sheet is
extremely durable, and it s soft ness allows it
t o be formed over co mplex geomet ries and
panels w it h a high amo unt of surface relief
Z inc is durable, th ough more brittle th an
copper but is suscept ible t o corros ion from
it s underside if not vent ilate d, Stainless steel
is a very durable materi al, but it st ill has an
uneven surface w hen laid t hat provides a
richness of reflection.T he main disadvantage
of wo rking in stainless steel is it s hardness,
making it difficult t o wo rk w hen forming fo lds
in jointing,
MCE 14
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
-®
3-D view of wind ow inserted into
folded metal facade,Type 2
Fixing method s
T here are t hree fixing meth ods for co nt inu-
o usly suppo rted sheet metal wa lls:co ntinu-
o us sheet, lapped t iles and recessed joint s,
Co nt inuous sheets are laid in vary ing
w idt hs w it h standing seams in vert ical joint s
t hat run co nt inuo usly from t op t o bottom of
a wall,Thi s gives th e facade a characte ristic
st riped appearance w it h stro ng shadows
across t he sta nding seam joint s in sunlight.
Th e sheet met al is fixed o n th e hori zo nt al
jo ints w it h fiattened seams t hat allow rainw a-
t er t o drain off easily, Hori zontal joints are at
distances t o suit t he visual appearance of t he
design but 12,0 metres (39ft 4in) t o 17,0
metres (55ft 9in) is t he maximum depending
o n th e metal used.Vertical joints align w it h
t he edges of w indows and doo r openings,
H ori zo nt al joint s are usually staggered t o
form a patt ern rather th an t ry t o achieve a
co nt inuous st raight line w hich is difficult t o
keep comp lete ly straight and hori zontal.Thi s
is because ho rizont al joint s are broken
between each vertical seam,
Lapped ti les are made approximate ly
~
I D· 0)
CD
I 0
\'
Verti cal section & elevation I :S0, Sheet metal cladding with
vertical jo int s
450mm t o 600mm ( 18inx24in) square and
are set in eit her hori zont al and ver t ical edges
o r at a 45° angle, Other angles can be used
but are harder t o co-o rdinate w it h t he edges
of co rne rs and o penings, W indow and door
o penings are usually enclosed in a met al strip
aro und t he reveal of t he o pening, w it h a
shadow gap o r proj ectin g co rne r deta il.T iles
are not folded int o openings due t o t he
complexity of jointin g and t he difficulty of
getting t hem to fo ld neatly at half way across
t he panels, Shadows across t he surface of a
ti led wa ll have small stro ng lines w hich give a
very t extured appearance t o t he facade.Tiles
are lapped o n four sides t o give a cont inuo us
wate rt ight joint o n all edges,
Recessed joints are formed in sheet
met al laid over a specially form ed subst rate
t o prod uce recessed lines, w hich are usually
horizont al.The material is occasionally
recessed o n fo ur sides and set o n a plyw ood
backgroun d w it h projecting panels form ed by
t he plywood , How ever.t his t echnique is sel-
do m used any more due t o th e increased
use of metal rainscreen panels w it h th eir
 @ i

1
Vertical section :I0, Folded metal sheet parapet
detail

3-D views of folded metal sheet with

@ angled seam lines

Details
I, Folded metal sheet
2, Fixing battens Vertical section I: I0, Folded metal sheet connection
3, Standingseam joints to aluminium curtain wall type window head
4, Window frame

---------.r--CD 5, Waterproof membrane, typically

CD 6,
bitumen based paint
Internal finish
Horizontal section I: I0, Folded metal sheet
7, Metal clips fixed at centres
connection to aluminium curtain wall type window
8, Timber window cill
9, Substrate in plywood or timber
board
10. Folded metal coping
I I. Thermal insulation
I 2. Backing wall - timber/metal frame
@
with plywood facing
I 3. Vapour barrier
14. Ventilated metal drip
15. Structural concrete wall

Vertical section I:I0, Folded metal sheet connection

to aluminium curtain wall type window cill

CD

I
@ @
®

3-D view of aluminium window in folded metal cladding system Vertical section I,I0, Ground level cill

MC E 15
fl etalWalls 0 I
Sheet metal

Ho rizontal section I 10. Simple seam details at

corners

Details
I. Folded metal sheet
Ho rizontal section I :IO. Internal corner junction Hori zontal section I:I O. External corner formed 2. Fixing battens
with wall from folded metal sheet 3. Standingseam joint s
4. W indow frame
5. W at erpro of membrane,typically
bitumen based paint
6. Internal finish
7. Metal clips fixed at centres
8. Timber window cill
9. Substrate in plywood or timber
I
I board
[ 10. Folded metal coping
I

o : I I. Thermal insulation

---- Wv~1IfNft - 12.

13.
Backing wall - timber/metal frame
with plywood facing
Vapour barrier
14. Ventilated metal drip
@ 15. Structural concrete wall

Horiz ontal section I: IO. Internal corner connection Horiz ontal section I 10. External corner with seam
with folded metal sheet connection

advantage of flat ness of panel and close fixing
t o lerances, providing crisp lines at joint s
w hich are more difficult to achieve in a sheet
met al cont inuo usly suppo rte d on a profiled
background. How ever.t his t echnique may
find favour again due t o it s rich surface t ex-
t ure. D rips are incorpo rat ed at hori zont al
recessed joints to avo id st aining occurrin g as
a result of dirt being washed off th e flat sur-
faces of t hese joint s.
Op enings
Where ver t ical jointed sheet metal is used,
w indow and door o penings are usually posi-
tioned so th at a joint falls o n th e edge of an
opening.T his gives a clean, co-o rdinate d
appearance to th e facade, but op enings th at
are set deliberately 'off grid' from t he vertical
joint s also look visually dramatic.A recent
developm ent has been to use sheet metal
w it h vert ical joint s inclined at angles up t o
45° from th e vert ical so th at th ey co nt rast
w it h rectilinear w indow o penings, giving t he
sheet metal th e appearance of a cont inuo us
'no n-gridded' t exture acro ss a complete
facade. For all ori ent ation s of sheet met al.
w indow and doo r o penings have separate
met al sheets forming reveals o n all sides.
A lt ho ugh t his can result in some awkward
pieces of met al to form junction s aro und
w indows, in practice t hey are pract ical and
eco no m ic t o fo rm o n site due t o t he site -
based nature of fixing metal sheet. Sheet
metal cladding is ideally suite d t o t he com-
plex juncti on s associated w it h non -rectilin e-
ar geomet ries.A ttempts t o make th e mate-
rial appear too regular can produce disap-
pointing results, parti cularly w here a pure
rectilinear grid is attempte d. In t his inst ance,
met al rainscreen panels w o uld probably be
more suit able.
W indows and doors are glazed w it h
almost any available t echnique, but t he ever-
increasing use of do uble glazed units both t o
conserve energy and avo id co ndensat ion o n
t he w indow o r door surface has led t o t her-
mally broken sect ions being used very com-
monly.W indow frames are ofte n clad in t he
same sheet metal as used in th e adjacent
facade, but thi s is expensive since th e metal
cladding w ill always be a decorative finish t o
a w indow t hat is designed fo r use w it ho ut
such a finish.Th e usual altern ative is to use
eit her a po lyester powd er coate d o r PVDF
paint finish on aluminium t o match th e col-
o ur of t he adjacent met al, o r use a different
mat erial such as t imb er w indows .A paint fin-
ish is o bviously much easier t o match if th e
sheet metal finish is pre-patinated (pre-
we at hered) so t hat it s final colour w ill be
very similar to t he colo ur of th e metal w hen
inst alled.Thi s is much more difficult in
unweathered metals.Th e use of galvanised
steel w indows and doors w it h zinc is not so
commo n due t o th e increased performance
of paint coat ings. How ever.galvanised finishes
are ever-increasing in th eir durability and may
event ually be used as a durab le finish for
w indow frames.
Buildings clad partly in sheet metal are
beginning t o use large-scale glazed openings
using a com plete ly different system such as
bo lt fixed glazing.W hereas t hese two syste ms
previou sly seemed incomp atible, w it h sheet
metal as an economic system and bo lt fixed

MC E 16
 Ir
Ir
r Ho rizontal section I 10, External corner with seam
connection
Horizontal section I : I0, External corner with seam
connection

r
r
Vertical section I: I0, Parapet detail in folded metal
sheet with projecting joints

Horizontal section I: I 0,W indow detail in folded metal sheet with projecting joints

Vertical section I : I0, Timber window cill detail in

folded metal sheet with projecting joints

Vert ical section I: I0, Ground level cill detail in

folded metal sheet with projecting joints
3-D view of folded metal sheet cladding with projecting joints.Type I

MCE 17
fl etal W alls 0 I
Sheet metal

Vert ical section I: Ia,Aluminium window head detail

in folded metal sheet with recessed joints

Vertical section I:Ia,Aluminium curtain wall type

window cill detail in folded metal sheet with
3-D view of folded metal sheet with recessed seams, Type I recessed joints

glazing as an expe nsive syste m, t he two are are not used,Timbe r boards are used but are
now used together increasingly w he re a usually more ex pe nsive, as is profile d metal
de libe rate co nt rast of surface t extu re is sheet. W he re t imber fram ing is used fo r t he
Deta ils
so ught.W hile bo lt fi xed glazing has a smoot h, wa ll co nst ruct ion, t he t imb er subst rate fo rms
I, Folded metal sheet
2, Fixing battens co nt inuo us surface uninterrupt ed by visible an integral part of t he exte rna l wall. provid-
3, Standing seam joints
4, W indow frame
fram ing, shee t metal has joint s in a direction ing d iap hragm stiffness in t he fram e , Profiled
5, W at erproof membrane,typically at 400mm ( Ift 4in) to 600mm (2ft) ce nt res , metal sheet is increasingly used as a sub-
bitumen based paint
6, Internal finish
w it h a co mparat ively uneven surface finish, strate fo r zinc, since zinc is more rigid t han
7, Metal clips fixed at centres ot he r metals such as co ppe r o r lead. Profiled
8, Timber window cill
9, Substrate in plywood or timber Substrates and suppo rt ing walls met al sheet can span t he gap betwee n t he
board Shee t metals can be laid direct ly o nto a sub- peaks of th e cladding, w hile providing a vent i-
I0, Folded metal coping
I I, Thermal insulation st rate , typically plywood , w it h t he exce pt ion lated zo ne be hind to avoid co rros ion of t he
12, Backing wall - timber/metal frame of zinc, w hich needs vent ilat ion o n its int erior zinc.The add it ion of a vent ilat ion mat pro-
with plywood facing
13. Vapour barrier
face to avoid co rros ion, Plywoo d is preferred vides a full gap betw een t he zinc and t he
14, Vent ilat ed metal drip for its d urab ility, since if it beco mes we t profi led metal.
15, Structural concrete wall
before a rep air can be undertaken , t he mate- Shee t metal is increasingly fi xed t o walls
rial can dry o ut w it ho ut be ing damaged , co nst ructe d in a w ide range of mat erials:t im-
Other materials such as particle board s are ber frames, precast co ncrete, co ncrete block
not resistant to moisture pen etration and so and lightw e ight ste e l frames made in cold

MC E 18

Vertical section I: I0, Parapet detail in folded metal
sheet with recessed joints
Horizontal section I: I0, Panel to panel junction with
recessed joint
@ @
Horizontal section I: I0, Junction between curtain wall type window and folded metal sheets with recessed
junctions
fo rm ed sect ions,
In Type I, timber fram es use sheet metal
as a cladding in a fair ly traditional form of
const r uction, or as infill panels t o a timber,
concrete o r stee l frame.The overall cross
sect io n of th e w all remains th in due to th e
inclusion of th erma l insulation w it hin th e
fr ame rather t han o n an o utside face,A
vapo ur barri er is needed on th e w arm- in-
w inte r side (in a t emp erate climate) t o avo id
vapo ur reaching th e insulation from inside,
T he vapo ur barrier is needed in t he same
place in Type 3, w here pressed stee l, o r 'light
gauge' stee l sect ions are used.The all-metal
const r uction ofType 3 is undergoing refine-
ment for use in housing,w here almost all its
compo nents can be eit her recycled o r
unbo lted and modified w it h th e same kit of
parts durin g its lifet ime, It s fiatness of appear-
I
Horizontal section I: I 0, External corner detail in
folded metal sheet with recessed jo ints
Vertical section I: IO,Timber window head detail in
folded metal sheet with recessed joints
Horizontal section I: I 0,Junction between timber
window and folded metal sheets with recessed
junctions
ance combined w it h small-scale st anding
Vertical section I: IO,Timber window cill detail in
seam joints make it ideal for a sealed metal folded metal sheet with recessed joints
cladding w here profiled metal sheet o r com-
posite panels have t oo 'indu strial' an appear-
ance, InType 2, t herm al insulati on is set o n
t he o utside of t he concrete st r uct ure in
o rder to use its th erm al mass as we ll as to
keep t he st r ucture at as even a t emperature
as possible,Th e metal cladding is th en set for-
ward of t he insulati on,A new develop ment is
th e use of profi led metal cladding as a sub-
st rate in Type 4,W here zinc is used t he vo id
fo rm ed by t he profiled sheet provides a ven-
ti lation zone w it ho ut th e use of timber.A
plastic-based drainage mat is set between t he
zinc and th e profi led sheet to complete t he
Vertical section I: I0, Ground level cill detail in
vent ilat ion, folded metal sheet with recessed joints
MC E 19
fl etal Walls 0 I
Sheet metal

Vertical section I: I a. Ground level cill detail with

Verti cal section I: I a. Parapet detail with
interlocking folded metal panels.Type 3
interlocking folded metal sheets

Details
I. Folded metal sheet
2. Fixing battens
3. Standingseam joints
4. W indow frame
5. W at erproof membrane,typically bitumen
based paint
@ 6. Internal finish
7. Metal clips fixed at centres
8. Timber window cill
9. Substrate in plywood or timber board
I a. Folded metal coping
I I. Thermal insulation
12. Backing wall - timber/metal frame with
plywood facing
13. Vapour barrier
Vertical section I: Ia.Typical wall build-up with Vertical section I: I a. Recessed aluminium 14. Ventilated metal drip
interlocking folded metal panels window in interlocking folded metal facade IS. Structu ral concrete wall

Corners, parapets and cills
Shee t metal can be joine d at co rne rs in
facades wit h e it he r recesse d o r proje cting
cove rst rips.The cove rs need a t imber o r ply-
wood suppo rt under th em to provide rigidity
Corn ers for vert ically set metal sheet can also
be formed by sett ing st anding seam joints at
th e co rne r, o r close to th e co rne r o n e it he r
side of th e edge .W it h tiled shee ts, co rne rs
usually w rap aro und, igno ring th e co rne r li ke
a co nt inuo us patt ern folded aro und th e co r-
ner.Altern at ive ly, co rne rs can have cove rst rips
th at break th e patt ern from o ne facade to
anot he r. There is an increased use of presse d
metal clips and rails, as used in profiled met al
cladding, to suppo rt sheet metal subst rates ,
typically plywo od . Clips and rails are made as
propri etar y syste ms w hich can be fixed t o th e
backing wa ll quickly and eas ily adjuste d to
co rrect vert ical o r inclined alignme nt.
An adva ntage of sheet metal is th at para-
pet co pings and cill drips at th e base of wa lls
at w indows can be formed in th e same mate-
rial w it h an identi cal fini sh.This is unlike many
ot he r metal cladding syste ms, w he re ext rude d
aluminium o r pressed steel o r aluminium are
most co mmo nly used for parapets and cills.
The ability to form met al o n site in junction s
of shee t metal wa lls wit h parapet co pings is
use d e it he r to form a recessed joint, w hich
allows th e sta nd ing sea m joint in th e cladd ing
t o be tapered down to th e li ne of th e co ping,
o r a proje cting parapet co ping w hich allows
th e sta nding sea m to butt up to the und er-
side of th e co ping.W it h e it he r solut ion, an
undercloak fl ashing o r wate rproof laye r is
need ed undern eath th e co ping to provide
addit ional wate rproo fi ng.
Cills are formed in a similar way, but w it h
projecting o r flush drips to throw water clear
of th e base of th e cladd ing.W he re unweath -
e red metal is used, care sho uld be t aken th at
rainwater run off from ox id ising metal does
not stain paved surfaces at th e base of th e
wa ll. Slot dr ains o r gravel edges can be used
both t o provide dr ainage and avoid visible
staining. Drips are often reinforced w it h a
steel o r aluminium angle to create a stro ng,
straight edge . Compatibility between th e clad-
ding material and suppo rt material must be
e nsured to avoid bimetallic co rros ion.W he re
t he vo id behind met al cladding is used for
vent ilat ion, parapets and cills are used to
introdu ce fresh air. Insect mesh is introdu ced
wit hin th e jo int, but its presen ce does not
alte r air fl ow rates signifi cant ly.

MC E 20
 @

Horizontal section I : IO. Interlocking metal panels.

External corn er with metal fold
3-D view of folded meta l sheet
with recessed seams.
Type 4

Horizontal section I: IO. Interlocking metal panels.

Internal corner with join t

3-D view of folded meta l

sheet w ith recessed seams.
Type 4

= =
1Inn I I ~n""rrgrn""n (
&
I I I I I I I I_I t _ U ~U.J I U I I J ,-

H orizontal sectio n I : IO. Interlocking meta l panels.

External corn er with joint

---i.
(0-----'--- - -
Horizontal section I : I O. Interlocking metal panels.
Window junct ion
3-D view of fo lded metal sheet wit h recessed seams

MCE 21
Metal Walls 01-- - - - - - - -
Sheet metal

Deta ils
I. Foldedmetal sheet
2:F'xlngbattens
3. Standing seam joints
5.Waterproof 4,W,ndow frame
membrane. typICa lly
brturren based pa int
7 Met I ' e.toternal f.nish
. a des fixed at centres
9. Substrate ill p~mber Window (ill
or timber board
10. Folded metal coping
12, Backing waUI I .Thermal insulation
- l imbe r/metal frame
., •• ~ facing
wlthp'''~
13.Yapo ur berner
14.Ventilated metal drip

"
.;;= "»:
3-D exploded view of horizontally set folded metal sheet facade with angIed seam lines

.::7 ~~( ~~
~

~::: \\\\ l\~

~-
~~ @

,
\,
,
"
\~
Me E_ 22 - ot horzontan 0
3-D exploded voew v' set folded metal sh
eel facade with angled seam toes
'=
'
3-D exploded view of corner condition in tiled 3-D exploded view of folded metal sheet with 3-D exploded view of folded metal sheet with
metal rainscreen system horizontal recessed seams vert ical recessed seams

3-D exploded view of corner condition in tiled 3-D view of folded metal sheet with recessed seams 3-D view of folded metal sheet with recessed
metal rainscreen system seams

3-D exploded view of construction of horizontally set folded metal sheet 3-D exploded view of window opening in horizontally set folded metal
facade with angled seam lines sheet facade with vertical seam lines

MC E 23
fletal Walls 02
Profiled metal cladding
3-D view of horizontally set profiled metal sheet
An advantage of profiled metal cladding is
th at it can be easily integrated w it h a similar
syste m used for cladding th e roof A lso,small
areas of ro of can be easily accommodated as
steps w it hin th e facade w it h simple junction s
between vert ical and shallow pit ch ro ofs.At
th e junction w it h th e t op of th e ro of an
undercloak flashing is used t o ensure wate r
running off th e wall is sent on down th e roof
and not int o th e jo int at th e base.A t th e bot-
t om of th e ro of, eit her an exposed gutter o r
a concealed parapet gutter is used t o collect
th e rainw ater.Ver y small areas of roof can be
dr ained w it hout a gutter by proj ecting th e
roof beyond th e cladding, allow ing th e rain-
wate r to be thrown clear of th e cladding and
avoiding staining of th e wall below.Th e effect
of throwin g wate r clear of th e building needs
t o be int egrat ed w it hin th e overall design.
Profiled metal cladding is most commo nly
used in large single sto rey buildings such as
factories o r wa rehouses w here it spans verti-
cally from gro und t o ro of w it ho ut th e need
for addit ional suppo rt. This makes it a very
economical solut io n for enclosing th ese
building ty pes.A lt ho ugh profil ed metal d ad-
MC E 24
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D view of ve rt ically set profiled metal sheet
ding is used mainly for industrial buildings in
conjunction w it h a portal fr ame in eit her
stee l or concrete , it pro vides an economic
cladding syste m for larger framed st r uct ures.
Th e mater ial can be set eit her vert ically
o r hori zontally t o suit th e design.
Horizontally-set cladding is used w here
it s st ro ng horizontal lines are used for linear
emphasis. Like vertically-set cladding,th e pro -
filed sheet is suppo rte d at 3.0 t o 5.0 metre
( l Oft t o 16ft 6in) cent res by posts o r st ruc-
tural columns.This direction allow s th e mate-
rial t o enclose a building w it h a curve d sec-
ti on.A useful aspect of profil ed metal sheet -
ing is it s ability t o be curved in one direction.
This makes it an ideal cladding material for
buildings w it h a curved vertical sect ion. Slight
irregularities in th e surface finish o r setting
o ut of th e curve are concealed by th e profi le
it self Po lished stainless stee l has been used
for hori zont ally-set cladding in public build-
ings w here it s high cost is balanced by longer
durability th an coate d aluminium o r coate d
m ild stee l typ es.
Vert ically-set sheet ing has hori zontal clad-
ding rails at 3.0 metre t o 5.0 metre ( l Oft t o
16ft 6in) cent res, depending o n th e floor
height. In buildings of more th an o ne storey,
an inner lining t o th e wall is usually added
since th e gap create d between th e cladding
and th e floor slab is difficult t o seal economi-
cally at floor level in a way th at w ill allow
peop le t o wa lk o n it.T he addit ional inner lin-
ing may exte nd up t o 1.0 metres (3ft 3in)
above th e finished floor level and may be
eit her a metal lining tray forming part of th e
proprietary cladding syste m, o r be a concrete
blockw ork wall aro und 100mm (4in) thi ck.A
smo ke seal o r fire barri er may be required
between th e floors enclosed by th e cladding
but th is is very much dependent upon it s
parti cular applicat ion.A lt ho ugh hori zontal
rails can be set at w ide cent res, addit ional
rails may be needed eit her t o accommo date
w indows and doors o r t o increase th e stiff-
ness of th e wall w it ho ut using a much deeper
profil e, w hich wo uld also increase st iffness.
Junctions
W hen laid vert ically, sheets are jo ined by lap-
ping th em by aro und 150mm (6in) at vertical
joints. Hori zontal joints are also lapped w it h
 ~

-
@
r~,~=
HI r--

- .....
-
""
,/
@

/ .....
;-- /"" F-
...-""
Details
KD I, Metal cover st rip set
@ 2, Ho rizontally-set profiled sheet
3. Vert ically-set profiled sheet
4, Z section steel fixing rails
5, Thermal insulation
6, Backing wall. typically
® t imber/meta l frame with
:- pIyM:xxJ facingandwaterproof f
F- ,1--1'
membrane. or concrete block ~,
7, Vapour barrier
"
8, Int ernal finish

r
I
8> 1 8> 9, Roof.typically profiled
metal sheet
10, Curved eavesprofile
I I. Concealed gutter
12. Exposed gutter

°1
.--i F-
13.
14.
15.
Supporting structural frame
Structural slab
Window frame
16. Metal tri m to w indow
17. Metal parapet coping

,,
)
J

,
I

8) \ ~
H t-- H

,
"
I

; ~
~ f
,
:---:I F-
rl
l
I

~-

8> 8>
Vertical section I :25,Vertically set profiled metal Vertical section I:25V ert ically set profiled metal Vertical section I:25, Horizontally set profiled metal
cladding with gutter cladding with gable end cladding with parapet

_ _ .r1. _ _, " - - -

Vertical section I: I0, Roof junction at gable end Typical profiled sheet profiles

MCE 25
 @
Vertical section I: IO. Gutter detail for large span enclosure
Vertical section I: IO. Parapet detail
Vertical section I 10.Ground level cill detail 3-D view of profiled metal sheet as roof material
th e upper sheet set ove r th e low er o ne in
th e traditional manner.W hen laid hori zont ally,
horizontal joints are formed w it h laps as
w hen laid vert ically, but horizontal jo ints are
not usually lapped in th e same w ay,Thi s is
mainly because it is difficult t o form a co nt in-
uous straight line in a joint th at moves in and
o ut w it h th e shape of th e profi le. Instead a
recessed t op hat sect io n o r proj ecting cover-
plate is used.Th e profi led sheet is butted up
t o th e C-shaped sect io n and sealed w it h sili-
co ne or mastic.Th e same pr inciple is used for
a projecting coverplate .
Co rne rs are treated in a sim ilar w ay, Co r-
ners t o vert ically- and horizontally-set clad-
ding use proj ecting o r recessed coverst rips.
Th e profiled sheets th at meet are lapped
how ever.t o pro vide a w eat hert ight seal and
Vertical section I 10.Meta l door detail
th e coverplate, pro vides both an addit ional
MC E 26
seal along a potent ially vulnerable jo int as
we ll as a crisp line t o th e corne r. Regardless
of sheet o rientat ion, edging and jo inting piec-
es are clearly visible, making th em an impo r-
ta nt part of th e design.W hereas profil ed
sheet can be lapped t o give a co nt inuous
appearance o n a large area of facade, th e
edging and joint ing pieces of parapets, cills
and co rne rs are clearly visible.T he visual
impact of th ese junct ion s can be reduced
w it h recessed joints.Th e use of curve d eaves
sheet s and curved (in plan) co rne r sheets
was develop ed t o avoid th e need for visible
co rner pieces.90° co rner sheets are now
available, from some manufacturer s, th at can
be lapped smoot hly over adjacent profi led
metal sheet s.
 IV

o l

3-D view of gutter at connection between profiled metal wall and roof system

Vertical section I 10, Sloping roof junction at gable end

Vertical section I : I0, Gable end with external metal gutter [-""'--,

Parapets and gutters m itred corne r panels to allow a curved pro -

Parapet s are usually fo rm ed by eit her pro - file to be used continuously arou nd a building.
jecting th e pro filed sheet above th e roof line Visible gutters are fixed on th e outside Verti cal section I :IO. Roof junction at gable end
in o rder t o conceal th e roof complete ly, face of th e cladding.The roof projects over
w hich is ofte n in th e same material in th e th e t op of th e cladding in o rder t o dr ain rain-
case of industrial buildings,A lte rnat ively, a low wate r into th e gutter. resulting in th e ro of vis- D etails
I. Metal cover strip set
parapet is formed at th e level of th e intersec- ually proj ecting fo rw ard of th e wa ll. unlike a 2. Horizontally-set profiled sheet
t ion of wa ll and ro of, w it h a recessed gutter parapet gutte r.A n advantage of t his method 3. Vertically-set profiled sheet
4. Z section steel fixing rails
set immediately behind th e parapet. A varia- is th at rainw ater is kept o ut side th e building, 5. Thermal insulation
t ion on t his latter so lut io n is t o use curve d avoiding th e need t o run vertical rainw ater 6. Backing wall,typically
timber/metal frame with
eavest o give th e idea of complete cont inuity pipes w it hin a building,th en runnin g rainw a- plywood facingand waterproof
membrane, or concrete block
between walls and roof w it h o nly a recessed t er back o ut th rough t he found atio ns below
7. Vapour barrier
gutter creat ing a line between th e two.T he gro und level. Since gutters are needed o nly 8. Internal finish
9. Roof,typically profiled
recessed gutter in any of th ese configurat ions at th e base of ro of slopes, gutters are often
metal sheet
is useful w hen a pitched ro of is used. On th e not needed o n all facades, giving an uneven 10, Curved eaves profile
I I, Concealed gutter
gable elevat ion th e parapet can remain th e appearance t o th e building.A solut ion t o
I 2, Exposed gutter
same height w hile th e roof rises and falls making gutters wo rk o n all facades is t o
independently of th e cont inuing line of th e design a hipped roof th at drains equally into
parapet o n all sides,Curved eaves have all gutters, but thi s can complicate roof

MC E 27
rl etal W alls 02
Profiled metal cladding

Vertical section I 10, Curved eaves with hidden gutter Vertical section I:I 0, Curved eaves without gutter

Details
I, Metal cover strip set
.-- 2, Horizontally-set profiled sheet
3. Vertically-set profiled sheet
4, Z section steel fixing rails
5, Thermal insulation
6, Backing wall,typically
timber/metal frame with
plywood facingand waterproof
membrane, or concrete block
7, Vapour barrier
8, Internal finish
9, Roof,typically profiled
metal sheet
10, Curved eaves profile
I I, Concealed gutter
I 2, Exposed gutter
I 3, Supporting structural frame
14, Structural slab
15, Window frame
16, Metal trim to window
17, Metal parapet coping

3-D view of curved eaves connection with hidden gutter

F=:==:=::::::::::::::::::=_-
__ =.:::::_=.--_
---=-
Vertical section I: I0,Junction with roof Vertical section I: I0, Roof junction at abutting wall

MC E 28

3-D view and cut-away of profiled metal sheet assemblywith gutter
design. Gutter s require suppo rt by brackets
back t o primary st r ucture in o rder t o sup-
port th e we ight of w ate r w hen in use.The
suppo rt ing brackets usually need t o pene-
trate th e cladding, requirin g seals aro und th e
penetratio ns in order t o make t hem weat h-
ert ight. If t he roof construct ion is required t o
be vent ilate d t hen th e dept h of th e gutter
w ill increase if th e roof is int ended t o be hid-
den fro m view. D eep gutters have a stro ng
visual presence o n th e facade.
W indow and door openings
T he reveals for w indows and doo r s are
formed in flat met al sheet. usually th e same
met al and same colo ur as t he profiled sheet-
ing. In pr actice th e colour matching can be
difficult if t he coat ing (usually po lyester pow -
der coat ing o r PVDF) is applied in different
wo rksho ps or by different coat ing applica-
t o r s. Cont rasting colo urs are somet imes
chosen for t his reason .This is also tru e of
w indow sect ions,w hich are usually supplied
predated by a different manufacturer. Close
co- o rdinat io n is needed between cont rac-
t ors to ensure a co nsistent co lour through-
o ut t he project.A n alte rnat ive approach is t o
reduce reveals t o a small dept h and use a
colour fo r t he w indows different from t hat
of th e adjacent cladding. For example, w it h
a silver met allic finish fo r cladding, a darker
grey might be used fo r w indow frames w it h-
o ut creat ing any cont rast betw een th e two
colours used.
Cills are formed in pressed met al w hich
is inclined t o drain w ate r from its horizont al
surface and has a pro jecting dr ip t o avoid
dirt. washed off t he cill, runnin g onto th e
cladding below, w hich wo uld cause staining.
Some drips have rising edges at th e sides t o
avoid wate r runnin g off at t he sides t hat
causes st reaking in lines below th e edges of
t he o penings. Cills at gro und level o r at t he
base of t he cladding are eit her flush o r pro -
jecting,t o suit visual requirement s.As w it h
sheet met al cladding, t he cill is usually rein-
forced both t o ensure it lies in a st raight line
and protect it from accidental damage.
..
Insulation and liner trays
A lt ho ugh profiled met al sheet is capable of
lo ng vert ical spans, t he th erm al insulat io n and
int ern al finish mat erial require addit ional sup-
port.The insulation cannot be fixed directly
t o t he metal sheet w it ho ut being bo nded t o
it. Fixing br ackets t o t he pro filed sheet wo uld
involve penetratin g th e sheet. creat ing a pos-
sible po int for w ate r ingress.Welding a sup-
port bracket wo uld be both expensive and
easily distort t he surface of th e cladding.
Bond ing t he insulati o n t o t he liner w ould be
th e next practical method, but thi s is done as
a composite panel, w hich has const raints and
is dealt w it h in th e next section.
Flexible insulati on quilt is fixed t o int er-
mediary sheet ing rails th at are also used t o
suppo rt an inner metal lining sheet. Sheeting
rails are made from pressed steel sections.
Since t he lining sheets are usually flat, t o cre-
ate a smoot h finish w it hin t he building, t hey
do not span very far and require sheet ing
rails set at close cent res.T he rails can be used
to give addit ional rigidity to th e o ute r profi led
sheet. but thi s requires penetrating th e sheet
MCE 29
fl etal ails 02
Profiled meta l cladding
Vertical section I : I0. A luminium window recessed
into profiled metal cladding system
@ wall finish is not needed. Som e interm ediary
3-D views of head and cill details of recessed alu-
minium window in profiled metal facade
MC E 30
3-D view of recessed aluminium window in profiled metal facade
w it h screw fixings w hich are sealed from th e
o ut side w it h plasti c caps and w ashers.
A n inner lining tray can also be form ed
from th e same metal profi led sheet. as used
in wareho use buildings w here a smooth inner
sheet ing rails are still required t o suppo rt th e
th erm al insulati o n.A more econo mic form of
lining w all th at does not interfere w it h th e
o ute r profiled cladding is concrete blockwork.
In thi s instance, closed cell th erm al insulation
is fixed t o th e out side face of th e wa ll.
Developments
Th e range of profi le ty pes is steadily increas-
ing, w it h w ider,deeper profi les th at we re
o riginally designed for use as ro of decking
being used as w all cladding. How ever, some
of th e inter locking ty pes used on roofs are
not suite d t o cladding since t he st anding
seam joint. w hich is not designed t o be tightly
folded t ogether, does not wo rk w hen set in
t he vert ical plane.This pr inciple is also tru e of
wall cladding types w hich are lapped and are
not suite d t o use in ro ofs, w here th e seam is
not high enough t o be submerged under
wate r during rain.A recent developm ent has
been th e use of flat metal rainscreen panels
fixed directly t o a profi led sheet.This provides
a smoot h finish visually t o th e outside face of
t he cladding, w hile maintaining th e economy
and st r uctural efficiency of t he profiled sheet.
A lt ho ugh th e oute r metal panel is fixed t o
th e profiled sheet w it h screws o r rivets th at
penetrate it. th e pin jointed rainscreen config-
uration protects t he fixings from th e wo rst
effects of w indblow n rain.
 Vertical section 10. Gutter detail for small span
enclosure

Vertical section I 10, Roof connection to composite metal roof system

L
Vertical section 10. Cill connection to concrete
upstand
'3

@ -'t]'- r

Horizontal section I :I0, Internal corner Horizontal section I: I0. External corner n U l ILVllLdl :::.eCLlUII I . I v . \.....UlllleClIUII LV Illeldl UUUI

Deta ils
I, Metal cover strip set
2, Horizontally-set profiled sheet
3, Vertically-set profiled sheet
4, Z section steel fixing rails
5, Thermal insulation
6, Backing wall,typically
timber/metal frame with
plywood facing and waterproof
membrane, or concrete block
7, Vapour barrier
8, Internal finish
9, Roof,typically profiled
metal sheet
10. Curved eaves profile
I I. Concealed gutter
I 2. Exposed gutter
13. Supporting structural frame
14. Structural slab
15. Window frame
16. Metal trim to window
17. Metal parapet coping

3-D view of rear of recessed alumin-

ium window in profiled metal facade

MCE 31
fletal Wa Is 02
Profiled metal cladding

Details
I. Metal cover strip set 7. Vapour barrier
2. Horizontally-set profiled sheet 8. Internal finish
3. Vertically-set profiled sheet 9. Roof,typically profiled
4. Z section steel fixing rails metal sheet
5. Thermal insulation 10. Curved eaves profile
6. Backing wall,typically I I. Concealed gutter
timber/metal frame with I 2. Exposed gutter
plywood facingand I 3. Supporting structural frame
waterproof membrane, 14. Structural slab
or concrete block 15. Window frame
16. Metal trim to window
17. Metal parapet coping

3-D detail view of profiled metal

sheet connection to blockwork wall

3-D detail view of profiled

metal sheet with gutter

3-D exploded detail view of profiled metal sheet connection to blockwork wall

MC E 32 3-D exploded view of profiled metal sheet assembly with gutter

 ,

3-D exploded view of vertically

3-D exploded view of horizon- set folded metal sheet
tally set folded metal sheet

3-D view of recessed aluminium window in

profiled metal facade
3-D view and exploded axono-
metric of window head detail

3-D exploded view of recessed aluminium window in profiled metal facade

3-D section of recessed aluminium 3-D view and exploded axono-

window in profiled metal facade metric of window cill detail

MC E 33
 Metal W alls 03
Composite panels
------
3-D view of compos ite panels fixed to aluminium supporting frame
with inter locking joints on two sides with vertical (right) and horizon -
tal (left) capping pieces
Comp osite metal panels require few er com-
pon ents th an for th e 'kit of parts' used in th e
assembly of profiled metal cladding. Like pro-
filed metal.panels are set eit her vert ically o r
horizontally.Some panels int erlock o n tw o
sides,w hile ot hers interl ock o n four sides.
Four-sided panels require no separate int er-
face com po nents for jo inting but it is more
difficult later t o remove a damaged panel.
Horizontally-set composite panels can
be easily int egrat ed w it h ribbon w indows
and suit building facades covering several
floors. Panels are stacked o ne above th e
ot her w it h th eir vert ical joints closed by rub -
ber-based gaskets, recessed channel sect ions
in alum inium, o r proj ecting coverst rips in alu-
minium. Panels are fixed back t o t he pr imary
str uct ure o r o n a secondary stee l frame, typ-
ically box sect ions, fixed t o th e sides of floor
slabs if colum ns are spaced t oo far apart o r
columns are not position ed o n th e edge of
floor slabs.
W here w indows are used in a facade,
addit ional support is needed t o frame th e
opening.T his is because w indows are not
suppo rted by th e composite panels except
MC E 34
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
@ (2)
Horizontal section 1:5. Connection
between composite panel and curta in
wall type glazing with cap
w here made specifically as part of a proprie-
t ary system. In pr actice, w indows are usually
supplied by a specialist manufacturer.
T he steel suppo rt fr aming is set o n th e
face of th e slab, making it easier t o take up
deflect ions in floor slabs. However, as is th e
case w it h curtain wa lling,th e gap between
composite panel and floor slab needs filling
w it h a smo ke seal o r fire barri er.Th e floor fin-
ish usually has a metal angle t o close off th e
gap at slab level and at th e soffit level below.
Four-sided int erl ocking panels use t he same
prin ciple for fixing o n all four sides.This also
makes it easier t o integrate w indows w it hin
th e system since a w indow panel is locked in
like any ot her panel.
Vertically-set composite panels are more
commo n in single storey applicat ions, but
multi-storey applicat ions are used increasingly.
Panels are int erlocked at vert ical jo int s, w hile
hori zont al joints are formed by using a cill-
t ype detail similar t o th at used in a transition
from vert ical panel t o low pitc hed roof A cill
in extruded o r fo lded aluminium o r stee l
(de pending o n w hich met al is used for th e
composite panel faces) is used.Th e front of
l
- @-- @- -
CD
Horizontal section 1:5. Panel to panel
connect ion with visible cap
CD
Horizontal section 1:5. Panel to window
connect ion with visible cap
@ (2)
Horizontal section 1:5.Connection
between composite panel and curta in
wall type glazing with metal flashing
th e trim projects beyond th e face of th e
cladding t o th row wate r clear and prevent
staining t o panels below.The back of th e dr ip
proj ects up th e back of th e upper panel t o
prevent wate r from penetrating th e jo int.
Panels are also suppo rte d o n eit her an inter-
locking frame o r occasionally th ey span
between columns if panels are st iff enough t o
span unassisted.A n additional method of fix-
ing panels is t o position th em between floor
slabs spanning from floor t o ceiling w hen
used as part of a rainscreen syste m. Panels sit
o n th e floor slab w it h th eir o ute r face flush
w it h th e edge of th e slab.Th e oute r rain-
screen is set forw ard of th e composite panel,
concealing both th e panels and th e edge of
th e floor slab.
Interl ocking vert ically-set panels are of
several ty pes, unlike horizontally-set types,
w hich have a ste pped jo int t o avoid rainw a-
te r penetration.T he most commo n type for
vert ical jo ints is also a stepped jo int w it h a
recess o n th e oute r face.A n alte rnat ive is t o
have projecting nibs o n th e sides of th e panel
t o w hich a coverp late is fixed over th e gap
between th e t w o panels. Rubber-based seals
 Details
I, Vertically-set composite panel
2, Horizontally-set composite panel
3. Silicone-based seal
4, Outer metal facing
5, Inner metal facing
6, Inner insulation core
7, Metal capping
8, Concealed fixing
9, Supporting structure
10, 4-way interlocking composite panel
I I, Window frame
12, Sectional roller shutter formed from
composite panels
I 3, Roof construction, composite panels are
shown
3-D view of framework supporting composite pan- 3-D view of framework supporting composite pan- 14, Metal trim
els interlocking horizontally with vertical capping els interlocking horizontally with vertical capping 15, Exposed gutter
piece piece I 6, Concealed gutter
17, Metal parapet coping
@ 18, Stick glazed curtain walling
19, Door frame
l

,~

P r'I
r- V - f-i

CD
@
L ?1 CD
.c!

3-D view of profiled composite panel fixed to steel

supporting structure with vertical capping piece

CD
~'~

In r

l~

Vertical section I: I0, Parapet and cill with curtain

"r1 ~
Vertical section I: I O~Parapet and ground '
3-D view of horizontal interlocking joint between
profiled composite metal panels

walling type window set into c1adding.Typical in level cill

industrial applications
MC E 35
 @
,,""'"'

Details
I, Vert ically-set composite panel
2, Horizontally-set composite panel
3. Silicone-based seal
4, Outer metal facing
5, Inner metal facing
6, Inner insulation core
3-D view of concealed gutter detail 7, Metal capping
8, Concealed fixing
9, Supporting structure
10, 4-way interlocking composite panel
I I, W indow frame
I 2, Sectional roller shutter formed from
composite panels
I 3. Roof construction. composite panels
are shown
14. Metal trim
15. Exposed gutter
I 6. Concealed gutter
17. Metal parapet coping
I 8. Stick glazedcurtain walling
19. Door frame

Vertical section I:I O. Junction with roof including concealed gutter.

Integrated windows flush with face of composite panels

3-D view of junction with window frame

are set int o th e depth s of all th ese jo int ty pes.
A not her jo int is a C- shaped channel profile
w hich interl ocks w it h th e profil e of th e adja-
cent panel.The o utside face of th e panel has
a slight ly projecting edge instead of a
recessed joint in th e st epped joint types.
A ll th ese panel ty pes use jointing meth-
ods th at avoid th erm al brid ges. Drips often
penetrate from o ut side but th e low conden-
sat ion risk is assessed durin g th e design stage.
Parapets and cills
Parapet copings and dr ips at gro und level can
also be made as com posite panels. form ing
an integrated part of a proprietary syst em.
Th is can be an advantage w hen seeking a
seamless effect across a facade, but set s limi-
t ations o n th e variety of junction s (in t erm s
panels.A large number of different panel
ty pes cannot be produ ced economically for a
single proj ect. A lt hough folded metal fiashings
and ext r usions can appear more visually
int r usive th an a specially made composite
panel, thi s meth od is far more fiexib le for
dealing w it h varied parapet and gro und level
junction s. parti cularly for complex junctions.
Like fully suppo r t ed sheet metal facades.
parapets can be set eit her level w it h th e ro of.
t o create a cont inuo us smoot h envelope, o r
be stepped t o allow th e roof profile t o be
concealed.T he same pr inciples apply as
th ose for cont inuously suppo rt ed sheet
met al parapets and cills.
Windows and door openings
Th ere are two meth od s of creat ing an o pen-

3-D view of junction with ground slab of w idt h and height) at parapet and base due ing in a composite panel for both hori zont al-
t o th e need for repetiti on in specially made ly- and vert ically-set panels.Th e fir st method

MC E 36

3-D view of composite panel facade assembly with
flush glazing and concealed parapet
is a special reveal panel t hat int erl ocks w it h
t he composite panels.W it h vert ically-set pan-
els t he w indow inter locks into vert ical joints
and has coverstrips on hori zont al joint s.
W here ho rizont ally-set panels are used. t he
w indow int erlocks w it h t he horizont al jo ints
and has coverstrips applied o n t he vert ical
joints.Th e second meth od is t o use metal
sheet t o form a reveal.A single sheet of
metal, 1200 or I SOOmm w ide coil (4ft o r Sft),
is fixed t o a light gauge steel frame w hich is
insulated.The inner framed w all has a vapo ur
barrier and an inner met al sheet, usually
mat ching t he adjacent inner face of t he panels.
Heads and cills of openings are form ed in
t he same way w it h eit her a purp ose-made
corne r panel (t he cill is an inclined surface) o r
w it h sheet metal and t hermal insulati on.
How ever,th e lightweight metal fr ame is not
usually fixed back t o th e composite in order
@
I
Vert ical section I: Ia. Cross section through roof
with integrated parapet
3-D view of spandrel panel connection
1
Vertical section I : I a.lntegrated parapet. window
and doors all flush with face of composite panels.
t o avoid penetrating eit her o ute r o r inner
face of t he panels. Instead it is fixed back t o a
floor slab or t o th e prim ary struct ure.
Since th e inclusio n of reveals is not really
in t he nature of composite panel detailing,
and th e wall has littl e depth, th e addit ional
fr ame is also used t o suppo rt th e w indow,
t ypically aluminium framed w it h a th erm al
break and doub le glazed units. More ofte n,
w indows and do ors are fixed w it h th e o ute r
face of th e glass o r door aligned w it h th e
o ute r face of th e adjacent composite panels.
A n alte rnat ive form of glazing to w indows
and door s is t o use curta in walling.T herm ally
broken stick systems are fixed directly against
t he adjacent com posite panels w it h a seal set
against th e prim ary struct ure forming th e
o pening (ty pically vert ical sheet ing rails). If Vertical section 1:5. Metal door set flush with face of
hori zont ally-set panels are used. th en th e composite metal panel
curtain w alling can be sealed against adjacent
MC E 37
fletal ails 03
Composite panels

I views of composite panel curtain wall with recessed window with deep metal reveal, with cill and gutter detail

I
0..;;;..
I
@ I
'---
CD

CD ~
Vertical section I: I0. Parapet with concealed gutter Horizontal section I: I0. Door jamb with metal sheet forming
and curtain wall type wind ow recessed with deep panel in door reveal.
metal reveal.

composite panels w it h a vert ical cover st rip D evelop ment s

Details used for all vertical joints. Th e use of composite metal panels is increas-
I. Vertically-set composite panel
W here many w indows are requ ired at a ing int o building ty pes beyond industrial
2. Horizontally-set composite panel
3. Silicone-based seal parti cular height o n a facade, as w hen pro vid- buildings, into office buildings and spo r ts facil-
4. Outer metal facing
5. Inner metal facing
ing light into an upper floor, it is co mmo n t o ities. In th e case of office buildings, th ey pro -
6. Inner insulation core create a co nt inuous ribb on of w indows t o vide an eco nomic spandrel panel w here cur-
7. Metal capping
8. Concealed fixing
avoid small infills of composite panels t ain wa lling is not always effective. In spo rt s
9. Supporting structure between w indows.Th e cont inuo us line of facilities, composite panels enclose large
10. 4-way interlocking composite panel
I I. W indow frame w indow s is fixed back t o a secondary frame indoo r spaces w it h a durable, crisply-made
12. Sectional roller shutter formed from of steel box sect ions, w hich may be exposed and relatively eco nom ic cladding system.
composite panels
13. Roof construction , composite panels in th e building or be co ncealed behind an A lt ho ugh th e appearance of th e exte rnal face
are shown inner finish such as a plasterb oard lining. Co n- is smoot h and gridded, th e suppo rting st ruc-
14. Metal trim
IS. Exposed gutter tinu ous w indows can also be glazed int o hor- t ure is visible and usually set on t he inside
I 6. Concealed gutter izo nt ally-set panels int erlocking o n two sides, face t o avoid penetration s t o th e o utside
17. Metal parapet coping
18. Stick glazed curtain walling o r fou r-sided panels.Thi s can avoid th e need th rou gh th e joints betw een panels. If th e
19. Door frame for addit ional suppor t framing. In th is instance exposed st ruct ure is enclosed w it h an eco-
th e w indows are br aced back in th e same nomi c lining wall co ncealing th e st r uct ure, thi s
way as th e composite panels. addit ional element can add considerable cost

MC E 38

3-D view of cur ved internal corner panel with partially interlocking joints
3-D view of partially interlocking joint between composite panel and win dow
t o th e cladding, making it much less econo m ic.
For th is reason, suppo rt ing st r uct ure th at
is designed t o be seen, such as tubular stee l
post s, is increasingly used.Th e co m po site
panels span betw een st eel posts o r tru sses
w it h littl e o r no int er locking suppo rting
str uct ure . In o rder t o keep t he suppo rt ing
str uct ure as visually elegant as possible, truss-
es o r posts are spaced as far apart as possi-
ble.Thi s has led t o panels getting lo nger,w it h
a maximum length current ly aro und 15
metres (49ft) . Some prop r iet ary syste ms
include edges t o panels w hich are deeper,
making t he co nt inuo us vert ical joint s and
hori zontal joints more rigid, allowing t hem t o
span greate r distances, and t hus reducing t he
amo unt of visible supporting str ucture needed.
Increasingly, w indow o penings need not
10
Ho rizontal section 1:5. Partially interlocking curved
internal corner
Horizontal section 1:5. Partially interlocking connec-
tion between composite metal panel and window
be dictate d by t he direction in w hich panels
are laid. H orizontally-set panels do not have
Ho rizontal section 1:5. Partially interlocking external
w indows arranged ho rizont ally.Tr ansitio ns
corner
between w indow o penings and com po site
panels are becom ing mo re eco no m ic w it h
standard extr usions and rubber-based seals.
T his is ever-mo re t he case w it h fo ur-sided,
int er locking panels, w here w indow panels
and met al panels are fixed in t he sam e way.
Increasingly, irregular facade gr ids are being
develop ed in designs t o create a richer mix
of panel sizes in visual patchw o r k of different
sizes of panels.
Horizontal section I :5. Insulated corner connection
detail
MC E 39
- - -Metal Walls 03- ....
Com osite l2anels

Horizon ta l section I:5. Joint between co mposite Horizontalsection 15 Panels interlocking on 4 sides
panels w~h fu l~ interlockin g connection spanning either vertically or horizontally
@
0
~
I

Horizontal section 1:5 Jointbetween composite

panel and curtain w all type glazing w ith fully inter-
locking co nnection 3-D view of partiallyinterlocking panels with
@U
Aush window and curved comer panel

~
Horizontal section I :5.Joint between com po site
panel and concrete wall with fully interlockingcon-
nection

Vert ical section 1:10, Fully interlocking composite

panels w ith curved eill and window set into reveal in
cladding

Corners
Composite panels are connected at comers
by one of two methods. Either specially made
comer panels are used (typically why 90" is
standard) or a cove-strip is addedto cover
@
the junction w here the panelsmeet Comer
panels are more suited to vertically-set
arrangements. though panels for horizontally-
laid panels are sometimes used for visual
effect Wh ere comer cover-strips are used.
their appearance resembles t hat of profiled
metal cladding,w hich can give a facade an
overall framed appearance. Metal trims at the
parapet base and corners can give this
appearance. For this reason, the special cor-
ner panelsand parapet panelsare used
Vertical section 1:5 Curved parap et deta il w ith fully Ver t ical section I S-Aluminium window set into increasingly.
interlocking connections reveal in cladding

Me E 40
Ho rizontal section I :5. Insulated corne r connection Hori zontal section 1:5. Fully interloc king external Hori zontal section 1:5. Fully interlocking internal
betwe en composite panels with fully interl ocking corner panel corner panel
connection

D etails I I . W indow frame

I. Vert ically-set composite panel 12. Sectional roller shutter formed from
2. Hori zontally-set composite panel composite panels
3. Silicone-based seal 13. Roof construction , composite panels
4. Outer metal facing are shown
5. Inner metal facing 14. Metal t rim
6. Inner insulation core 15. Exposed gutter
7. Metal capping 16. Concealed gutter
8. Concealed fixing 17. Metal parapet coping
Horizontal section 1:5. Fully interl ocking curved 9. Supporting structure 18. Stick glazed curtain walling
internal corner panel 10. 4-way interlocking composite panel 19. Door frame

Horizontal section 1:5. Fully interl ocking curved

external corner panel

Thermal bridges at cills

A weakness in composite panels syste ms has
been th e use of pressed metal sect ions o r
alum inium extrusions t hat pass from o ut side
t o inside w it hout a th erm al break.This is
being remedied by th e use of insulated cills,
made in t he manner of composite panels.
Thi s reduces th e th erm al brid ge, in some
cases a break in t he section from o ut side t o
inside can be formed by turning th e metal cill
int o t he inject ed foam o r polystyrene in t he
same way as a co mposite panel.

3-D views of fully interlocking corner pieces with square and rounded corners

MC E 4 1
Metal Walls 03- - 3-D view of com
Com osrte
. l2anels flush glazing and coree, panelfacade with
ncealed parapet

~
'~~,
Exploded axonom '
as>emb~ with flusheug1az,ng
-c viewand
of ccom posrte pane l facade
oncealed parapet

@
J ,,"
. , 'J " I

Details
2I. Y,erncally-set
, com
3' l-lorizontalfy-set cposite panel
_ Sitcone-based ompoSlte panel
4 0 seal
5 uter metal fae i
_ Inner metal' ' r;g
6. I ' laCing
nner insolat
7. Me ' '0<1 core
tal caopmg
89_ ConeeaeoI fixing
10 ~upport l ng structure
II -way Interlc ckin
12' W indow frame g composite panel
Sectional roller sh
13 composite panelsutter formed from
Roofshown
construct;011, composite panels

15_
are

14 Metal tr im
16. sed gutter
17. Concealed gutte r
Metal par
18. Stick I apeteoping
19, Doorgazed
framecurtarn walling

3-D detail view of floor to wall junction 3-D detail view of

and support window frame
,rig structure 3-D detailview of gutter
MC E_ 4 2
 @

3-D view of composite panel curtain wall with

recessed window with deep metal reveal

3-D exploded view of composite panel curtain wall with recessed window with deep metal reveal

<

3-D view of frame detail

Exploded axonometric frame detail
I I

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I

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I

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I

«: ~

0:[ ~
3-D section of composite panel curtain type wall
with recessed window with deep metal reveal
r-
!I I I •
I

Iq
exploded axonometnc gutter detail
3-D view of gutter detail

MC E 43

Horizontal section I : I O. External corner connection
between rainscreen panels
0lYVN0N
Horizontal section I : I O. Extern al corner connection
between rainscreen panels and junction with window
A much w ider range of mater ials is used in
rainscreens th an was th e case five year s ago.
Copp er and zinc have th e advantage of being
easier to form than steel o r aluminium, par-
ti cularly w here site -based co nstruct ion meth-
od s are pr eferred for eit her eco nomy o r in
dealing w it h co mplex o r curve d geomet ries.
Th is meth od of fixing rainscreens avoids th e
need for off-site fabrication of a large
numb er of different panel t ypes w it h different
curve d geomet ries.Th ey can be made eco-
nomi cally on -site.
The 'ti ling' or 'shingling' of panels in co p-
per has been develop ed from sheet metal
cladding.Th is departs from metal rainscreen
designs in th at th e surface appearance has a
deliber ately uneven t exture th at emphasises
th e o il-canning effect th at gives th e appear-
ance of a layered, t iled surface.Th e move
away from th e emphasis o n flat metal panels
in rainscreen co nst ruct ion includes an
increased use of pr ofiled and curve d metal
panels.A major advantage is th at fixings can
be co ncealed by semi-int er locking panels in
th e manner of sheet metal cladding or in th e
manner of traditional ro of coverings.
MC E 44
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
CD
Th ere has been a recent increased use of
semi-lapped assemblies th at co nceal th e vo id
behind th e metal cladding.Th ese usually have
visible fixings at panel joints but allow th e
jo ints between panels t o be less in shadow
th an is th e case w it h ot her fixing meth od s.
Th ere has been a gradual developm ent of
rainscreens as visual screens rather th an as
weat her-excluding panels. For example, per-
forated metal screens in mild stee l or alumin-
ium are used t o creat e both mod elling t o a
facade and solar shading set fo rward of
glazed w alling. In such designs th e back of th e
rainscreen panel is visually as imp ortant as
th e o ute r visible face w here th e panel is seen
through glazed openings in a facade. Fixings
for such rainscreen panels ofte n have screws
and bolts th at are set into th e fixing rather
th an having project ing threaded bo lt and
exposed nuts.
Mat erials
Rainscreen panels can have a flatness th at is
difficult t o achieve w it h ot her method s. Panel
flatness is achieved by eit her use of compos-
ites such as proprietary laminates w here t wo
D etails
I . Backing wall or structural wall
supporting rainscreen
2. Supporting Frame
3. Support Bracket
4. Met al rainscreen panel
5. Open joint
6. Closed cell thermal insulation
7. W at erpr oof membrane
8. Internal finish
9. Supporting structu re
10.Pressed metal cill
I I . Pressed metal coping
12. Continuity of waterproofing layers of
wall and roof
sheet s of aluminium are bond ed o n both
sides of an inner core sheet of plastic of
th ickness 3-Smm (0. 118in t o 0.2in) o r by a
minimum 3mm (0. 118in) thi ck aluminium
sheet , o r approximate ly I mm th ick steel
sheet, depending o n panel size. Hon eycomb
panels are also being used.A metal hon ey-
comb layer. abo ut Smm (O.2in) th ick, is bond -
ed t o thin metal sheet s o n eit her side.A lu-
minium is most commo nly used. One of th e
o ute r sheets is factory paint coate d from th e
ro lled co il from w hich it is cut, giving th e
materi al a high level of co lour co nsiste ncy
over large areas of panel.
Fixing methods
Th e three main fixing ty pes used for metal
rainscreens are ( I) visible point fixed, (2)
horizontal o r vertical rails w it h partially
exposed br ackets (hung panels) and (3) ver-
t ical and hori zontal rails w it h parti ally inter-
locking panels and co ncealed fixings.
Th e choice of fixing method is ofte n
determ ined by w hat is seen through th e jo int
from th e o ut side . If dark shadow s are sought
at th e joint th en th e backing wall sho uld have
 I
I

3-D views of fully interlocking comer pieces with

square and rounded co m er s.Type 3

Horizontal section I: IO. Internal corner connection

between rainscreen panels

Verti cal section I : IO. Metal rainscreen wall assembly

3-D views of fully int er locking corner pieces with square comers. Type 3

MCE 45
fl etalW alls 04
Metal rainscreens
3-D views of semi interlocking rainscreen panels.Type 2
Left: Horizontal rails support cladding panels with vertical interlocking joints.
Right Vertical rails support cladding panels with horizontal int erlocking joi nt s.
a consiste nt dark colour. In th is case, short
lengths of bracket may be sufficient t o sup-
port th e panels, since th ey w ill not be visible.
If th e backing wa ll is likely t o be visible
through th e open jo ints, such as if th e backing
wall is clad in exposed polystyrene insulation
board, th en th e jo ints w ill need t o be
screened by a cont inuo us channel.
Panels w hich are point fixed have eit her
counte rsunk screws set flush w it h th e panel
face, o r dom e headed screws w hich make a
visible featur e of th em.The screws are fixed
into rails set t o suit th eir position.Yertical
rails are often preferred since wate r can easi-
ly drain down th em.
Hung panels are hooked o nto suppo rt ing
brackets. Panels are fixed by cutting slots int o
th e sides of th e rainscreen panel durin g man-
ufacture and hooking th em o nto dow els pro-
jecting from C-shaped brackets.These br ack-
ets are in t urn secured t o ver t ical rails set at
vert ical jo ints between panels.Th e rails also
act as screens t o close off views into th e cav-
ity. Horizontal jo ints are formed by an
upstand formed in th e t op or bottom edge
of a panel.
MC E 46
CD
Semi-inter locking panels are fixed by
screw ing th e t op of th e panel t o hori zontal
rails t o suit th e o rientat ion of th e panels.Th e
adjacent panel is lapped into th e panel next
t o it, both t o secure it and conceal th e fixing.
Th e joint in th e ot her direct ion is eit her fixed
w it h a similar semi-inte rlocking edge t o form
a t iled appearance, or has a cover st rip.
Unlike masonry-based rainscreens such
as t erracotta o r sto ne, metal rainscreen pan-
els are lightw eight in com parison and need
t o be mechanically fixed at a minimum of
o ne or two points,usually at th e bottom of
th e panel if th e panel is hung from th e t op.
Fixing screws are usually applied at th e jo int,
unless it is fixed w it h exposed fixings through
th e panel it selfThis means th at part of th e
bracket is usually visible. Sho rt lengths of
brackets th en becom e visible and need t o be
incorpo rat ed as a visible part of th e design.
Backing walls
Suppo rting wa lls t o rainscreen panels are
usually concrete block, w hich allows suppo rt -
ing panels t o be fixed at any point across its
surface, or fr amed, w here rainscreen fixings
CD
are secured t o th e framing member s rather
th an th e o ute r skin of th e backing wall. In
some cases, if th e o ute r skin is th ick eno ugh,
say 6mm (O.25in) aluminium sheet, rain-
screens can be fixed directly t o th e sheet
materi al rather th an th e fr ame. If a light -
we ight backing wall cannot accept addit ional
loads from rainscreen cladding o nto it (as
w it h composite panels), th en suppo rt rails
span from floor t o floor as posts.
W it h concrete block backing wa lls, th e
t hermal insulati on is usually set o n t he o ut-
side face in o rder t o keep th e struct ure
eit her warm o r coo l, depending o n th e geo-
graphical locati o n.The wate rproo f layer is set
direct ly on th e o utside face of th e concrete .
Th e th erm al insulati on used is closed cell
ty pe in order for it not t o absorb wate r
w hich wo uld dr astically reduce it s perform -
ance.T he insulati o n is also used t o protect
t he wate rproof membrane but thi s makes it
necessary for support brackets t o be fixed
th rough th e insulation t o th e suppo rt ing wall
behind. Som etimes ho les have t o be cut in
th e insulation, w hich reduces its effect iveness,
but it is always better if th e fixings for sup-
 @

-@

,- I l j j

l=----;;j_l_-'__Y_()
Horizontal section I : IO. Internal corner connection Horizontal section I : I O. External corner connection
between metal rainscreen panels with interlocking between metal rainscreen panels with interlocking
horizontal joints and open vertical joints horizontal joints and open vertical joints

Horizontal section I: IO. Internal corner connection Horizontal-se&n-' ~ I O:Extemal-cohier-connection

between metal rainscreen panels with open hori- between metal rainscreen panels with open
zontal joints and interlocking vertical joints ho rizontal jo ints and interlocking vertical joints

Details
I . Backing wall or structural wall
supporting rainscreen
2. Supporting Frame
3. Support Bracket
4. Metal rainscreen panel
5. Open joint
6. Closed cell thermal insulation
7. Waterproof membrane
8. Internal finish
9. Supporting structure
10. Pressed metal cill
I I . Pressed metal coping
I 2. Continuity of waterproofing layers of
wall and roof

3-D view of semi interlocking metal rainscreen with Vertical section I: IO. Metal rainscreen with inter-
angled joints and aluminium window recessed into
locking horizontal joints , parapet and recessed win-
the facade.Type 3
dow

MC E 47
fletalWa Is 04
Metal rainscreens

Horizontal section I 10. Connection between metal rainscreen and curtain wall type glazingwith flush
finish

,
I
I
I
I 0
I
I
I

Vert ical sect ion I: I O. Metal rainscreen with curtain

wall type glazingset flush with face of cladding.

3-D view of curtain wall type glazing set fiush with metal rainscreen cladding.Type 3

port rails can be fixed at th e same t ime as Co nstruction sequence

th e insulation in o rde r to co -o rdinate th em An esse nt ial aspect of rainscreen co nst ruc-
and avoid lat e r cutting of th e insulatio n. t ion is th e seq ue nce in w hich th e various
W it h lightweight backing wa lls in t imber e leme nts of th e backing wa lls, w indows, th er-
D e t a ils
I. Backing wall or structural wall o r presse d steel, th ermal insulation is set mal insulation , wate rpro o fi ng laye r and rain-
supporting rainscreen
w it hin th e frame .A wate rproofi ng laye r is set scree n pane l are brou ght togeth e r. Alt ho ugh
2. Supporting Frame
3. Support Bracket o n th e inside (wa rm in winte r) face.An inte r- th e rainscreen principle is very effect ive and
4. Metal rainscreen panel
nal finish laye r is then set in front of th is ofte n ve ry eco no mic, its effectiveness can be
5. Open joint
6. Closed cell thermal insulation vapo ur barrie r. Rainscreen fi xings for suppo rt reduced if sea ls are not prop erly applied o r
7. W at erproof membrane
rails are fixed directly to th e o uter wate r- insulatio n is damaged because e leme nts are
8. Internal finish
9. Supporting structure proofing laye r using sea ling washe rs th at asse mb led o n site in th e w ro ng o rder.Typi-
10. Pressed metal cill
I I . Pressed metal coping
avoid leaks throu gh th e fixing po int.Th e cally, windows are sealed against th e backing
I 2. Continuity of waterp roofing layers of framed backing wa ll is designed to rece ive wa ll before th e rainscreen pane ls are set in
wall and roof
fixing bracket s at points w hich transfer loads place. An adva ntage of this form of co n-
down to th e primar y st ructure .The use of st ruct ion is th at t he externa l wa ll can be
framed backing wa lls wit h rainscreen s makes made waterproof before th e rainscreen
it ne cessar y to co-o rdinate t he two e leme nts pane ls are fixed.
of co nst ruction during th e des ign rather than A typical co nst ruction seq ue nce is to
d uring the co nst ruct ion. build th e backing wall first and set th e wate r-

MC E 48

.'
• r ainscre en panels with vertical rail system
proofing layer and insulat ion in place. W in-
dows are then set into the backing wall and
are sealed against its waterproofing layer
Thermal insulation, if set outside the line of
the waterproofing layer (asin in-situ con-
crete. precast concrete or concrete block)
makes it easierto set the thermal insulation
on the backing wall after the wi ndows and
doors have been fixed. Support rails for the
rainscreen panels are then fixed to the bark-
ing wall,followed by the metal panels them-
selves. Panels are usually fixed in horizontal
rows from the bottom up so that comer
panels and panels at window openingscan
be fi xed from t he outside from the top of
the panel. Metal panels can then be set in a
correct alignment with the windows in
terms of their position and in setting the
required joint width. The open jointed
r
-I I
3-D vIew of vertical r ail system w ith rainscreen
panels spanning horizontally.Type I
I- I
('l.j
-1=1 0
verucat section 1:10, Horizontally spanning meta l
3-D view of horizontal rail system with
r ainscre en panels spanning vertcally.Iype I
nat ure of the construction usually dictates
t hat the rainscreen panel is set in a way that
avoids a view through the joint to the back-
ing wall beyond.
W indow and doo r openings
Becausewindow and door openings are usu-
allyset into an opening before the raoscreen
panels are set.reveals are sealed w ith either
individual rainscreen panels or with sheet
metal trims similar to those used for sheet
metal construction. Unlike sheet metal con-
struction however, a gap is usually maintained
between the trim and the window in order
to maintain the Joint principle.Similarly gaps
between reveal trims and adjacentwall pan-
els are also separated by an open joint Since
w indows and doors are sealed against the Vertical section 1:10 Vertica lly spanning meta l
raJnscre en panels w ith hori zontal rail system
waterproo fing layer behind the raoscreen
MCE 49
 Horizontal section I : IO. Internal
corner of met al rainscreen shingles

3-D view of meta l

rainscreen shingles with Horizontal section I : IO. External
folded metal parapet corner of metal rainscreen shingles

panel rath er t han t o t he panel it self, t hese
separat ions are st raightforward t o achieve.
T hese o pen joint s aro und o penings are made
in a way t hat conceals t he wate rproo f layer
behind, t hus protecting it from both accidental
damage fro m building user s and from t he
possible effects from sunlight heat ing up t he
membrane or attac king it w it h UV light. W in-
dow s and doo r s are usually provided w it h an
addit ional w ider frame o r trim at th eir edges
in o rder t o allow t herm al insulati o n in t he cav-
ity t o provide cont inuity at th e o pening and
allow t he rainscreen panel t o lap against it.
screen panels by providing a shadow o r may
be lapped in t he manner of fully suppo rted
sheet met al cladding.T he wate rproo fing layer
w ill form a cont inuous seal w it h th e adjacent
roofing membrane. Cills at t he base of t he
wall are detailed in a sim ilar way w it h met al
being cont inuous but w it h joints eit her
recessed o r lapped.

Parapets and cills

Parapets have an o pen joint between th e par-
apet flashing and t he panel below but hori -
zontal joint s between flashings are usually
closed t o protect th e parapet from accidental
damage t o t he wate rproo fing undercloak
beneath o r from th e harmfu l effects of sun-
light from above acting o n it s hori zont al sur-
face.Jo int s between flashings may be recessed
3-D view s showin g recessed t imb er window
to match th e visual appearance of t he rain-
opening in metal rainscreen shingle cladding system
MC E 50
 ®

Horizontal section I: I 0, Connection between metal

rainscreen shingles and timber window

Deta ils
I. Backing wall or structural wall
supporting rainscreen
2. Supporting Frame
3. Support Bracket
4. Metal rainscreen panel
5. Open joint
6. Closed cell thermal insulation
7. Waterproof membrane
8. Internal finish
9. Supporting structure
10, Pressed metal cill
I I , Pressed metal coping
12, Continuity of waterproofing layers of
Vertical section I: I0, Connection between metal wall and roof
rainscreen shingles and timber window

Horizontal section I :I 0. Co nnectIon etween

metal rainscreen shingles and tim ber window

Vertical section I:I0. Semi-interlocking metal

Vertical section I :I0, Metal door recessed into 3-D view recessed timber window in metal rainscreen shingle system with parapet, timber
metal shingle rainscreen construction rainscreen shingle cladding system window and finish at ground level

MC E 5 1
,...- - MetalWalls 04:- - ,
Metal ramscr eens

De tails
I, e..clong wall or structu ral w all
SUppClftng rainscrl-en
2 ~Fra-ne
3. ~ &'ac:l<et
4, Metal ramscreen panel
5. OpenjOOt
6. Cbsed eel tho'maI nsulatJon
7. Waterproof membrane
8. Internal finisl1
9. Support.ng strvctlTe
10. Pressed metal til
I •_ Pressed metal copong
12. COn1 lnurty of w aterproofIng layers of
wall af'Id roo(

•
•

,I
:.I
•
•
3-0 expcoec view of metal ramscreen paner systern woth ~rlapplng tIleSas panels

1
)-0 exp loded view of p;irapet condrtion ]-0 exploded view of top of WIndow opeoirla ] ·0 exploded VIeW of ramSlfeeo panel system
3-D exploded view of rainscreen panel system assembly

• •

..
• •
~---
•
---_..
•

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il
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3-D exploded view of opening in raiosc-een panel system 3-D exploded view of typical window opening
fletalWalls 05
Mesh screens

5)

Vertical section I:2. Steel rod
--\1
incorporated into mesh weave and
supported from eyelets fixed to
Verti cal section I :2. Edgefixing variations for rigid mesh supported on frame backing wall
Vertical section I:2. Mesh cable
formed into eyelet and hung from
metal rod

Details for mesh

I. Metal support edge frame
2. Stainlesssteel mesh
3. Stainless steel spring
4. Metal fixing bracket
S. Metal support rod
3-D views of edge fixing details for frame supported mesh 6. Fixing bolt to tension mesh
7. Floor slab or backing wall
8. Adjacent curta in wall
r=

CD
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)

.f 1- , f---i

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Vertical section and elevation I:2. Mesh hung from shaped metal bracket bolted to 3-D view of mesh hanging detail
supporting structure

MC E 54
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011

\ J
Vertical section and elevation I :2. Mesh weave and suppo rt variation s
Stainless steel mesh screens have been intro-
duced int o mainstream building co nstruct ion
on ly in th e last t en years.Thi s metal is pre-
ferred for mesh screens due t o it s durab ility
and we at her resistance w hen used exte rnally.
Their appearance as a t extile rather th an as a
sheet mater ial has led t o th e use of mesh as
'wraps' to facades in a similar way, in visual
t erm s,t o rainscreens.Their purp ose is ofte n
t o pro vide a smoot h,t exti le-like surface
across a w all that can conceal a variety of dif-
ferent facade elements imm ediately behind it.
It has also found favour in car park design,
w here open mesh decks are given hom oge-
neity w it h a w oven mesh screen.T heir vary -
ing levels of translucency can be exploite d
both in daylight by pro viding depth t o a
facade th at gives some pr ivacy t o building
user s, and from a night t ime glow across it s
surface generate d by elect rical light w it hin
t he building.
Meshes are of three essent ial ty pes: rigid
mesh made from rod , mesh flexible in one
direction made as woven w ire w it h rod s in
one direction and w ire in th e opposite direc-
(
\
---;8
J-
,.
-.
ti on, and mesh th at is flexib le in t wo direc-
t ions w hich is made from woven w ire only.
Rigid mesh
Rigid mesh is made in relatively small sheet
sizes and is suitable mainly for balustrades or
areas of facades w here th e mater ial can be
suppo rte d o n a visible fr ame. It is also used
as exte rnal solar shading w here it s light ness
in we ight allows it t o be moved in a motor-
ised system.Th e mater ial is made in both
mi ld stee l and sta inless stee l but mild steel
requires painting. Polyester powd er coat ing is
t he most co mmo n finish. Rigid mesh cannot
be t ension ed and so it is clamped in a fr ame
at it s edges.
Thi s material is usually made in relatively
small panels of aro und 1800 x 1500mm (6ft
x 5ft). Stainless stee l bars are wove n in t wo
directions, giving th e material a st iffness com-
parable t o aluminium sheet but w it h a sur-
face t exture much more undulating th an per-
forated metal sheet. Rigid mesh can pro vide
up t o aro und 50% shading. Rod thi ckness is
ty pically l .5mm (0.054in) diameter wove n t o
IJl
~ 1
. c
-I
==
I I
,
form o penings of aro und 6mm x 2mm
(0.25in x 0.08in). Because th ey cannot be
t ension ed, rigid meshes are eit her held in a
cont inuo us edge frame o r suppo rted at
points in th e manner of bo lt fixed glazing.
They are most commo nly used in balustrad-
ing w here rigidity of mater ial is an essent ial
requirement.Th e eco nomic nature of th e
mater ial allows it t o be used as both balus-
trading and full height screening as part of
th e same design.W hen used as a balustrade,
th e ex posed edges of th e material are held
capt ive in a protective edging if not fixed into
a full suppo rting frame.Th is avoids injury t o
building user s.A fold ed fiat sheet o r a pair of
fiats are co mmo nly used.
Meshes fiexibl e in o ne direction
These meshes are made w it h rigid sta inless
steel rod in o ne direction woven and stain-
less stee l cable in th e ot her direct ion .A n
advantage pr esented by th e cables is th at
th ey can be t ension ed at each end t o pr o-
vide a large cont inuo us fiat area of translu-
cent metal.
MC E 55
 CD

CD

CD
CD

Horizontal section I: I0, Regular panels forming internal corner

Vertical section I: I0, Parapet detail

o
i CD

Vertical section I :I0, Panel to panel connection

detail

Horizontal section I 10,Internal corner using special corner panel

CD

Vertical section I :I0, Panel to panel connection

detail

Details for mesh

I, Metal support edge frame
2, Stainless steel mesh
3, Stainless steel spring
4, Metal fixing bracket
5, Metal support rod
6, Fixing bolt to tension mesh
7, Floor slab or backing wall
8, Adjacent curtain wall
3-D exploded view of mesh panels clamped to frame and supported on steel frame

MCE 56

Horizontal section I 10,External corner formed with special frame
extrusion
CD
Hori zontal section I 10,Connection between frame supported
metal mesh panels
Most of th ese meshes corne in a maxi-
mum w idt h of aro und 7500 mm (25ft) , Since
th e mater ial is made as a cont inuo us run , it
can be made in very long lengths, making it
ideal for use in a single run of mater ial from
t op t o bottom of a facade w it hout joints, In
t erm s of transparency, th e mater ial can vary
from aro und 25% light transmission t o 65%
depending o n th e w eave,Th e amo unt of light
transmission can be varied by increasing th e
th ickness and frequency of cables,Th e dis-
t ance between ro ds cannot be varied by
reducing th e thi ckness of th e cable, allowing it
t o be more tightly w oven, but more cables
are usually int roduced t o compensate for th e
loss of st rength in th e cable w hen t ension ed.
Cable th ickness can vary from 2,Omm t o
2.5mm (0,08in t o 0, I in) diamete r.Rod thi ck-
nesses can vary from 2,Omm (0,08in) up t o
4mm (0, 15in) diameter.The weave pattern can
vary from 4mm x 10mm (0, 18in x 0.37in) to
4mm x 100mm (0, 18in x 4in), giving very dif-
ferent visual effects from dense t o very open,
In addit ion, vary ing densities can be wove n
into a single panel, o r length, of material.
Meshes flexible in o ne direction are fixed
3-D view of panel connection between mesh screens
3-D view of external corner of mesh screen
by t ension ing th e cables at each end.T he
cable is usually set ver t ically t o avoid sag
associate d w it h horizontal laying,The cables
are loo ped in a secure loo p at each end
aro und a ro d o r bar.On e end is fixed w hile
th e ot her is t ension ed by springs set at inter-
vals along th e length of th e horizontal bar.
Springs are usually set at th e bottom so th at
th e mesh is fir st hung, th en secured and t en-
sioned at th e bottom , Lateral st abilit y t o th e
mesh over a long run of th e mater ial is pro-
vided eit her by bars w oven or fixed into th e
mesh, or by point fixings,Th e point fixings
comprise discs set eit her side of th e mesh t o
ho ld th e mater ial in place,A bo lt run s
th rou gh an o pening in th e mesh between th e
t w o discs,w hich is secured back t o th e sup-
porting struct ure, t ypically a floor slab or
backing wa ll. Meshes w ill span 2,0 t o 2.5
metres (6ft 6in t o 8ft) vertically between
points of lateral restraint. A djacent sheet s can
be fixed t ogeth er by using a br acket w it h two
bolts in th e manner of bolt fixed glazing o r by
lapping th e mesh panels and using a single
bolt in th e manner of a popper o n t extil e
cloth s as used in denim jeans, for example,
A pplicat ions of mesh using w ide strips are
increasingly commo n, in w idt hs from 5 t o
7met res, ( 16ft t o 23ft) hung from co nt inuous
rod s and restrained back t o a frame at 1,0 t o
1,5 metre (3ft 3in t o 5ft) cent res,
Fully fiexible mesh
Th is mater ial is made as a wove n-wire cloth
o r as a crimped w ire panel.W ires are
crimped down th e length of th e mater ial and
straight w ires acro ss its w idt h,Th e wove n
cloth ty pe is manufactured prim arily for small
solar shading screens, It is also used for balus-
trades in co nt inuo us long lengths and as ver-
t ically- or horizontally-set bands of solar
shading material. Large panels are not inter-
rupted by jo int lines,The mater ial is fixed by
t ensionin g it vert ically. Closely wove n meshes
have a light transmission of between I % and
5%, w hile crimped w ire screens vary from
25% to 50%,T he tightly w oven ty pes are
made in w idt hs from aro und I 800mm t o
2400mm (6ft t o 8ft) and are made in very
lo ng lengths.T he more o pen weaves have an
appearance similar t o th ose w it h cables, using
straight rod in o ne direction , w eaving rod in
MC E 57
fV1etal als 05
Mesh screens
:.;;,-
Deta ils for mesh
.- .. I. Metal support edge frame
i
,-
2. Stainless steel mesh
3. Stainless steel spring
4. Metal fIXing bracket
S. Metal support rod
6. Fixing bolt to tension mesh
7. Floor slabor backing wall
8. Adjacent curtain w all

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3-D view of metal mesh clamped to supporting frame

CD
Vert ical section I: I0, Metal mesh supported from
steel structure on top of regular rainscreen clad
structure
th e ot her direction aro und th e fiat rod.Th ese
o pen w eave types are made in w idt hs of
aro und 6000mm (20ft) th ough th ese sizes
are difficult t o use in facade panels since th e
suppo r t grid of aro und 2000mm (6ft 6in) is
usually needed t o restrain th e material. Since
th e material is made from rod. metals ot her
th an stainless st eel can be used, th ough t ypi-
cally copper and bron ze are th e most com-
mon alte rnat ives.They are less rigid th an
stainless steel but can produ ce quit e dramatic
visual effects.A grid of 3mm x I.5mm
(O. 125in x O.0625in) is commo n in th is more
o pen w eave material.
lengths on-3 metres (6ft 6in t o l Oft) by set -
ting o ut th e cables on a curve t op and bot-
t om w hich forces th e th in ro ds in th e oppo-
sit e direction t o th e curve . How ever, meshes
are being develop ed w hich can t ake up
curves more easily for complex geomet ries.
Instead of using cables, loop s of stainless steel
strip are wove n in loo ps between row s of
rod s.This allows th e rod s t o be bent around
a form o r bow ed o ut by brackets, w hile
allow ing th e loop s t o be individually
stretc hed between each row of rod s.Varia-
t ions o n th is ty pe of mesh are set t o grow
over th e next t en years.

Mesh used on cur ves Perforated metal

Regular mesh th at is rigid in o ne direction is N on -rectilinear o r irregular geomet ric shapes
difficult t o curve, as it is suit ed t o fiat, rectilin- in fiat o r curve d form can more easily be
3-D view of metal mesh fixed to steel frame with
maintenance deck behind ear designs. Curves can be formed over achieved in perforated metal.Although panel

MCE 58

3-D view of metal mesh supported on Elevation & horizontal section I :25. Frame hung metal mesh supported from curtain wall glazing syst em
steel framework with maintenance deck
sizes are much smaller than ten sion ed mesh,
a greate r range of form s can current ly be
mad e more economically. Perforated metal in
each mild stee l (paint o r po lyester powd er
coate d) and aluminium (po lyeste r powd er
coate d or PVDF coate d) are used. Both
materials are manufactured wit h perforation s
of diffe rent shapes and percentages of perfo -
ration s. Circular holes are th e mo st co mmo n-
ly used as th ey are st raightfo rward t o manu-
facture .They are also able to have a close ly
co nt rolled percentage of perforation by vary-
ing both th e size of th e holes and t heir prox-
imity.This makes th e materia l very useful if a
precise shading coeffic ient (pe rce ntage of
solar shading) o r light transmission is spec i-
fied for a facade . By varying both th e ho le
diameter and th e ce nt res of th e holes, differ-
e nt visual effects of transparen cy can be
+ -I
CD
achieved. Squares and various decorative
motifs are also made but wit h less co nt rol on
precise perforation percentages.
Steel and aluminium shee t are co mmo nly
available in sizes up to around 3 metres x 2.5
metres ( lOft x 8ft) in 3mm (0. 118mm) thick
shee t allowing panels to be reason ably large ,
dep end ing o n w ind load co nside rat ions. In
ge ne ral.th e higher th e percentage of perfora-
t ion, t he lowe r th e wind load o n th e perfo-
rated metal panel. Perforated metal panels
are usually fixed back to an edge frame mad e
from angle o r profile in t he same material.
The edges of th e metal are usually not perfo-
rated in o rde r to co nceal th e frame beh ind.
The increased use of wate r jet cutt ing
machines allows for a much greate r co nt rol
of th e exte nt of patt ern on a sheet. Perforat-
3-D view of metal mesh supported curved steel
ed metal panels are th en fixed back to th e frame
MCE 59
fleta Walls 05
Mesh screens

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Vertical section I :2. Flexible mesh intermediate

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Horizontal section I 10. Flexible metal mesh supported on vertical edges with tensioning mechanism

CD

Vertical section I :2. Flexible mesh lower support

with tensioning spring

3-D view of metal mesh fixed to steel rod with

3-D view of metal mesh fixed in front of glazed facade to provide solar shading.A maintenance walkway
tension spring
occupies the space between the two systems

MC E 60
 3-D vievvs showing meshscreen supported on
bracketsin front of typicalwall build-up to act as
solar shading mechanism

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pri mary structure with a variety of hanging
brackets. ties and struts to suit the des ign.The
supporting structure is visually very refined if
visible through the metal, particularly at night if
the panel assembly is visible from lighting with- Elevation and ver tical section I : 10. Mesh screen soppo-ted on brackets
in front of typical wall build-up t o act as solarshading mechanism
in the building.A series o f fo rked pin connec-
tions or cast moment connectors are increas-
ingly being used, with tapered tubular fram ing
members o r bo x section s with complex sec-
tions increasingly being the norm. Because the
Details for mesh
metal framing is exposed to the effects of I. Metal support edge frame
2. Stainless steel mesh
weather; a high specification paint is used for
3. Stainless steel spring
steel.and either polyester powder coating or 4. Metal fixing bracket
5. Metal support rod
PVDF coati ngs are used for alum inium. Ano-
6. FiXIng bolt to tension mesh
dising has become more popular in recent 7. Floor slab Q(' backing wall
8. Adjacent curtain wall
years but req uires very close control in the
factory to avoid visible colo ur differences
between adjacent anodised panels.

MC E 61
- - -Metal Walls 05- - - - - - ..
Mesh screens

Details for mesh

I, Metal support edgeframe
2. Stainless steel mesh
3. Stainless steel sprog
4, Metal fixir>g bracket
5. Metal support rod
6. Fixing bolt to tension mesh
7. Floor slabor backing wall
8. Adjacer'lt curtain wall

3·0 exp loded view of metal m esh fixed in front of

glazed facade wrth rnasuenance wa lkway

3-0 exp loded deta il vrew of m etal mesh fiXIng m eth od 3·0 exp loded detai l view of glazIng m nnectioo in meta l
and uppe r floo r junct ion m esh and glazed facade

Me E 62
 3-D exploded corner view of metal mesh panels 3-D exploded view of hooked metal mesh fixing 3-D exploded view of clamped metal mesh fixing
fixed to steel supporting frame

1---

3-D exploded corner view of metal mesh panels 3·D view of metal mesh panels fixed to glazed 3·D view of mesh panel in isolati on
fixed to steel supporting frame masonry facade

3-D exploded views of metal mesh panels fixed to steel supporting frame

MCE 63
fletalW alls 06
Louvre screens
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Elevation & horizontal section I: IO. Metal louvre
screen with integrated door
Metal lo uvres are typically used for two pur-
poses: as weat he r-resisting scree ns to natural-
ly vent ilated spaces such as plant room s, as
t ermin ations to th e e nds of air-handling du cts
whe re th ey pen etrate th e exte rnal wa ll, o r
alte rnat ively as solar shading o n th e o uts ide
of facades in front of glazed walls o r w in-
dows. Glazed lo uvres are also used to pro -
vide natural vent ilat ion to winte r garde n
spaces whe re th ey also provide light, as in
high level c1erestorey glazing o r in glazed
walls in winter garde ns in hou sing. Glass lo u-
vres are ge ne rally adjustable. Metal lo uvres
are used for air handling ducts o r plant
room s, and can be in single, double o r triple
bank dep ending o n th e amo unt of weat he r
resistance requ ired
Metal louvres
Lou vre panels can be set eit he r horizontally
o r ve rt ically. Horizontal louvres have inclined
blades mounted in a frame of the same
material.Some lo uvres throw th e wate r clear
of th e edge of th e blade at th e front. Others
whe re more weat he r protection is need ed,
have e it he r a drainage channel at th e front, o r
MC E 64
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
I
II
1\
I \
are made as a v-shape in o rde r to drain
wate r away into th e side s of th e frame
whe re it is ejecte d t o th e o ut side at th e cill.
Open gauge mesh is usually set at th e back
of th e lo uvre panel to prevent th e passage of
birds. Lou vres wit ho ut drainage channels are
used in shelte red areas and also whe re rain
th at is blown throu gh th e lo uvre will not
damage th e building fabric. Drained lo uvres
are used whe re more weat he r protection is
need ed , usually w he re expos ure to th e
weat he r is more seve re and whe re wate r
penetration through th e pane l must be
redu ced .These dr ained lo uvres allow a little
less air movem ent th an th e st andard types,
and more lou vre area is usually pro vided t o
co mpe nsate for th is.The use of a double
bank lou vre e nsures th at wate r blown ove r
th e t op of th e o ute r blad e w ill run down
th e face of th e inne r blad e and be dr ained
away.The free area from th e lo uvres is
aro und 50 %.
Horizontally-set blades are set 50 mm
apart. Stiffener bars are set at ce nt res from
1000mm (3ft 3in) t o 1500 mm (3ft) ve rt ical
ce nt res, dep ending o n blade size and material
Vert ical sect ion I: I OVer-
tically set metal louvres
Details
I, Extruded aluminium
frame
2, Stick curtain walling -
type carrier system
3, Extruded aluminium
louvre blades
4, Backing wall
5, Louvre panel door
6, Thermal insulation
th ickness.These bars are not visible directly
from th e o ut side but can be see n from
below if lo uvres are set at an angle th at
allows views through th em. Lou vre blades are
fixed to th e stiffene rs wit h ext rude d alumini-
um clips to stiffen th e blades. Corn ers of
frames t o lou vre panels are mitred and
screwed o r we lde d The edge has diffe rent
profiles t o suit being glazed into adjacent cur-
tain wa lling, and has eit he r recessed joints
between pane ls, o r a wide frame , to suit th e
type of addit ional suppo rt need ed for th e
co mplete lo uvred panel widt h.
Vert ically-set lo uvres have blade s set at
an angle (in plan) such th at water dr ains
down th e face of th e lou vres and is drained
away at th e bottom of the frame.They are
deep er th an th e simplest horizontal types
and perform in a similar way to th e dr ained
horizontal types,Their depth also e nsures
th at views through th e louvre panels are
seve rely redu ced Profiles for vert ical lo uvres
can be both v-shaped and ellipt ical.The free
area is also aro und 50%. Pane ls are asse m-
bled in a factory for co upling t ogeth er o n
site .Typical panel sizes are aro und 1.5 metres
3-D detail view of metal louvres 3-D detail view of frame supported metal louvres used as a shading
device in front of glazed curtain wall

a: D Horizontal section I : IO.Junction between vertically

set metal louvre panels and metal door

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31
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Horizontal section I : IO.Junction between vertically
set metal louvre panels
Profile options for metal louvres

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Horizontal section I : IO. Corner arrangement for vertically set metal louvre panels

Vertical section I: IO. Door with 3-D view of frame supported metal louvres used as a shading device in front of glazed curtain wall
vertically set metal louvres
MCE 65
fletalWarls OiS
Louvre screens
3-D view of frame supported metal louvres
- .1 0-
Horizontal section I: IOVertically set metal louvres used as shading device
x 2.5 metres (5ft x 8ft) for both vert ical and
hori zont ally set louvres, Larger panels can be
fabr icated, but transportation t o site
becom es more difficult. Louvred panels can
be arranged in heights up t o aro und 4
metres ( 13ft) w it h extruded aluminium mul-
lio ns,A bove th is height. addit ional st eel posts
are requ ired behind panel jo ints t o provide
both suppo rt and lateral restraint.
Louvre panels can also be set at inclined
angles but resistance t o rain penetration is
significantly reduced o n inclined walls th at can
be seen from below, Louvres can be set
upside down t o avoid views th rou gh th e
screen, but th ey provide no weat her protec-
ti on , In both cases, an addit ional vert ical lou -
vre is set behind t o exclude rain,
Banks of louvre blades can also be made
t o t ilt t o suit vary ing vent ilat ion requ irement s,
such as in buildings w it h a high degree of nat -
ur al vent ilat ion, Panels can o pen and close
from rain and w ind sensors form ing part of
th e BMS (building management syste m) ,
Panel sizes are similar t o th ose of fixed pan-
els, th at is, 1,5 x 2.5 metres (5ft x 8ft) ,T hey
have a single rod set into th e edge fr ame th at
MC E 66
3-D view of frame supported metal louvres
co nnect s all th e blades t ogether and w hich is
pushed up and down by a separate motor o r
is co nnected t o a manual w inding rod.
Doors are made in t he same w ay as lou-
vre panels but have stiffer fr ames t o suit
m ovement.Th ey are designed w it h louvre
panels and are ofte n th e same size in o rder
t o co nceal th eir appearance,
Sandt rap louvres are designed for use in
sandy and dusty co ndit ions t o pr event most
airbo rne sand and dust from passing through
th e louvre, Th ey co nsist of vertically-set
C-shaped aluminium profi les w hich inter lock
t o provide a co nt inuo us barrier.A ir passing
through th e lo uvre passes round th e int er-
locking pro files w hile sand is trapped by th e
inner profi le and falls t o th e bottom of th e
fr ame.The cill is inclined t o ensure th at sand
falls o ut of th e bottom of th e panel at th e
fron t. Sandtrap lo uvres remove most of th e
sand and dust parti cles before t he air reaches
th e filters on mechanical vent ilat ion equip-
ment. Insect screen is also usually provided
and th is has littl e effect o n air flow rates,
Maximum sizes are similar t o th ose of ot her
louvre ty pes in 1.5 x 2,0 metres (5ft x 6ft
...
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Vertical section I: I Q Vertically set metal louvres
used as shading device
6in), th ough as w it h all louvre ty pes, larger
panels can be specially made,
Glazed louvres
Th ese have traditionally been poor excluders
of air (high air infiltration rates) but th ey have
improved significant ly in recent year s.T he
amo unt of o pening can be closely co nt ro lled.
Th ey consist of glass blades held in an alu-
minium fr ame or in aluminium clips,secured
o n pivots int o an edge frame made from
extr uded aluminium profil es,Some clips
ho lding th e glass in place are made from
polyprop ylene rather th an aluminium, t o
avoid ratt ling between th e tw o compo nent s,
Th e most recent developm ent has been in
th in aluminium clips and th e use of bolt fixed
glazing t o hold th e glass in place,
Louvre glass blades are usually made in
laminat ed glass for safety,th ough float glass is
somet imes used for small-scale applicat ions,
So lar cont ro l glasses are ofte n used t o match
adjacent areas of glazing, Single o r doubl e
glazed units are available, Glass lo uvre panels
are eit her hand o perated by a w ire cable-
t ype w inding handle or are elect rically o per-
Vertical section I :IO. Frame supported metal louvre Vertical section I:I O. Metal Vertical section I: IO. Metal louvre Vertical section I: IO. Door with
screen louvre panel supported in panel in rainscreen type facade horizontally set metal louvres
curtain walling system

------------------

Details
I. Extruded aluminium
frame
2. Stick curtain walling -
type carrier system
3. Extruded aluminium
3-D view of frame supported metal louvres louvre blades
4. Backing wall
5. Louvre panel door
6. Thermal insulation

Vertical section I ; IO. Metal louvre canopy

var iatio ns

Vertical section I; IO. W alk on metal

3-D view of frame supported metal louvres at
louvre canopy 3-D view of metal louvre canopy
ground level

MC E 67

3-D view of mechanically controlled opening glass
louvres in open position
Vertical section I : I O. Mechanically controlled open-
ing glass louvres in closed position
ated with rods as used in metal louvres. Elec-
tr ically operated units are generally 1500mm
(5ft) high to suit the length of t he rods. Pan-
els are coupled vertically or horizontally to
form a large-scale screen of panels.They can
also be glazed into curtain walling systems.
Maximum sizes are bigger than metal louvres
in 2400mm x 2400mm (8ft x 8ft) approxi-
mately, but maximum length of ventilato r unit
is around 1200mm (4ft).Automatic opening
types are used as smoke vents in the event
of fire.They provide around 70% free area
when fully open.
W here double glazed units are used,they
are typically in 24mm thick overa ll units of
4/ 16/4 (glass/cavity/glass) .The o ute r 4mm is
3-D view of mech anically controlled opening glass slightly thicker ifa laminated glass is used for
louvres in closed position safety Like single glazed louvres,the maxi-
MCE 68
(i)
(i)
Vert ical section I: IO. Mechanically controlled open-
ing glass louvre s in open position
mum length of a panel is 1200mm (4ft), but
two are commonly joined to provide an
overall maximum panel length of 2400mm
(8ft).The thicker frames give less free area for
ventilation of around 50%.Although the glass
is insulated for reasons of energy conserva-
tion,frames are not yet thermally broken.
Condensation risk when windows are closed
is assessed for each application.
Solar shading
Metal louvres are also used as solar shading
on glazed facades. Louvres are located either
in panels set away from the external wall or
horizontally projecting from the facade as
cant ilevered panels. Louvres are set either
horizontally or vert ically to suit the protec-
tion needed from varying sun angles.Yertical-
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grated pboto-voaac <ells Ver tical sectco & elevation I :25. Horizontal fixed
glass louvres
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Iy-set louvres are positioned forward of the
glass. usually a minimllTl of 6()(Xnm (2ft) to
much further than tho se used in 1100mm
(4ft) w ide opening louvre pane ls. and need Details ,~
I. Extruded ak.m.... om
allow a person to pass between the external to be more rigid as a result Panels project a frame~~ e:
2. StICk curtain wallong -
wall and louvres for maintenance access and maximum o f around 10000m (3ft 3in)
type (arTIer 5y<;tem to ,
cleaning. The shading devicesare fixed to ver-
tical posts or mullions which usually coincide
without add itional diagonal tie rods to prop
the panels. Most proprietary systems can
1
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Backng"""
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with the module of the glazing behind. Hori- re ach 2000mm (6ft 6in) with an additional 4. waI providwlg
,
zontally-set panels consist of fixed kxNres.
USUdIIy inc~ned at 450 to the Yertical in order
diagonal brace.
Elliptical and aerofo~ -shaped ali.mini.....,
S.
6.
"""""
Phot~
AdJacent
panel
wal oonstr\ICtIOn
.,
to maximise the shading effect The Iowres profiles are most c()ll'Vll()O/y used since their
7. AdJacent roof (onstruetJOn ,
",
B. larTwlated glass Ioo.M"e blade
are fixed to mild steel channels or T-sections shape is seen outside the building and from 9. Porrtixng (bolt or c1.:wrll)
10. Hroge
Z-shaped louvre pr0-
,
which are in tlfll fixed to support brackets inside. More tradtionaJ
II . Hyd'"auIicaIy ope.-ated ¥TTl "-1

"
projecting ttvough the external wall.'vVhere files are also used An advantage of horizon· to opet'att' Ioo..Nr'e5
12. Extruded~ ~
glazed curtain walling is used. the support tally-set IolNres c:r.<eI" projecting canopies is
to glas5 louvre
bracket goes through the munioo (vertical that they do no t require rainwater drainage 13. Double gLued tnt fomwlg
member") .......here it can be properly sealed that is needed for a coouooocs horizontal """""
against water penetration. Lowres for both
-.e1ical andhorizontal shading usually span
so-ace. Small louvre blades are made asa
single extrusion. but larger louvres. ~ to """"""' ....
Vertical Secbon 1:25. GI.m 1ouvre5 fixed to 5teel

MC E 69
fl etalWalls 015
Lo uvre screens
D etails

j
I. Extruded aluminium frame supporting louvres
2. Stickcurtain walling - type carrier system to
louvre panels
3. Extruded aluminium
louvre blade
4. Backing wall providing support
5. Photovoltaic panel
6. Adjacent wall construction
7. Adjacent roof construction
8. Laminated glass louvre blade
9. Point fixing (bolt or clamp)
ro. Hinge
I I. Hydraulically operated arm to operate louvres
12. Extruded aluminium frameto glass louvre
I 3. Double glazed unit forming louvre

Vertical section I:I a.Single glazed louvre window 3-D view of single glazed louvre window system in
panels in closed position open position

Vertical section I:I a.Single glazed louvre window
panels set into metal raincreen facade
Horizontal sect ion I:I a.Single glazed louvre win-
dow panels set into metal raincreen facade
aro und SOOmm ( Ift Sin) in w idt h are made
from an extr uded alum inium co re t o w hich
curve d or fiat alum inium sect io ns, usually
3mm (0. 1I Smm) th ick, are fixed.Th e ends o f
profil es are fitted w it h extr ude d alum inium
end caps both for visual reason s and t o pro-
t ect th e inside surfaces from co rros io n. A lu-
m inium lo uvres are finished in eit her PVDF
o r polyester powd er coat ing. Blades are usu-
ally fixed at th eir ends fr om th e cent re of th e
extr usio n at a single point at each end.
W here louvres are rnotor ised th ey are
fixed at single pivot point s t o vert ical po sts.
Link rod s are set into th e suppo rt po st join -
ing each blade in o rde r t o o perate a set of
lou vr es from a single motor. Pivots have
nylon bushes fitted t o avoid lo ng t erm rattle
and noi se from th e moving parts.
Vert ically-set louvres use th e same varie-
ty of sect io n profi les and are set o n transom
(ho r izontal) sect io ns th at are co nnecte d back
t o mu llion s o r direct ly back t o th e externa l
wa ll.Vert ical lo uvre sect io ns using an ellipt ical
o r aero fo il profil e can span up t o aro und
3000 m m ( lOft) vert ically w it ho ut need for
add it io nal st iffeners.
Walkways
H orizontally-set louvres can also be used as
maintenance wa lkways if th ey are made suffi-
cient ly r igid.T-sect ion alum inium profi les are
used , and have a serrate d t op t o provide an
ant i-slip surface .A fall ar rest system is used t o
secure maint enance per sonn el t o t he wa lk-
way.T his co nsists of a co nt inuo us cable or
tube fixed t o a co nvenient point alo ng th e
wa lkway.A maintenance per son in a harn ess
is th en linked t o th e co nt inuo us cable o r tube

MC E 70

Horizontal section I: I0, Double glazed louvre win-
dow system set fiush with metal rainscreen cladding
'1n.=,-==~:b!!bb::!d!b~ @'1iQF
@ @
-=''''''''='''=~~''liF~iTiF=r==~=""=""a,,,~
I
o
Vertical section I: I0, Double glazed louvre window
system in open position
by a secure line,Th e aluminium T-section s are
fixed t o st eel I-sections or channels w hich
span between column suppo rts adjacent t o
th e exte rnal wa ll, ty pically at aro und
7500 mm (24ft 6in) cent res,Th e main sec-
ti ons suppo r t ing th e T-sect ions are fixed t o
stainless st eel o r aluminium brackets th at
project through t he exte rnal wa ll from th e
edge of th e floor slab,
A recent developm ent in metal louvre
design is in movable ty pes, Louvres are set o n
a moving rack w hich allow s th em to be
moved from open to closed, using perforated
alum inium sheet t o form louvr es,W hen
closed, th e lo uvres create a t ranslucent
screen w it h 20% t o 50% light transmission
(depending on th e degree of perforation in
th e st eel) t o 100% light transmission w hen
open.This allow s a glazed wall t o deal w ith
--
3-D view of double glazed louvre wind ow system
in open position
changing sun angles at different t imes of day
and different tim es of year th rou gh a change @
in th e angle of th e blade o nly,Thi s system is
used o n both ver t ical and horizontal planes,
fo r examp le o n large glass facades as we ll as
proj ecting areas of hori zont al glazing w it hin
th e facade,Th e use of more complex metal
profiles w here blades int erlock, t ogeth er
w it h different perforated metals and th eir
connect ion t o a BMS (building management
syste m) is sure t o make significant develo p-
ments over th e next t en years, Such co nt ro ls
can reduce energy consum pt io n w it hin a
building by reducing th e amo unt of mechani-
cal coo ling needed as we ll as cont ro l glare
from direct sunlight.
Vertical section I : I0, Double glazed louvre window
system in closed position set flush with metal rain-
screen cladding
MC E 7 1
 Details
I. Extruded aluminium
frame
2. Stick curtain walling - 3-D exp loded view of frame supported solar control
type carrier system glasslouvres used as a shading device in front of glazed
3. Solar control glass curtain wall
- f-D detailedviews or frame supported solar control glass louvre blade
louvres used as a shading device in front of glazed curtain 4. Backingwall
wall 5. Louvre panel door
6. Therma l insulation

3-D exploded view of frame supported solar control glasslouvres used

as a shading device in front of glazed curtain wall

Exploded axonometric view of frame supported solar control glass

louvres used as a shading device in front of glazed curtain wall

MC E 72
 ®

~j 3-D exploded view of single glazed louvre window system

I
I Details
I
I. Extruded aluminium frame supporting louvres
Exploded axonometric of single glazed louvre 2. Stick curtain walling - type carrier system to Detailed views of the system
window system louvre panels
3. Extruded aluminium
louvre blade
4. Backing wall providing support
5. Photovoltaic panel
6. Adjacent wall construction
7. Adjacent roof construction
8. Laminated glass louvre blade
9. Point fixing (bolt or clamp) ®
10. Hinge
I I. Hydraulically operated arm to operate louvres
12. Extruded aluminium frame to glass louvre
I 3. Double glazed unit forming louvre

Exploded axonometric of mechanically controlled 3-D exploded view of mechanically controlled Detailed views ot the system
opening glass louvres opening glass louvres

MC E 73
GLASS WALLS
(I) Stick glazing:
System assembly
Framing profiles
Opening lights
Comers
Spandrel panels
(2) Unitised glazing:
Jointing panels
Opening lights
Comer panels. parapets and cills
Silicone-bonded glazing
(3) C lamped glazing:
Patch plate glazing
Clamped glazing
Opaque glazing
Sealing clamped glazing
(4) Bolt fixed glazing:
Support methods
Bottom supported glazing
Top hung glazing
Comers
Seals and interfaces
(5) Glass blocks.
Fixing glass blocks
Support frames and walls
Cast glass channels
(6) Steel windows:
Small-scale glazing
Large-scale glazing
(7) A luminium and PVC-U windows:
Windows in open ings
Window walls
Composite windows
(8) Timber windows:
Window walls
Window design
Windows in open ings

MCE 75
Glass Walls 0
Stick glazing

11
JIIIiiiiiio--......~...-r---.----_
@

8)

(2)

@-
14

I -- - @- - -

11
Vertical section I :25. Stick curtain wall with opaque 3-D view of curtain wall with opaque glass spandrel Verti cal section I :25. Floor to ceiling glazing with
glassspandrel panel panel insulated panel at ground level

Comparison w it h unitised glazing serv ice th e co nstruct ion of th e pr imary higher dependence o n site- based work t o

Framed glazing syste ms are of t w o types: st ruct ure ofte n being built at th e same t ime, achieve th e quality of const r uction of th e fac-

stick and uniti sed. Stick syste ms are assem- th ough usually several flo ors higher or several t ory-based unitised systems.

bled mainly o n site, w hile unitised systems bays away from th e glazed wa lling.

are assemb led in a factory.Stick syste ms are For low ri se buildin g, or w here th ere is a System assembly
we ll adapte d for non -m odul ar const r uction. high degree of var iat ion in th e facade mod - A n essent ial aspect of st ick syste ms is th at

W hile unitised systems require a repet ition in ule, stick glazing is ofte n pr eferred, since th e th ey should be drained and vent ilate d in

panel sizes in o rder t o keep th e types t o a wa ll is assem bled in place o n site rather th an o rder t o avo id wate r being dr awn through

small numb er in o rder t o remain eco nomic, in a wo r ksho p, making it very eco no mic th e rubb er-based seals int o th e building. Rain-

stick systems allow a high degree of freedom w hen co m pared t o uniti sed glazing. w ate r penetrating th e o ute r seal is dr ained

in modu le size and in facade design. Mullions A lt ho ugh off-site fabri cation savestim e and away in a vent ilate d zone th at pro vides pres-

and transoms do not need t o be cont inuo us; can be of higher quality, it is ofte n more sure equalisat ion between outside and inside

glazing bars can set o ut in staggered grids expensive. Sometim es mu llion s and tran- th e system. Pressure equalisat ion avo ids

and can be changed easily from smaller grid soms are pr e-assemb led int o carrier fr ames wate r being drawn int o th e syste m by a pres-

sizes t o larger o nes. Compl ex geomet ries can th at are lift ed in place and fixed w it ho ut sure difference between two chambers,

be t aken up much more easily by stick sys- glass.Th is 'sem i-un itised' approac h can save resulting in wate r being drawn through a

t ems th an by unitised syste ms. Stick systems tim e o n co nst ruct ion w here th ere is some joint. A ny rainw ater ente ring thi s zone is

are ofte n preferred for low -ri se building, degree of repet ition . dr ained away t o th e o utside fo rw ard of th e

w here scaffo lding is used, but th e increased A crit icism of stick syste ms has tradition- inner seal forming a second line of defence

use of mast climb er s (moving platforms) is ally been of th eir poorer quality of assembly against air and w ate r infiltration. Mo st stick

making st ick systems viable for taller buildings w hen compared t o unitised glazing, but th is is syste ms now pr ovide a full th erm al br eak

( 10 t o 20 storeys) w here uniti sed glazing much less th e case today. Ho w ever. bringing through th e aluminium profil es rather th an

wo uld ot herwise have been used.Th e all th e compo nents t ogeth er at th e site, of th e partial th erm al br eaks provided o n previ-

increased dependence on mast climber s is in doubl e- or single glazed units,aluminium pro - o us syste ms.Thi s reduces co ndensat ion risk

part due t o th e need t o be independent of files, rubb er-based gaskets and seals,fo lded o n th e inside face of th e fram ing in t emp er-

site cranes,w hich are increasingly needed t o metal flashings and co pings, involves a much ate climates.In hot and humid climates,th e

MC E 76
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
 @
•

3-D view of glazed curtain wall with maintenance walkwayand glazed

solar shading panels in front

De tails
I. Extr uded alum inium transom 13. O uter glazed screen
2. Extru ded alum inium m ullion providing solarshading
1 Fixing bracket 14 Thermal insulation
4. Single glazed or double glazed I S. Metal sheet seal
unit to suit 16. t-laintenance access deck
app lication 17. W indow glazed in
5. Pressure plate curtain wa lling
6. Rubber-based seal 18 Metal honeycomb panel
7, Therm al break 19. Slot in mullion t o receive
8. Metal-faced or opaque gjass- f,xlng bracelet for
faced insulated pan el external screens, etc
9, Cover cap 20. Steel hollow sect ion
@ 10, Floo r slab 2 1. Adjacent wa ll.Meta l ra in
I I , Floor finish screen shown
12. C eiling finish 22. Smo ke sea l

Vertical section I:25 Glazed curtain wa ll w ith maintenance Vert ical sect ion I :25 Curtain w allglazing on steel
walkwayand glazed solarshading panels in front carr ier frame

.
-...
•
•

,
.. ..... ,-.
wi'
•

= =I!=;;:;=
Horizo nt al sect ion I :5. Curtain wall glaZIng on steel
3-D view of curtain wall g1azing on steel carrier frame earner frame

MC E 77
GassWalls 01
Stick glazing
Section I:S.Junction between doub le glazed units
Sectio n I :S.Junction between do uble glazed unit
and glass spandrel panel
Sectio n I:S.Junction bet w een doub le glazed unit
and metal honey comb panel
Vert ical Section I :S.Junctio n bet we en doub le glazed
unit and t o p of inw ard opening w indow
Section I :5.Junctio n between do uble glazed unit
and botto m of inw ard o pening wi ndow
MC E 78
Vertical section 1:5.Top of slab con nection w it h
insulat ed slab capping
Vertical section I:S. Underside of slab connectio n
with insulated slab capping
@
Sect ion I:S.Junction bet ween doub le glazed units
using reduced frame size
condensati on w ill occur harmlessly o n the
outside face of the frami ng if th e interior is
coole d by mechanical vent ilat io n. In all cli-
mates, a th erm al break improves th e U -val-
ue of t he glazed w all, t hus reducing energy
consumpt io n w it hin th e building for eit her
heating o r coo ling.
Stick glazing is assembled mainly on site.
Mullions (verticals) are fixed to floor slabs
w it h transom s (horizo nt als) spanning
between th e mullions to w hich th ey are fixed.
These framing member s can be pre-assem-
bled into 'ladder s' o n t he gro und and lift ed
int o place by crane in o rder t o reduce t ime
o n sit e.The glass is set in place and pressure
plates fixed th rough thermal breaks back to
t he carrier frame of mullions and tran soms.
De corative cappings are usually applied to
Vertical section I:S.Junction with top and bottom of
slab
Section I:S.Junction bet ween double glazed units
using slim fram e pr ofile
the pressure plates t o conceal the pressure
plates as well as th e self tapping screws hold-
ing th e glass in place. Somet imes th e cappings
are omitted but care must be t aken t o
ensure t hat t he screws are pro perly aligned
and th at the pressure plates are cont inuo us
and jointed carefully
Stick systems are fixed fro m floo r to floo r
at either side of the floo r slab o r o n t op.The
design of t he connectio n is depend ent mainly
o n th e meth od of form ing th e edge of the
floo r constr uct io n o n floor dept hs o r uses of
t he adjacent floor zone, and any addit ional
elements such as brackets for solar shading
or mainte nance walkways w hich penetrate
the stick glazing.The glazing is either hung
fro m each floor level o r sits o n each floor
level. Hanging is usually preferred but con-
D etails I I.Floor finish
I. Extruded aluminium transom 12. Ceilingfinish
2. Extruded aluminium mullion I 3.Outer glazed screen providingsolarshading
3. Fixing bracket 14. Thermal insulation
4. Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit 15. Metal sheetseal
application 16. Maintenance access deck
5. Pressure plate 17. W indow glazed in curtain walling
6. Rubber-based seal 18. Metal honeycomb panel
7. Thermal break 19. Slot in mullionto receive fixing bracelet for
8. Metal-faced or opaqueglass-faced insulated external screens, etc.
panel 20. Steel hollow section
9. Cover cap 21. Adjacent wall. Metal rainscreen shown
10. Floor slab 22. Smoke seal

Horizontal section 1:5.Junction between double

glazed unit and insulated metal panel

~-
=::: J CD
~ J

---
I- 1\ ""--""11
@
@ @
® --------
I r ----
---------

CD

Vertical section 1:5.Junction with double glazed

Vertical section 1:5. Opaque glass spandrel panel
unit and opaqueglazed panel with bonded
3-D view of glazed curtain wall with cut glazing caps with ventilated spandrel zone
insulation

str aint s imposed by th e str ucture o f t he
building may req uire t he glazing t o be sup-
ported at t he base o f each mulli on . Mulli on s
are linked by spigots so th at th e restrained
end of o ne mulli on fit s int o t he suppo rte d
end of t he ot her mu llio n.
Because glazed wa lling is set forward of
t he edge o f th e slab, th e gap between th e
two is clo sed w it h a floor finish. Seals
between adjacent floors are designed as
eit her sm o ke seals or as flame barri er s.
Sm o ke seals co m prise a mi ner al woo l o r
glass w o o l barri er, held in place and sealed
w it h galvanised stee l sheet above and below .
Flame barri ers, usually of o ne ho ur o r 90
minu t e ratin g are provided by a spec ially pro-
t ected spand re l panel at t he level of t he flo or
zo ne.T he spand rel panel forming th e barri er
is fixed direct ly t o th e floor slab as w ell as
form ing part of t he curtain w all system.Th is
@
ensures t hat t he spand rel rem ains in place
lo ng afte r th e adjace nt curta in wa lling has
co llapsed d uring a fire.T he spandrel panel
itself is usually protect ed w it h a fire resistant
board as part of t he bar r ier.
Where glazing is inclined significant ly
from t he ver t ical. t w o -edge glazing is used t o
allow th e w at er t o run do wn unimped ed
w it h transom s.Thi s is a standard m ethod for
glazed ro ofs,w here mulli on s are capped. but
transom s running acro ss th e w idt h of th e
slo pe are sealed w it h a flush silico ne join t.
Framing profiles
Car r ier fr am es are m ade from a w ide var iety Vertical section 1:5. Metal honeycombspandrel
panel with ventilated spandrel zone
of sect io ns.Th e shape can usually be adapted

MC E 79
Glass W alls aI
Stick glazing

Horiz ontal section 1:5, Internal corner connection

between double glazed units

3-D view of connection betw een double glazed units 3-D view of framed internal corner connection
between double glazed units

Hori zontal section 1:5, External corner connection

between double glazed units

Ho rizontal section 1:5, External corner connection

3-D views offramed external corner connection between double glazed units
between double glazed units

D etails
I, Extruded aluminium transom
for a specific proj ect.Th e most commo n ally too deep or if th e glazing syste m is fixed
2, Extruded aluminium mullion t ypes are rectangular box sectio ns th at use back t o a steel frame forming part of th e pr i-
3. Fixing bracket
4, Singleglazed or double glazed unit to
th e full w idt h of th e joint, and narrower mary structure,The front part of th e ext ru-
suit application T-shaped and I-shaped sections th at are nar- sion containing th e seals is fixed direct ly t o a
S, Pressure plate
6, Rubber-based seal row er th an th e joint w idt h,A lt hough th e mild stee l box or l-section.The glazing is th en
7, Thermal break depth of th e profi le is determin ed by st r uc- fixed t o thi s extrusion in th e convent ional
8, Metal-faced or opaque glass-faced
insulated panel tural requirement s, th e overall shape can be way, If th e steel fr ame has variable or com-
9, Cover cap adapte d t o suit ot her needs,such as incor- plex curves th en t he ru bber-based seals are
I 0, Floor slab
I I, Floor finish porating ro ller blind guides int o t he sides of set onto th e steel fr ame w it hout an ext ru-
I 2, Ceiling finish th e ver t ical profil es, Mullions and transom s sion w it h a t echnique commo nly used in
I 3. Outer glazed screen providing solar
shading are ofte n not of th e same depth , for st ruc- glazed roof st r uctures,The glass is fixed w it h
14, Thermal insulation tural reason s, but can be made so if pressure plates directly t o t he steelwo rk w it h
15, Metal sheet seal
I 6, Maintenance access deck required t o suppo rt blinds, for example, o r a ru bber-based profile set between th e glass
17, W indow glazed in curtain walling for visual reasons, and support ing steel.
I 8, Metal honeycomb panel
19, Slot in mullion to receive fixing bracelet W here framing member s have long ver-
for external screens, etc. t ical or horizontal spans, mild steel sections Opening lights
20, Steel hollow section
21, Adjacent wall. Metal rainscreen shown are somet imes used instead of a rectangular W indow s, doors and smoke vents are fixed
22, Smoke seal box section in aluminium, particularly if th e into stick glazing as items w it h th eir ow n
equivalent aluminium section wo uld be visu- fr ame rather th an using t he cur tain wall fram-

MC E 80
3-D view of junction between double glazed unit and insulated
external corner panel
3-D view of external corner connection between double glazed units
ing directly.This is because th e op ening light
usually needs it s own dr ainage and we at her-
proofing profi les and seals.This gives th e
appearance of a thi cker fr ame aro und op en-
ing light s th an aro und th e adjacent fixed
light s. Drips and seals form a part of th e sec-
ondary frame in th e same w ay as if t he light
we re glazed into any oth er form of co nst r uc-
ti on such as an o pening in a masonry wa ll.
The op ening light is glazed into curta in w aIl-
ing around it s edge w it h a th inner fram e t hat
correspo nds t o th e th ickness of t he glazed
units, allowin g it to be fixed in place w it h th e
same t echnique as if it we re a doub le glazed
unit.Th ese edge nibs are positioned on th e
fram e t o t he o pening light in a way that
ensures that th e glass of th e op ening light is
in th e same plane as th e adjacent glass.
Horizontal section 1:5.Junction between double glazed unit and insulated external
corner panel
Horizontal section 1:5. External corner at spandrel level with opaque glasspanels
and vent ilat ed spandrel zone
Parapets, cil ls and penetrat ion s
Parapet co pings are glazed int o th e curta in
w alling w it h a pre ssure plate in t he same w ay
as adjacent glazing. Copin gs usually proj ect to
align w it h th e face of th e cappings on th e
pressure plates or slight ly fo rw ard of th em to
protect th e glazing beneath from t he vert ical
m ovement of maint enance cradles. Copings
slope inw ards t ow ards a gutter rather t han
sloping fo rw ards to avoid dirt accumulat ing
o n th e top of co ping being w ashed down th e
facade by rain.Th is also avoids th e need for
th e co ping to proj ect beyond th e face of th e
glazing and form a drip. It sho uld be noted
th at proj ecting drips on copings are st ill good
pr actice in masonry co nstruct ion, w here an
impervious co ping w ashes rainw ater onto a
perm eable masonry material beneath, caus- Horizontal section 1:5.Junction between curtain
wall glazing and rainscreen cladding system
ing staining. Cills at th e base of stick glazing
MCE 81
Glass Walls 0 I
Stick glazing
Horizontal section 1:5. Glazingframe Horizontal section 1:5. Framed Horizontal section 1:5. Glazing frame
supported directly on steel structure external corner with thin frame
Horizontal section 1:5.Junction between insulated Horizontal section I:5. Inward opening
metal spandrel panels window fixed into curtain wall system.
Right: 3-D view of glass louvre fixed to
inside of glazing frame
are formed w it h a pressed aluminium profi le
w it h a clip at t he bottom w hich pro vides a
@
clean line at t he bottom of t he w all, and
Horizontal section 1:5. Glass rainscreen supported
from bracket fixed to inside of glazing frame pro vides rigidity to t he pro file.W here cill
drips can be seen from below, t he folded
edge pro vides a smoot h painted edge w hich
is also protected from weat her corrosion.
W here stick glazing abuts an adjacent
area of wall in a different mat erial, a blocking
profi le is glazed int o t he edge of t he glazing
profile, faced w it h an EPDM foil.The foil is
t hen bonded t o t he adjacent wall.W here
glazing abut s metal rainscreens, w hich is a
commo n combinat ion, t he edge of t he met al
return t o t he rainscreen can also be glazed
int o t he edge mullion or t ransom.W here a
Horizontal section 1:5. Glass louvre fixed to inside pro jecting cill is required at t he base of t he
of glazing frame w all, for example, a proj ecting aluminium cill
MC E 82
Det ails
I. Extruded aluminium transom
2. Extruded aluminium mullion
3. Fixing bracket
4. Single glazed or double glazed unit to
suit application
5. Pressure plate
6. Rubber-based seal
7.Thermal break
8. Metal-faced or opaque glass-faced
insulat ed panel
9. Cover cap
10. Floor slab
is glazed int o t he curtain w alling at t he t op
end, and project s down over t he adjacent
wall in a manner t o suit t he det ailing of t he
wall beneath.
Corners
Both int ernal and exte rnal corners are
form ed by glazing in a folded aluminium strip
int o t he mullion on each side of t he corner.
A lte rnat ively, a mullion set at 45° is used to
give a t hin edge t o t he facade, w it h a joint
w idt h similar t o t hat of joint s elsewhere on
t he facade. Som e manufactur er s provide
int erlocking mullions for use at corners t o
allow varying angles at corners on a single
building w it h a constant abutting of mullions
on t he inside face.
 I
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Elevation,verti cal & horizontal I :50, Curtain wall glaZIng with glass solar shading panels in front
_ I I. Floor finish
12. Ceiling finish
11 Outer glazed screen provOding solar shading
14 Thermal insulation
IS. Meta l sheet seal
16. t-taotenaoce access deck
17Window glazed in curta in walling
Spandrel panels 18 Metal honeycomb panel
19, Slot in mullion to receive fixing bracelet for
Spandrel panels are made either as a contin-
external screens.etc.
uo us sealed panel. draining in the same way 20. Steel hollow section
21 .Adjacent w all. Metal rainscreen shOVlIn
as the glass panels. or as a ventilated box.
22. Smoke seal
Where metal is used, spandrels can be @
formed as t rays glazed int o the frami ng with
insulatio n between. Glazed spandrels are
made either with rigid insulati o n bo nded to
the back of laminated glass or on a sheet of
laminated glass with a ventilated void behind
both to coo l the glass and avoid either a visu-
al read-through of the insulation from the
outside or risk of t he insulation delaminating
from the glass. When glass is used it is made
opaq ue (w ith either method) by screen
printi ng.etch ing or a combination of both.

3-D view showingcurtam wall glazing with glass

solar shadingpanels in front at upper floor junction

MC E 83
- - - GlassWalls
Stick glazing
Ol r-------..
3-D e;.q)k:x.led _ of stICk. glazed Curtain wall with glazed solar shading pane ls n front

/
./
.' / Details
I. Extruded a1<.mni1.rn transom
2. Extruded alnw1i.m I'l'WJIIon
1 fixing bracket
."
,
4. Single glaZed Ot' double glazed l.rMl. to

--
SUIt appIicat.Qn

- -
5_~plate

6. Ri..ttler-based sW
7.Thermal break
8.l"1et.»-faced or opacp..oe glass-f.xed
nsulated panel
® 9. CoYer cap
I (l Aoor slab
I I. Aoor linrsh
11 CeWng Iinrsh

""".,
13. Outer glazed screen ~ solar

14.Thermal nsulabon
IS. Metal sheet seal
16. r-tentene-ce access dec k
17. W ItldrJ.N glazed in a.rtaon walhng
18. Metal honeycOO"b panel
19 Slot n mullion to receee fixing
braceletfor extemal screens.etc.
20. Steel hollow sectco
21.Adjacef1t wall, Metal raoscreeo
, .oown
22. Smoke seal

3-D ~ VIeW 0( strl glazed W'1ain wal at lIoorp,etJon

MCE 84
 8)
@
@

3-D exploded view of stick glazed curta in wall

3-D exploded view of stick glazed curtain

wall with glazed solar panels at fioor juncti on

_-
.... .....

3-D exploded view of corner junction between

double glazed units

I
I
@ I
I
3-D view of corner junction between double glazed
units

3-D exp loded view of stick glazed curtain wall w ith cut glazing caps
3-D view of stick glazed curtain wall with glazed
solar panels at fioor junction

MCE 85

Horizontal section 1:5. Connection between uni-
tised double glazed units with glazing fixed from
outside
'-':L.---0 -
Horizontal section 1:5. Outward opening window
glazed into unitised panel
T he main advantages of uniti sed glazing in
const r uct ion are of speed of installati on o n
site and of quality co nt rol of assembly wo rk-
sho p co ndit ions over t hose o n site. Fo r t aller
buildings,for t hose over five or six storeys,
scaffo lding becomes much less pract ical, and
so wo rking from inside th e building on a
fioor slab is a safer and faster method. Uni -
t ised panels are assemb led and glazed in t he
factory.O n site th ey are secured by brackets
fixed t o th e fioor slab and set side by side,
t hen rising floo r by floo r; usually from t he
bottom of t he building upw ards. Panels are
made eit her as panels set side by side, so t hat
th ey can be replaced as complete panels if
accident ally damaged, o r be semi-inte r locking
w here t he glass is replaced w it ho ut mo ving
t he panel.The fully uniti sed type has w ider
site lines (ove rall fram e w idt h) at aro und
80mm (3in), than th e semi-inte rloc king ty pe
at aro und 6Smm (2.Sin). A comparable st ick
syste m w o uld have a joint w idt h of aro und
SOmm 2in). From t he visual point of view, t he
w ider site lines of uniti sed glazing over st ick
glazing is t he main disadvantage of t his system.
Unitised glazing is much less suite d to t all
M C E 86
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
0_
Horizontal section 1:5. Connection between uni-
tised double glazed units with glazing fixed internally
Horizontal section 1:5. Connection between uni-
tised panels with insulated metal panels fixed from
inside
glazed wa lls,visually, t hat have height s greate r
t han aro und four metres betw een floo r slabs,
th at is,greate r th an a single panel height.Th e
fram ing can appear t o be visually very stro ng,
and instead frameless co nstruct ion is often
prefer red as eit her bolt fixed or clamped
glazing. It s mo st commo n use is in modules
of 1200mm o r I SOOmm w ide (4ft or Sft)
w here it suits t he int ern al planning of office
buildings, but st orey height panels 3 metres
w ide are used. Because of th e cost of setting
up jigs and t oo ls in t he factory, uniti sed glaz-
ing is suite d to use w it h a small number of
panel types t o create a high level of repet i-
ti on .Thi s suits very modu lar facades w it h rel-
at ively few panel t ypes. Glazed unit s are fixed
eit her w it h pr essure plates, o r are silicone-
bo nded t o a light frame aro und t he edge
and th en mechanically fixed t o th e fr ame of
th e panel.
Glazed unit s are fitted eit her exte rn ally
o r intern ally depending on th e glass replace-
ment meth od.W hen glazed exte rn ally, mul-
lio ns and transoms are adapte d to have a clip
o n t he outside t o form a pressure plate.
W here glazed units are intern ally glazed, clips
I
®
Vertical section 1:5. Connection between externally
glazed unitised panels with double glazed units and
inulated metal panels
are used w hich pr oject from t he sides of t he
mullion/transom section.T his result s in int er-
nally glazed sect io ns usually being w ider than
t hose glazed exte rn ally. W hen glazed exte r-
nally, a maintenance cradle is used w it h th e
capacity t o lift glass and allow t he panel t o be
lifted in place.Thi s method allows glass t o be
replaced w here it is eit her impractical to
carry t he glass t hrough t he building o r w here
glass sizes are too large to ente r stairwells o r
lifts.W hen intern ally glazed, glass unit s are
carried up eit her in a lift or by stairs and are
installed ent irely from t he floo r plate.
Jointing panels
Most panels are made o ne sto rey-height. but
larger panels are made to span two fio ors
and o ne bay w ide or o ne storey high and
several bays w ide.Th ose larger panels are
usually done w here installation tim e is crit ical.
Like st ick glazing, panels are eit her hung fro m
th e t op o r are supporte d at th e bottom .
Instead of a st raightforwa rd spigot between
storey height lengths of mullion, panels are
t ied t oget her w it h a 'st ack' joint. so-named
from t he co ncept of panels being stacked
 }- - - - --'""- . . . . . ~- 0---
Horizontal section 1:5. Outward opening window Vertical section 1:5. Connection between unitsed
glazed into unitised panel double glazed panels with externally fixed glass

;;

CD

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Horizontal section I :5. Stick mullion in unitised Vertical section 1:5. Stick transom in unitised panel
panel

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Horizontal section 1:5. Connection between uni- Vertical section 1:5. Unitised panel connection at Vertical section 1:5. Outward opening window
tised panel and structure ground level glazed into unitised panel

Deta ils
I. Interlocking transom
2. Plain transom
3. Interlocking mullion
4. Singleglazed or double
glazed unit to suit application
5. Pressure plate
6. Rubber-based seal
7. Thermal break
8. Metal parapet coping
9. Metal-faced or opaque glass-
faced insulated panels
10. Floor slab
I I. Floor finish
12. Ceiling finish
I 3. Outer screen providing
solar shading
14. Thermal insulation
15. Sheet metal seal
I 6. Cover cap
17. Smoke seal
18. Support bracket

3-D view connection between unitised double glazed panels

MC E 87
GlassWalls 02.
Unitised glazing
3-D view of frame less glasscomer
_ _ _ _ _ -----l.:"'==d
Horizontal section 1:5. Framed glass connection Horizontal section 1:5. Frameless external glasscorner in externally glazed unitised panel
within unitised external corner panel
above one anot her.Th e complete bottom
horizontal edge of th e panel int ersects w it h
th e t op edge of th e panel below .This joint
comprisest wo lines of defence against air
and wate r infilt rati o n, and a furth er air seal at
th e interior face of th e panels. In st ick glazing,
seals are provided by a set of pressure plates
applied w hen th e carrier frame and glass are
already in place. In unitised glazing,th e wate r-
pro ofing is mostly fixed t o th e panel before
inst allati o n and has t o wo rk w hen panels are
simply slotted int o place.A n o ute r line of
defence is provided by rubb er-based baffles
set o n each panel so th at th ey press t ogether
t o form a seal.A n aluminium drip profil e is
somet imes added t o th e outside of th is as a
fir st barri er against w ind, but allow ing wate r
t o drip out again behind thi s profi le. A ny
wate r passing through th is profile is sto pped
MC E 88
===!!:.L- CD
in a pressure equalised chamber th at stops
wate r getting any further.This is drained
through th e forw ard baffle and out of th e
front of th e panel.At th e back of th e joint is
an air seal. In warm humid count ries, th is rear
chamber is usually vent ilate d t o th e o utside
as we ll as t o release condensat ion t hat inevi-
tably forms in th e full depth of th e profi le. In
th is detail, th e performance of th e inner air
seal is crit ical t o th e success of th e system.
Th e vert ical jo int between two panels is
form ed as a vert ical cont inuity of horizontal
joints.Th e forw ard baffle form s an o ute r seal,
th e inner seal is lapped onto th e horizontal
joint, and th e inner air seal is cont inuo us w it h
it s horizontal counte rpart.
Both hori zont al and vert ical aluminium
profi les have a th erm al break set near th e
exte rnal face t o avoid th erm al br idging. How -
 ---.

Vertical section 1:5. Parapet connection detail at top of unitised glazing panel

Vertical section 1:5. Outward opening window 3-D cutaway view of parapet connection at top of opaque unitised panel
glazed into unitised panel

ever. since exte rnal air is allowe d deep int o unlike st ick glazing w here doors are glazed
t he joi nt, th erm al calculat ions are undertaken into th e st ick syst em, making th e overall
D etails
t o check t hat t he dewp o int falls in t he pres- w idt hs great er. H owever.air infiltrati on rates I. Interlocking transom
sure equalised drainage cavity Spandrel pan- for doors are usually half th at of uniti sed glaz- 2. Plaintransom
3. Interlocking mullion
els are fo rmed in t he same way as w it h st ick ing at aro und 300 Pascals for doo rs w hen 4. Singleglazed or double
glazing w it h metal or glass panels.T he tran- compared w it h 600 Pascals for unitised glaz- glazed unit to suit application
5. Pressure plate
som dividing spandrel and glazing beneath is ing. Stick glazing pro vides similar levels of air 6. Rubber-based seal
formed as one division w it hin th e uniti sed infiltration .Th e poorer perform ance of tradi- 7. Thermal break
B. Metal parapet coping
panel, t hough it can somet imes be at t he t io nal doors can somet imes lead t o t he use 9. Metal-faced or opaque glass-
position of th e stack jo int if t he panels are of w indow profi les as doors since th ey have faced insulated panels
10. Floor slab
seat ed o n t he fixing bracket at slab level rath - much lower air infiltrati on rates, so me mat ch- I I. Floor finish
er t han hanging fro m it. ing t hose of curt ain w alling. 12. Ceiling finish
I 3. Outer screen providing
solar shading
Opening lights Corner panels, parapets and cills 14. Thermal insulation
15. Sheet metal seal
Opening light s such as smo ke vent s are A n advantage of uniti sed glazing is its ability I 6. Cover cap
fo rmed w it hin each panel w it h a seco ndar y t o have frameless glazed corn ers, w hich is dif- 17. Smoke seal
lB. Support bracket
fr ame inserted w it hin th e edge frame of th e ficult t o achieve in st ick glazing, since th e seal-
panel. D oors are usually made as separate ing joint between th e two glazed units has t o
it ems t hat are glazed int o t he adjacent frame, be achieved on site, w here curing of t he sil i-

MCE 89
Glass ails 02
Unitised glazing

Vertica l section I :5. Unitised panel hung from top

of slab with opaque glasspanel to hide slab edge

~
>- Irr r---,
I >-
>-
>-
>-
I . i"~
'----
.

Vert ical section 1:5. Connection between opaque glassspandrel panel and double glazed
unit with stick transom at suspended ceiling level

cone is much more difficult th an in th e facto-
ry.Corn er units w it h frameless corne rs are
made by suppo r t ing th e glass on three sides
in a fr ame and bondin g th e t wo sides t ogeth-
er. Usually a small square aluminium sectio n,
30mm x 30mm ( I .lin x l .Zin) appro ximate ly
t o match th e thi ckness of th e dou ble glazed
units,is used t o suppo rt th e co rner of th e
panel w hen it is lift ed by crane.T his makes
~=
~ th e corne r of th e panel slight ly less all-glass
I~ 7--J
I I~I~
th an can be achieved by a doub le glazed bay
w indow for example, w it h a fully glazed cor-
I~
I~
1-< ner. In such a bay w indow th e glass can be
I ~i:l jo ined w it ho ut th e need for an addit ional alu-
'--
I
~I
minium post using eit her a stepped o r mitred
jo int. In a fully glazed corne r in a unitised
Horizontal section 1:5. Uniti sed curtain wall support- panel. th e appearance of th e corne r is st ill
ed from fioor slabs with opaque spandrel panels
aro und 40mm ( I.Sin), since th e visible edging
t o th e doub le glazed unit visually w idens th e
jo int t o aro und 40mm . Panels can be formed
eit her as equal corne rs, w it h up t o aro und
1500mm (5ft) from each corne r t o a short
corner of 1500mm (5ft) o n o ne leg and
300mm ( I ft) o n th e ot her leg.As th e size of
th e corne r panel increases, it becom es more
difficult t o lift and set in place, and conse-
quent ly becom es more expensive.A corne r
unit w it h a framing member at th e corne r
can be made eit her w it h a fr ame visible, o r
visible o nly from th e inside, w it h a glass-to-
glass junction as descr ibed in th e paragraph.
Som etim es th e jo int occurs o n th e corne r of
two fiat panels, w it h eit her a mitred corne r
o r a square corne r w it h an infill piece.
Both parapets and cills are form ed in a
similar way t o th ose used on stick systems,

MC E 90
 ..:=-_-_-_---:::0.

Vertical section 1:5. Unitised panel connection to top of fioor slab

with insulated metal slab capping 3-D view of unitised panel connection to top of fioor slab

Vertical section 1:5. Unitised panel connection to underside of fioor 3-D view of unitised panel connection to underside of fioor slab
slab with insulated metal slab capping

but are formed as separat e panels unlike st ick Silicone-bonded glazing

syste ms w hich are glazed int o th e t op tran- A development over th e past t en years has D etails
I. Interlocking transom
som at roof level. been in silicone-bo nded glazing.A lt ho ugh t his 2. Plaintransom
is used in uniti sed syste ms, it is also used par- 3. Interlocking mullion
4. Singleglazed or double
Penet ratio ns t ially in st ick glazing.Th e glass is restr ained on glazed unit to suit application
5. Pressure plate
Penet ratio ns t hro ugh glazing for bracket s, t w o vert ical sides by pressure plates and two
6. Rubber-based seal
usually fixed at floor level t o fix th em back to ho rizont al sides by silico ne.A lte rnat ively, t he 7. Thermal break
8. Metal parapet coping
th e floor slab, occur at joints betw een panels glass is bonded on all four sides by silicone.
9. Metal-faced or opaque glass-
t hro ugh mullions o r t ransom s.T his is because T his met hod avoids t he need for visible cap- faced insulated panels
I O. Floor slab
th e bracket can be far more easily sealed at pings for mu llion s and/o r transom s w hich are
I I. Floor finish
t his po int, w here t he glazing syste m is drained ofte n aro und 1.5 t imes w ider t han an equiva- 12. Ceiling finish
I 3. Outer screen providing
and vent ilate d int ern ally,th an thro ugh span- lent stick syste m.Th e use of silico ne allows
solar shading
drel panels, w here it is difficult t o apply a seal th e joint betw een glass unit s t o be flush rath- 14. Thermal insulation
15. Sheet metal seal
and w here no mechanical pressure can be er t han using a pressure plate w hich is set in
I 6. Cover cap
applied t o th e spandrel panel since th ere is front of th e glass.Thi s allows th e facade t o 17. Smoke seal
18. Support bracket
no framing mem ber behind. have no visible fr am ing on t he o ut side. Sili-
co ne is also used in th e joint since thi s mate-
r ial cannot be com bined w it h an EPDM, such

MC E 9 1
Glass Walls 02
Unitised glazing

- -0 0- -
Horizontal section 1:5. Connection between uni- Horizontal section 1:5 . Connection between double Horizontal section 1:5. Stick mullion in unitised panel
tised double glazed units with glass bonded to glazed unit and opaque glass unit with glass bonded
frame to frame

_8 l 0 0 0_
Horizontal section 1:5. Outward opening window within unitised panel with glass bonded to frame 3-D view of unitised double glazed panel with glass
bonded to frame

as neoprene, used in seals in pr essure plate is secured by addit ional short clips along th e
syste ms. horizontal edges t o increase th e safety of th e
The glass unit s are bond ed to aluminium system, but building codes aro und th e wo rld
profi les t o form a light fram e at th e edge of differ in th is requirement.
th e glass.Th e glass is th en mechanically fixed
w it h screws t o th e carrier fram e o n site. T his
t echniqu e is increasingly used in unitised sys-
t ems w here damaged glass can be remo ved
w it hout th e need t o remove th e complete
panel.A lt ho ugh silicone-bo nded glazing
allow s a facade to appear from th e o utside as
a cont inuo us glass surface int errupt ed o nly
by smoot h and narro w joints,w it h 20mm
(O.78in) rather th an SOmm (2in) m inimum
w it h pressure plates,th e op aque zo ne across
th e fram e is th e same overall w idt h as w it h
pressure plates.Thi s is because th e area
behind th e doub le glazed units is made
opaqu e w it h screen printing in o rder t o co n-
ceal th e w idt h of th e carrier frame behind.
Som e manufacturers bond a light alumin-
ium fr ame aro und th e edge of th e fram e
w it hin th e depth of th e doub le glazed unit,
fixing th e glass w it h shor t lengths of pr essure
plate in th e co nvent ional manner, th en apply-
ing sealant int o th e jo int. Som et imes th e glass

MC E 92
 0

=
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CD
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I
Vertical section 1:5. Stick mullion in
unitised panel

Details
I. Interl o cking transom
2. Plain tra nsom
3. Interl o cking mullion
4. Single glazed or doub le
glazed unit to suit application
5. Pressure plate
6. Rubber-based seal
7. Thermal break 8)
8. Metal parapet coping
9. Metal-faced or opaque glass-
faced insulated panels I
10 Floor slab Vertica l section I :5. Outward Vertical section I :5. Connection
I I. Floor finish opening wi ndow within unitised between unitised double glazed
12. Ceiling finish panel with glassbo nded to units w ith glass bo nded to frame
frame
CD 13. Outer screen providing
solar shading
~D If
14. Therma l insulati on

~ ~ 15.
16.
Sheet metal seal
Cover cap
U I I 17. Smoke seal
CD 18. Suppo rt bracket

CD
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6)
Horizontal section 1:5. Unitised corner panels with glass bonded to frame
3-D view of unitised panel hung in front of slab incorporating double glazed
unit and opaque spandrel panel

----"'.~~ 0-

I
11J-l---0 - - - - - - -
Horizontal section 1:5. Framed internal corner with- Horizontal section 1:5. Framed external corner Horizontal section I :5. Internal corner connection
in unitised panel using bonded glass within unitised panel using bonded glass between unitised panels with bonded glass

MC E 93
Glass ails 02
U niti sed glazing

3-D view of unitised w indow w ith louvre system in front 3-D exploded view of window and louvres

Details
I. Interlocking transom
2. Plain transom
3. Interlocking mullion
4. Single glazed or double
glazedunit to suit applicat ion
5. Pressune plate
6. Rubber-based seal
7. Thermal break
8. Metal parapet coping
9. Metal-faced or opaque glass-
faced insulated panels
I O. Floo r slab
I I. Floo r finish
I 2. Ceiling finish
I 3. Ou ter screen providing
solar shading
14. Thermal insulation
15. Sheet metal seal
16. Cover cap
17. Smoke seal
18. Support bracket

MC E 94
 )- D exploded view of slab connection at
top and bottom of unitised panel
Exploded axonomentric view of slab connec-
tion at top and bottom of unitised panel

)-D voew of slab cco-ecuco at top

olI1d bottom of uMJSed P¥'eI

Ii)
.--'

~
0
I ~~ @

I ~'
0
] -0 exploded view ol p.1rapet ccooec-
toOn at top of lhtrsed ~

3-D_ of ~ ConnectlQn at top of unMed panel

Exploded axonometric Vlf!W of parapet
coonectron at top of unrtrsed panel
GassWals 03
Clamped glazing

==6)=========j6)=== fJ--l ° 1-~--®

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Vertical section I :25.Clamped glazingouter layer in
double skin facade with maintenance walkway
I I
Details
I. Stainless steel patch plates
2. Singleglazed or double glazed unit to suit

I @ I 3.
application
Silicone seal
4. Glass fin
5. Support bracket
6. Floor slab
7. Ceiling finish
@ 8. Floor finish
9. A ccess ladder
@ 10. Clamped glazed wall
CD I I. Inner framed curtain walling
Horizontal section & elevation I:25. Glass clamped at corners to fixing suspended from 12. Fixing bolt
cable support. I 3. Maintenance access deck

MC E 96
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D view glazing clamped at corners and supported from cables 3-D view of corner clamped glazing system

T his glazing m et hod is suite d primar ily t o sin- ex pensive stainless steel angle-ty pe bracket s ings in areas of high am bient no ise.Th e rain-

gle glazing but doub le glazed exam ples are t o be used Th ese cont rast both in th e scree n prin ciple has been develop ed further

being const r ucte d th at avoid some of th e appearance and higher costs associate d w it h t o avoid fixing clamp s direct ly t o th e glass but

w ide jo ints resulting from t he visible black bo lt fixed glazing.A disadvantage of clamped instead to silicone bond an edge frame

edges of double glazed unit s.Th e sealant glazing is th at glassthi cknesses are usually aro und th e glass and fix th e frames back t o

between doub le glazed units is also usually t hicker than th ose in bo lt fixed glazing, w here suppo rt ing st r uct ure w it h clamp s.T his sili-

black to match th e unit edges. th e distances between fixings are redu ced co ne-bo nded variat ion of clamped glazing is
(reducing th e span of t he glass) by setting very useful in o paque o r t ranslucent glazing

Comparison w it h bolt fixed glazing th em into th e materi al. in a full rainscreen to an o paque backing w all.

As a method of frameless glazing, clamped Th is com binat ion o f easily fabr icated, eas- Joi nt s betw een t he glass can be sealed w it h

glazing is more econo m ical than bo lt fixed ily modified brackets and fixing through th e rubber-b ased strip s t o avoid dirt getting into

glazing.W hereas bolt fixed glazing requ ires joi nt allows a geomet rically com plex facade t he vo id behind th e glass and staining th e

dri lling of glass, clamped glazing do es not, as to be fixed back t o a recti linear,eco no m ic back of th e glass.Th e advantage o f thi s sys-

glass is fixed w it h patches o r clamp s th at pass suppo r t ing str uct ure .Thi s cont rasts w it h th e t em is in clampin g th e glass by means of a

through th e joint between th e glass sheets o r need t o repeat ex pensive bo lt fix ings w here secondary frame t hat avoids penetrating an

doub le glazed units.Th e ability of clamp th ere is little possibility of changing th e o ute r seal, thu s m aking it suita ble for glass

bracket s to be sim ple and easily made allow s geomet ry t o allow for different fixing po si- rainscreen wa lls w it ho ut visible fr aming and

th e glasst o be suppo rted at different angles t ion s of th e glass. w it ho ut th e need for cleaning th e inner face

to on e anoth er in a ti led, non -planar manner. Clamp ed glazing is increasingly used in of th e glass sheets.

Glass has been lapped in th e m anner o f tra- rainscreen configurat ion w it h o pen joint s o r

dition al patent glazing and t iled in t he m anner o pen, lapped joints w it h an accessible area Pat ch plate glazing
of w ood shingles, w here glass is lapped on behind, as used in 'twin w all' glazed facades. T his m ethod uses angles and plates th at are

two edges t o give a rich, undu lating t extu re T he o ute r scree n acts primarily as a weat her bo lted t hrough th e glass rath er t han t hrough

across glass facades. Because th e facade is barri er, allowing th e inner wa ll t o have o pen- th e joints.Thi s is an ear lier form of frameless

more visually vibrant, t he fitt ings th em selves ing w indows w here th ey wo uld ot herw ise glazing and was t he fo rer unner of bo lt fixed

can also project from t he facade t o allow less not be po ssible, as in t all buildings or build- glazing.A lt ho ugh cheaper th an bo lt fixed glaz-

MC E 97
Glass Walls 03
Clamped glazing
3-D view of glazing supported
by spider clamp hung from
cable truss
ing, it is restricted t o single glazing, Glass
sheets are fixed at th eir corne rs w it h a patch
fitt ing th at connects four sheets t ogether. Like
fr amed glazing in eit her stick o r unitised sys-
t ems,th e glazing is eit her hung from th e t op
w it h eit her brackets o r cont inuo us stainless
steel angles fixed back t o th e prim ary st r uc-
ture, or seate d o n suppo rt angles at it s base,
Patch fittin gs are not usually at t op o r base of
a wall. Instead, cont inuo us angles o r a glazing
channel is visually preferred both t op and
bottom in o rder t o provide a weat her t ight
seal. Clamped angles are used w here th ey
are concealed beneath floor finishes, Glazing
channels are used eit her for convenience o r
w here th e channel is visible at floor level.
W here glazed balustrades are used, th ese
clamps are not sufficient for cant ilevered
glass, th at is,w here th e glass is fixed only at
floor level and not restrained at th e level of
th e handrail. D oors are fixed using patch
plates w here th e door is hung, and are seat-
ed o n pivots, w it h a floor spring w hen th e
door is suppo rte d at floor level.W here patch
plate glazing is hung from th e t op, doors are
MC E 98
3-D detail view of glazing
supported by spider clamp
hung from cable truss
also hung in order t o accommo date move-
ment in th e suppo rt ing struct ure, Similarly, if
th e glazed wa ll is suppo rte d at it s base th en
th e door sho uld also be suppo rted at floor
level. If th e glazing is hung and th e door is
suppo r te d different ly,at it s base, th en a differ-
ence in movement between wa ll and door
w ill eit her damage th e door o r prevent it
from wo rking prop erly
T he use of bo lts through th e glass
makes th e size of each patch plate relatively
big com pared w it h ot her clampin g meth od s,
w it h up t o four bo lts per fix ing in elevat io n,
Thi s meth od is ofte n used w it h glass fins,
th at provide stability, in an all-glasswa ll,Th e
br acket s secur ing th e fins can have from
four t o six bolts per br acket, giving a very
st ro ng appearance, Since sta inless stee l
br acket s and bo lts are required for durabili-
t y (mild stee l is not sufficient ly durable) ,
th ese br acket s are finished as po lished t o
avoid surface t arnishing,Th e use of th is po l-
ished finish gives th is glazing a very particu-
lar appearance w hich is difficult to adapt t o
somet hing light er.A lt ho ugh th e glazed wa ll
it self is very transparent, th e patch fittings
have a stro ng visual presence,
Clamped glazing
This method avoids dri lling through th e glass
by passing through th e joint between glass
sheets or units rather th an by dri lling holes in
th e glass it self Th is allows doub le glazed units
t o be used, since plates eit her side of a unit
can be clamped at it s edge st rip,
Th e disc or square plate eit her side of
th e joint is secured t ogether and fixed back
t o a supporting cable, rod or tub e structure,
This method is more economic th an th e
patch plate type, but still requires compara-
ti vely large discs t o secure th e glass,Th e use
of discs has been combined w it h stick glazing
w here th e discs are used t o secure th e glass
t o stick glazed aluminium extrusions, Glass is
set int o rubb er-based gaskets fixed t o th e
carrier fr ame and discs are used t o ho ld th e
glass in place,Th e gap betw een t he doub le
glazed units is filled w it h silicone sealant T his
has th e advantage of being a dr ained and
pressure equalised (vent ilate d) syste m,
 ,

- - _: ® I
f

Details
I. Stainle ss stee l patch plates
2.Single glazed or oocbie glazed
unit to sot applicatio n
1 sacore sear
4, Glass fin
5. Support b-aoet
6. FIoof- 51ab
7.CeilIng fin'~

, 8. Floor fin,m
s.eccess ladder
10. ClYrced glazed walt
I I . Inner- framed o.Jrtaon waYll'1g
12.Filmg bolt
II J"1aIITIenanc;e access deck
14. Foong bracket
IS. Extruded ak,m11l.m m.Aons
16. Opaque Glazrlg
17. ero..n::lSlab
18. Badong W all
I 19. InclIne<j and ~ glass

) 20.~~
21 .Corner~
22 Cast rretar foong brad<et
23 ,~~

¥ertu sectJOn & elevatoon 1 : 2S _ ~ giazvlg

24. MeuI par.tpet coprog
~ed from cable truss spatTWIg ~
25.Thermal insl.Jlaton
eeoc-ere slabs
, ,
MC E 99
Glass Walls 03
Clamped glazing

Elevation 1:5. Spider clamp suppo rt ing glass panels

3-D detail view of glazing supported by spider clamp hung from cable truss

Vert ical section 1:5. Spider clamp hung fro m cable

truss supporting glass panels Th e glass is fixed back t o eit her cables o r funct ion norm ally. D oors are usually set int o
rod s if th e glass is hung, o r back t o a t ube if a separate fram e and do not form part of
th e glass is bottom suppo rte d. If t op hung, th e cable st r uct ure. If th e glazing is suppor t ed

'I cables o r thin rod s are hung from th e t op

and t ensioned at th e bottom .Th e glass is
at its base, th en suppo rting st eel tub es pro -
vide much more stiffness in th e glazed wall,

CD fixed t o th e cables w it h discs, usually at th e but w it h a more visible suppo rt ing st r ucture.
,\ edges of th e glass t o reduce th e numb er of A n advantage of such a suppo rt ing st r uct ure

l~
~
~
cables t o a minimum. If w ide sheets of glass is th at th e glass can be fixed w it h a w ide

roi!- l· are used, th en th e glass may be suppo r te d in range of different geomet ries. Lapped glazing

oj r-r-' r- from th e edge.Th e use of cables provides a o r 'fishscale' or 'shingled' glazing is possible.

,I very th in wa ll, but w it h deflection s th at are

Horizontal section I :5. Spider clamp hung from
cable truss supporting glass panels
much higher th an a framed wall. Maximum
deflection s can reach up t o 600mm t o 800 m
(2ft t o 2ft 8in) for walls aro und 20 metres
(65ft) high, but thi s can be safely accommo -
dated w it hin th e struct ural design.The usual
difficulty is in accommo dating doors w hich
can deflect only t iny amo unts in order t o
Glass is held in a br acket th at can suppo rt
th e bottom of th e glass in a different position
from th e t op of th e glass below. W it h doub le
glazed units th e glass can be drilled t o com-
bine th e advantage of clamped glazing w it h
th e seals pr ovided by ext r uded silicone gas-
ket 'flippers' th at exclude rainw ater w it hout
being punctured by th e br ackets, w hich pass

MC E 10 0

3-D view of togglefixed glazing connection
through ho les in th e glass beneath. Such
brackets are 'shoes' w hich suppo rt th e glass
usually away from co rne rs t o avoid th e co r-
ner of th e glass being unevenly suppor te d.
The glass is not st ruct urally suppo rte d along
it s vert ical edges as it is easier t o sit th em in
th e shoes. Som etim es clips along vertical
joints are used for lateral restraint but thi s
depends very much o n th e specific design.
A n alte rnat ive method of fixing th e glass
is t o use a silicone-bo nded fr ame aro und th e
glass and fixing th at to cables o r st eel tub es.
The joint between th e glass is sealed w it h
extruded silicone gaskets th at can provide
two lines of defence against w indb lown rain
instead of th e single line provided by site -
applied silico ne sealant.T he use of extruded
silicone allows th e seal t o be fixed t o th e unit
D et ails 7. Ceiling finish
I. Stainless steel patch plates 8. Floor finish
2. Single glazed or double glazed 9.Access ladder
unit to suit application 10. Clamped glazed wall
3.Silicone seal I I. Inner framed curtain walling
4. Glass fin 12. Fixing bolt
S. Support bracket I 3.Maintenance access deck
6. Floor slab 14. Fixing bracket
I S. Extruded aluminium mullions
16. Opaque glazing
17. Ground slab
18. Backing wall
19. Inclined and lapped glass
20. Cablesupport
21.Corner clamp
22. Cast metal fixing bracket
23.Clamp bracket
24.Metal parapet coping
25.Thenmal insulation
Horizontal section I:5.Double glazed units fixed to
supporting frame with 'toggle' connection and
silicone sealed
in th e factory,allowing th e wall t o be built in
th e manner of unitised glazing w it hout th e
need for site scaffo lding. Un its are fixed from
mast climber s o r from scaffolding.
Opaque glazing
Thi s system co mprises single glazing bond ed
back t o aluminium frames w hich are clamped
t o a suppo rt ing st r uct ure, ty pically a co n-
crete blockw ork wall o r hollow t erracotta
block. Clamps are fixed betw een jo ints from
th e front as sho rt lengths of pressure plate.
A lte rnat ively, panels may be hooked onto
rainscreen-typ e suppo rt br ackets before
being clamped in place. Unlike rainscreen
co nstruct ion,th e jo ints between panels are
sealed w it h an ext ruded profi le o r rubb er-
3-D view showing spider clamp hungfrom cable
based seal o nto w hich th e glass is fixed. Para- truss supporting glass panels
MC E 101
Glass Walls 03
Clamped glazing

@ @

Horizontal section I : I 0, Conn ectio n between wall Horizontal section I : I0, Connection between
and glazing unit clampe d to aluminium carrier frame glazing units clamped to aluminium carrier frame

- - - - - - - -0---------'
Horizontal section I: I0, External corner connection
of glazing clamped to aluminium carrier frame D etails
I, Stainless steel patch plates
2, Single glazed or double glazed
unit to suit application
3, Silicone seal
4, Glass fin
5, Support bracket
6, Floor slab
7, Ceiling finish
@ 8, Floor finish
9, A ccess ladder
10, Clamped glazed wall
I I , Inner framed curtain walling
12,Fixing bolt
I 3. Maint enance access deck
14, Fixing bracket
15, Extruded aluminium mullions
16, Opaque glazing
17, Ground slab
18, Backing wall
19,Inclined and lapped glass
20, Cable suppo rt

I
Horizontal section I : I0, Internal corner connection of 21, Corner clamp
glazing clamped to aluminium carrie r frame 22, Cast metal fixing bracket
23. Clamp bracket
24, Meta l parapet coping
25,Thermal insulation

pets are parti ally vent ilated t o avoid most of
th e wate r ingress but allow some vent ilat ion,
Th e bottom is also vent ilate d, allow ing moi s-
ture t o find its way o ut. Opaque glazing can
be easily int egrat ed int o adjacent areas of
clear glazing by setting th e alum inium ext r u-
sion away from th e edge and fixing th e edge
of t he glass into th e adjacent glazing system,
Sealing clamped glazing
W it h all form s of clamped glazing, th e move-
ment o r deflection of any fixed edges must
be compat ible w it h th at of th e general sup-
port system,Th is is particularly im po rt ant in
th e case of cable-suppo rte d glazing, w here
high deflection s associate d w it h th e cables
must be integrated w ith th e small amo unt s of
struction such as a reinforced concrete wall.
Th e edge channel o r fixings must allow th e
glass to rotate w it hin it to t ake up movement
from deflection in a cable suppo rt ing th e
ot her end of th e glass, Seals are usually
form ed by glazing channels or steel angles
th at provide a weat her t ight seal. H igh
amo unts of movement can be taken up at
junction s w it h a flexible metal strip th at is sili-
cone-bo nded t o th e edge of th e glass t o pro -
vide a flexible seal.

Vertical section I 10, Glazing clamped to aluminium movement w hen th e glass at th e edge of th e
carrier frame wall is fixed o nto an adjacent form of con-

MC E 10 2
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Vertical section I :5. Lapped glazing in clamped
fixing supported on steel frame ~

Vertical section 1:5. Double glazed units clamped

to steel frame

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Horizontal section 1:5. Lapped glazing in clamped Horizontal section 1:5. Double glazed units
fixing supported on steel frame clamped to steel frame

Vertical section I :25. Clamped glazing in lapped and

Horizontal section I :25. Clamped glazing in lapped and flush panel arrangement
fiush panel arrangement

3-D views showing lapped , clamped glazing fixing method supported on steel frame

MCE 10 3
- - -Glass Walls 03- - - - - - ..,
Clamf2ed glazin

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~ 3-0 exploded detail overview of glazing system clamped at
comers and supported from cables

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- --- ~ 3-D exploded over view of one storey of giazing system
clamped at comers and supported from cables

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Details :'. \. -.
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I, Stainless steel pat ch plates
2 Single glazed or doeble glazed
unit to suitapplication " ..
'1-
3 Siliconeseal "
4 Glass fin 16. Backing wall
S Support bracket 19. Inclined and lapped glass '. k

--
,..
6 Floor slab 20, . I' "
7 Ceiling finish 21,
Cab le suppor t
Comer clamp
" ..;--
8
9
Floor fon ish
Access ladder
22.
23.
Cast metal fixing bracket . :~
Clamp bracket I
10. Clamped glazed wall 24.
Metal parapet coping @
II . Inner framed curta in walling 25.
12. Fixing bon
Therma l insulation
26. Single or double glazed unrt
r'o
11 r-taotenaoce access deck
14. Fixing bracket ,. l. ' .
-.... '. • <
IS. Extruded aluminium mullions
16. Opaque glazing
_J
17. Ground stab

Me E 104
 .... - ----

3-D exploded view of fixingdetail for glazing

3-D fragmentviews of lapped, clamped glazing system, in-tact and exploded supported by spider clamp hungfrom cable truss

~
3-D exploded fragmentview of one storey of glazing system
{I I
3-D exploded detail view of lapped. clamped
clamped at comers and supported from cables glazing system fIXing

MCE 105
Glass W als OLl
Bolt fixed glazing
Vertical section I : 10. Section through
bolt fixing element
Elevation I: IO. 'H ' style bolt fixing connection
Like clamped glazing,bo lt fixed glazing has a
high degree of t ransparency provided by t he
bolts w hich replace th e need for metal fram-
ing around t he edges of t he glass sheet or
doub le glazed units. On e of t he main advan-
tages of bo lt fixed glazing is th e small size of
t he fixings w hen compared t o t he larger and
more frequent clamped fixings.This system
can also be doub le glazed much more easily
since a spacer can be introduced int o do uble
glazed units durin g manufacture, away from
t he edge of t he glass, w here it also has th e
advantage of reducing th e glass span, thu s
minimising glass t hickness. However.t he sight
lines associated w it h doub le glazed units are
almost t he same as t hose for stick glazing,
w it h th e black line aro und t he edge of two
adjacent units,plus a 20mm (0.78in) average
joint in silicone giving an overall SOmm (2in)
thi ck joint w idt h in a dark colo ur.Since th e
edges of doub le glazed units are made
opaqu e to conceal th e edging strip, translu-
cent silicone is not used in t he joint between
two o paque edges. Instead, a dark coloured
silicone is used, usually black.
MCE 10 6
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
®[
CD 0
Vertica l section I: I O.Section through
glazing
Support method s
In co m mo n w it h some oth er glazed wa ll
t ypes, bo lt fixed glazing is eit her hung fr om
t he t op of t he un it o r is suppo r te d at t he
bottom. W hen hung from th e t op, bo lt fix -
ings are secured t o st ainless steel cables o r
rod s fixed at th e t op and t ension ed at th e
bottom . Fixing t o ler ances are provided in
t hree direction s: ver t ically, ho r izo nt ally and
lat erally. Because t he join t s betw een t he
glass units or sheets are visible, and need
to be we ll aligned, and th e fact th at t he
glass is dr illed during t he manufactu re of
th e glass, fixin g t o lerances have to be pro-
vide d by t he bo lt fixin g and it s co nnect io n
t o t he suppo r t ing br acket.
Th e bo lt fixings th emselves vary in com-
plexity from economic t ypes w here a t hread-
ed bolt is secured w it h nuts t o a fixing brack-
et, t o sophist icate d types w here all t hreads
are concealed behind sleeves t o give a very
smoot h appearance.A ll bo lt ty pes allow rota-
t ion t o occur between t he glass and t he fix-
ing usually t o a maximum of 12 degrees.A
ball joint is hou sed w here t he fixing int ersects
3-D views of cable supported 4 po int
'spider' fixing element
w it h th e glass for thi s purp ose. A ny sleeve
t hat is set over t he t hreaded rod behind t he
disc is po sition ed so th at it do es not interfere
w it h t he free movement of t he ball joint.
Support brackets t o bo lts are eit her cast or
are machined and we lded from plate.The
choice w ill depend largely o n shape and th e
number of brackets needed, since castings
are economic o nly in large numbers cast
from a single mould. Castings can be fo rmed
to take up complex geomet ries that look
very cumbersome in we lded plate, but are
more expensive and tim e-con suming to pro -
duce, except in large quantities.T he cho ice of
painted mi ld stee l or stainless steel (po lished
o r bru shed) for t he suppo rt bracket is very
much a visual decision, parti cularly w here a
large amount of we lding is required. If th e
we lding is not perfo rmed t o t he highest
standards th en th e results can be visually dis-
appo int ing. How ever.t he bo lts t hemselves
are always in st ainless steel.Junctions
between mild stee l and stainless stee l are iso-
lat ed t o avoid t he st ro ng elect ro lytic corro-
sion th at occur s between th ese two metals.
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ertcat section 1 25. Double skin glazed facade

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bo It fixed to steel framework

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Details
I. Cast steel connector @
2. M ild stee l or stainless stee l
angle bracket
~ Vertical section 1:10, Open jomed bolt fixed
'~ connection between glass units

Oi
J Single glazed or double
glazed unit to sort
'PPrcaton
4. Outer sncooe seal with
inner rubber-based
extruded seal
5.
6.
Insulated panel
Bolt-based cable end
o
7. Stainlesssteel bolt foxing l
8. Steel connector fixed to
stee l t ube
9. Stainlesssteel cable 0)
10 Floor slab/structural wall
I I. Glazing channel at nco-
r
level ~

12 Structu ral co lumn I

Ccoc-ete shovvn
13 Steel arm for lateral
suppo rt 0) 0)
14 Steel rod
15 Glass fin
16 Single glazed solar shading
glass 3-D view of 'H' style bolt fixing connection Elevation 1:10, ' X' sty le bolt fixing connection

MC E 107
- - -Glass Walls 04- - - - - - ....,
Bolt fixed glazing

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Vertical section I :10. Silicone sealed connection

between bolt fixed glazing at nco- level

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I
Vert ical section I: I0, Silicone sealed comer connection
between bolt foxed glazing with external structure

Vert ical section I: I0, Silicone sealed comer connection between bo lt

foxed glazIng wFth external structure

I r
Vert ical section I: 10, Silicone sealed connection
between bolt foxed glazing with external structure
Construction tolerances between sup-
porting structure and glass panels are accom-
modated between the glass and the bolt fix-
ing. between the bolt fixing and the support
bracket or 'spider' and between the support
bracket and the supporting column or t russ.
The gap between glass bolt and fixing is to
allow three of the typical four bolt fixings on
a glass unit to move freel)' while the fourt h
unit is damped t ight without damaging the
glass at t he edge of the hole. If adjustment is
provided between bolt fixing and support
bracket in order to take up dimensional dif-
ferences between glass and supporting struc-
t ure then this results in different joint widths
between glass units,with slightly uneven cor-
3-D view of cast aluminium spider clamp for bolt ners where four glass units meet.This meth-
fixIng glazing
od does, however. allow the support spider
Me E 108
to be set in a fixed relationship w ith t he sup-
porting truss or column. If th is adjustment is
instead formed between spider and primary
structure.then the glass remains in perfect
alignment but the alignment between spider
and column/truss will vary The choice of
where to posit ion the dimensional adjust-
ment varies between designs and is largely
based on visual preference.
Because all components in bolt fixed
glazing are visible,both from inside and out -
side.the choice of fixing bolts and screws is
visually very significantas is the extent of visi-
ble thread on the bolt fixing itself. Counte r-
sunk bolts and pig-nose bolts (those w ith
two small holes on their face to provide
points for tightening) are often preferred to
the more common hexagonal head types.
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Verti cal section & elevation I :50. Bolt fixed glazing supported on glass fins 3-D view show ing glass fin supported within bo lt fixed glazing syste m

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Vertical section & elevation I: I O. Bolt fixed glazing supported on glass fins

Bo lts wit h Allen keys (a square hole cut into vious top ic in o rde r to provide maximum
a circular bo lt head t ighten ed wit h a socket transparen cy w it h a minimum of metal sup-
Det ails
wrench) are also prefe rred as are smoot h po rting struct ure . I. Cast steel connector
2. Mild steel or stainless steel angle
circular washe rs wit h small ho les for tighten- The glass units and fins are clamp ed at
bracket
ing drilled int o t he ir edges. t he ir base to t he fl oo r slab. Because t he 3. Singleglazed or double glazed unit
to suit application
clamp ing plates are big, sec ured by fo ur to six
4. Outer silicone seal with inner
Bottom support ed glazing bolts which pass t hro ugh t he glass, t hey are rubber-based extruded seal
5. Insulated panel
Glass suppo rted at its base can be fixed by a ofte n co ncea led below th e finished floo r
6. Bolt-based cable end
variety of meth ods. Glass units are most level.The fl oo r slab suppo rt ing t he glazed 7. Stainless steel bolt fixing
8. Steel connector fixed to steel tube
co mmo nly suppo rted wit h glass fins o r steel wall is eit he r step ped down t o acco mmodate
9. Stainless steel cable
posts.W he n glass fins are used, t he glass is t he base clamps o r fo rm part of a raised 10. Floor slab/structural wall
I I. Glazing channel at fioor level
stacked from its base , wit h th e dead load floor zo ne .W it h e it he r meth od , th e pocket
12. Structural column . Concrete shown
passing partly to t he fins, and partly t hro ugh form ed can also be used to acco mmo date I 3. Steel arm for lateral support
14. Steel rod
t he bolt fixings to t he glass below, dep e nding co nvecto r heating used to red uce down-
15. Glass fin
o n th e design.The glass fins se rve prima rily to dra ughts in t emp erate climates. Above th e 16. Singleglazed solar shadingglass

stiffen t he glass wa ll and resist w ind loads. base level, glass unit s are fixed w it h bo lt fix-
This method is very much a deve lopme nt of ings th at transfer loads from the t op glass to
t he patch plate syste m described in t he pre- lower o nes.
MC E 109
Glass Walls O't
Bolt fixed glazing
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Vertical section I : IO. Connection at ground level
with glassbolt fixed to steelwork
St r uct ural posts, usually in mild steel. are
an alte rnat ive meth od of suppo rt ing t he glaz-
ing w it ho ut intro ducing a visually intrusive
element, t ho ugh concrete columns are
somet imes used w here t hey fo rm a neces-
sary part of th e pr imary str uct ure.This
meth od has t he advantage of allow ing each
glass t o be individually suppo r te d. In generic
exam ples,t he glass is fixed back t o a steel
post at each vert ical joint. Lat eral restraint is
provided by ver t ical o r hori zont al w ind t russ-
es in eit her steel tub e o r cable. Cable is pre-
ferred for it s visual light ness.T he size (diame-
t er) of t he suppo r t ing posts o r t r usses can
be reduced by add ing o ut rigger br ackets t o
posts set at w ider cent res.T his reduces t he
number of suppo rt posts by two t hirds, but
each post w ill necessarily be bigger.T he o ut-
riggers can also be reduced t o become lat er-
al restraints o nly by intro ducing small diame-
t er posts, ty pically aro und IOmm (OA in), t o
t ake t he vert ical load.
In all cases th e bo lt s suppo rting t he glass
are fixed back t o steel columns w it h brackets
or t o o ut riggers w it h similar br ackets.The
general shape of t he bracket is determined
MC E 11 0
u ;<
Vertical section I : I O. Connection at ground level
with glass bolt fixed to steelwork
both by th e position of th e ho les in relation
t o t he edge as we ll as by t he meth od of fix-
ing th e br acket back t o its suppo r t ing struc-
t ure. Positio ns of t he holes are usually so as
t o reduce t he span of t he glass in order t o
keep it w it hin an eco nomic t hickness, ty pically
12mm (O.S in).A n essent ial aspect of bracket
design is in accommodat ing fixing tol erances.
Since t he suppo rting st ructure is erecte d
before t he glass, t olerances are introduced
int o t he bo lt and bracket fixing t o t ake up
th e differences.
Top hung glazing
Suppo rting st ructure t o bo lt fixed glazing can
be made visually very lightweight by t he use
of cables o r rods hung from t he t op and t en-
sioned at th e base. Stainless steel cables o r
painted mild stee l rod s are used.T he cho ice
is usually made for visual reason s. How ever,
like clamp ed glazing t his meth od is associate d
w it h high deflections under w ind load.Th is
can be accepted eit her in th e design (some
cable-assisted wa lls deflect up t o 800mm/2 ft
8in at th eir cent re) o r be restrained w it h
cable t russes o r o ut riggers, ty pically at floo r
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Vertical section I : IO. Sealed connection at ground
level with glazing fixed to slab
levels. Bo lt fixings are secured w it h br acket s
t hat are secured directly t o t he cable o r rod.
T hey usually fit t ogeth er in t w o halves w hen
secured t o cable.W here rod is used, t he
mat erial is usually in lengths t hat co nnect
into a fixing made as a single piece.
Again, t he mixture of stainless steel and
mi ld steel requires separators t o avoid
bimet allic corros ion, caused by co ntact
betw een different met als in t he presence of
rainw ater.W hile mild stee l ro d can be paint-
ed t o match ot her parts of th e co nst ruct io n
such as adjacent suppo rt ing st r uct ure, care
must be t aken during assembly o n site t o
ensure t hat factory-coated compo nents and
assem blies are not damaged. W here sta inless
stee l is used inst ead of eit her mild stee l ro d
o r stainless stee l cable, th e diamete r of th e
rod w ill be bigger t han eit her of t he ot her
t w o o pt io ns.
Corners
Corn er s are made by either introdu cing sup-
porting struct ure at t he corne r o r alte rna-
ti vely by cant ilevering o r fixing t he glass at th e
corner and pinning t he glass t ogether w it h
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I. Cast steel connector
2. Mild steel or stainless steel angle
bracket
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3. Singleglazed or double glazed unit ---~
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4. Outer silicone seal with inner
rubber-based extruded seal
5. Insulated panel
6. Bolt-based cable end
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8.
Stainless steel bolt fixing
Steel connector fixed to steel tube , .
9. Stainless steel cable
10. Floor slab/structural wall
I I. Glazing channel at floor level
12. Structural column
I 3. Steel arm for lateral support
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14. Steel rod
Horizontal section I :I O. Bolt fixed glazing
15. Glassfin
connection fixed to branching steel framework
16. Singleglazed solar shading glass
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3-D view of supporting branching steel framework structure for bolt fixed glazing branching steel framework

MCE III
Glass Walls 04
Bolt fixed glazing
3-D views showing clamped
glazing system w ith steel
structu ral support system

Details
I. Cast steel conne ctor
2. M ild steel or stainless steel
angle bracket
3 Single glazed or double glazed
unit to suit application
4. Outer silicone seal with inner
rubber-based extruded seal
5. Insulated panel
6. Bolt -based cable end
7. Stainless steel bolt fixing
8. Steel connector fixed to steel
tube
9. Stainless steel cable
10. Floor slab/structural wall
I I. Glazing channel at floor level

Vertical section I : I O.Top of bolt fixed glazed wall

supported from cable spanning between slabs

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Vertical section I : I O. Silicone sealed connection in

bolt fixed glazed wall supported from cable
spanning between slabs
I manufacturer s are increasingly providing
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1 standard co rne r br acket s as part of t heir
Ver t ical section I : I O. Base of bolt fixed glazed wall
supported from cable spanning between slabs
t w o bo lts forming a co rne r br acket. W here
st r uct ural suppo r t is pr ovided at a co rne r, a
special br acket is usually requi red, t ho ugh
syste m s.Variat io ns of co rne r co ndit io n are
usually as eco no m ic as o ne anot her.W here
do uble glazed unit s are used , care is t aken
t o avoid exposed edges of glass w here t hey
are vulnerable t o damage, usually from
cleaning equipme nt.
Seals and int e rfaces
Like clamp ed glazing, bo lt fixed glazing has
essent ially a single barrier to w at er penetra-
t io n.The workmanship of t he silicone sealant
o n sit e is crit ical t o its successful applicat ion.
In co mmo n w it h clamped glazing, silicone
extrusions are slowly being int ro duced t o
make installati o n easier.T he dept h of double
glazed unit s (o fte n aro und 30mm/ I.2in)
allows a small drainage channel t o be intro -
duced.T his info rmati on can be found in t he
sect ion on Clamp ed Glazing.
W here bo lt fixed glazing int erfaces w it h
adjacent glazing syste ms,th e edge of th e glass
is usually glazed-in direct ly t o t hose systems.
W here it meets a wall t ype in a non -glazed
mat erial, t he bo lt fixed glazing is usually t er-
minated by a glazing channel or metal angles
th at are fixed t o th e adjacent wa ll.T he deta il
is formed in a way t hat co nceals t he angles,
leaving o nly th e glass visible.W here bo lt fix-
ings are used at t he int erface w it h anot her
materi al, half bracket s are used.

MC E 11 2
12. Structural column. (Concrete shown )
13. Steel arm for lateral suppor t
14, Steel rod •
IS. Glassfin
16. Single glazed sotar shading glass

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MC E 11 3
- - - Glass Walls 041- - - - - - .....,
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MCE 114
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Details
I. Caststeelconnector
2. Mild steelor stainless steel
angle bracket
3. Single or double glazed
unit to suit application 10. Floor slab/structural wall
4. Outer silicone seal with I I. Glazing channel at floor
inner rubber-based level
extruded seal 12. Structural column
5. Insulated panel 13. Steel arm for lateral
6. Bolt-based cable end support
7. Stainless steel bolt fixing 14. Steel rod
8. Steelconnector fixed to 15. Glass fin
steeltube 16. Single glazed solar shading 3-D exploded views of bolt fixed glazing
9. Stainless steelcable glass supported on glass fin

MC E 11 5
Glass Walls 05
Glass blocks
Elevation I :50. Glass blocks and w indows set int o concrete frame to form glazed wall
Glass blocks are used to form a robust, trans-
lucent and fire resisting glazed wa ll construc-
t ion. Glass blocks are made as eit her solid o r
hollow compo nents, but th e hollow ty pe has
better th erm al and acoust ic insulati o n due t o
th e parti ally air evacuate d vo id w it hin and is
most commo nly used in w all construction.
Glass blocks are made by pressing
t ogether two half blocks of glass w hich are
held at high t emp erature.Th e half blocks are
made as eit her pressed o r cast shapes.As
th e block coo ls afte r manufacture, a parti al
vacuum is create d as th e air pressure drop s
w it h t emp erature.
The most commo n sizes of glass block for
walls are as fo llow s:
190mm x 190mm th ick (met ric size)
8 x 8 x 4in thi ck (imperial size)
150mm x 150mm (nom inal 6 x 6in)
200mm x 200mm (nom inal 8 x 8in)
200mm x 100mm (nom inal 8 x 4in)
300mm x 300mm (nom inal 12 x 12in)
Typical thi ckness 100mm (nominal 4in)
MC E 11 6
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
(j)
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Elevation & section I :50. Glass blocks suppo rt ed by concrete
frame to fo rm glazed wall
General properti es of glass blocks are as
fo llow s:
Th erm al conduct ivity approximate ly
0.88 W/m 2 °C (0.5 1 Btu/hrft°F)
Light transmission = 75% for ho llow
block
A lt hough glass blocks are set in courses
in th e manner of masonry const r uction, th ey
are used as a non -loadbearing mater ial.
Blocks are arranged in a rectilinear grid o r
'stack bond ' of cont inuo us ver t ical and hori -
zontal joints th at give th is mater ial th e
appearance more of glazing th an of masonry
const ruction. Recently th ere has been a
developm ent in design by setting glass blocks
forward of floor slabs inst ead of being seate d
o n th em, in th e manner of glazed curtain
wa lling.W it h th is meth od , a stiffening frame is
set w it hin th e joints between blocks, w it h
addit ional suppo rts set aw ay from th e glass
blocks visually t o light en th eir appearance.
Glass blocks are most commo nly eit her set
int o concrete o r masonry backing wa lls or
are set into a reinforced concrete o r stee l
suppo rt fr ame. For non -fire rated const r uc-
ti on, maximum panel sizes vary from around
(j)
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r
3600 x 3600mm ( 12 x 12ft) t o around 4500
x 4500mm ( 15ft x 15ft) depending on block
th ickness.Th is overall area can be adapte d t o
suit a maximum height of aro und 6000mm
(20ft) and a maximum w idt h of aro und
7500mm (25ft) .
W hen used as fire resisting construct ion,
glass blocks can reach 90 minutes fire integri-
ty, but above 60 minutes fire resisting con-
struction, a metal channel restraint is used in
th e jointin g for its greate r reliability in fire
over mortar o r silicone ty pes materials. On e
hour fire rated panels of glass block can be
made t o a maximum size of approximate ly
3000 x 3000mm (9ft x 9ft) w it h a maximum
of 4000mm ( 12ft) in eit her height o r w idt h,
depending o n individual building codes.T her-
mal insulation of glass block is poor com-
pared t o doub le glazed units, w it h some con-
densation risk on th e inside face in t emper-
ate climates.For th is reason, blocks are often
used w it h concrete and steel frames th at do
not have th erm al insulation, often w here th e
int erior face of th e wa ll is vent ilate d but not
heated, as in semi-exte rnal circulat ion areas.
A n ideal enviro nme nt for glass blocks is in
region s w hich have a warm t emperate c1i -
 CD
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Vertical section & elevation I:25. Glass block Vertica l section & elevation I:25. Glass
wall supported from steel frame block wall supported between steel
framewo rk

Details
I. Glass block
2. Bedding reinforcement
3. Bedding compound. mortar
or silicone-based bond .
4. A djacent blockwork wall with rainscreen
5. A djacent concrete wall
6. A djacent light gauge steel framed wall
7. Reinforced concrete frame
8. Steel box section
9. 90° corner block
10. 45° corner block CD CD
I I. Steel I-section, usually speciallyfabricated
12. Steel angle
13. Inside
14. Outside
15. Floor deck
16. SteelT-section
17. A djacent brick cavity wall construction
18. Thermal insulation
19. Extruded aluminium sections providing
support
20. A djacent reinforced concrete wall
Typical glass block types

MC E 11 7
Glass Walls 05
Glass blocks
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struction set into cavity wall construction

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MC E 11 8
 D etails
I. Glass block
2. Beddingreinforcement
3. Beddingcompound. mortar or
silicone-based bond.
4. Adjacent blockwork wall with
rainscreen
5. Adjacent concrete wall
6. Adjacent light gauge steel
framed wall
7. Reinforced concrete frame
8. Steel box section
9. 90° comer block
10. 45° comer block @
1I. Steel l-section. usually specially
fabricated ® @
12. Steel angle
13. Inside
14. Outside
15. Floor deck
16. Steel T-seetion
17. Adjacent brick cavity wall II
construction

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19. Extruded aluminium sections
providing support ~

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3-D view of glass blockwindow supported on thermally broken aluminium framework on thermally broken aluminium framework

mate for most o f th e year,w here th erm al
insulati o n is not required.
Fixing glass blocks
Blocks are fixed in different ways.W hen sup-
ported o n reinforced co ncrete fioor slabs,
th ey are bedd ed in mortar o n all jo ints. w it h
a fiexi ble joint (somet imes w it h an addit ional
alum inium edge frame) at th e t op and sides
t o allow for st r uct ural m ovem ent. Blocks can
also be glued t ogeth er w it h bond ing silicone,
using a sealing silicone o n th e o ut side faces.
Blocks can also be fixed t ogeth er w it h
extr uded alum inium clips th at ho ld all th e
blocks t ogeth er.A ngle-shaped clips are used
t o fix th e glass block panels t o t he st r uct ural
opening w it ho ut th e use o f a per imet er
fr ame. th e clips allowing for st r uct ural move-
ment bet w een th e panel of blocks and th e
str uct ural o pening.T he o utside faces are also
sealed w it h silico ne.
Support frames and walls
In a gener ic exam ple, glass blocks are fixed in
panels t o a maximum of aro und 3500 m m x
3500 mm ( I 1ft 6in x I 1ft 6in) square , in sto-
rey height frames, th ou gh half sto rey fr ames
can also be used t o reduce th e th ickness of
th e block as we ll as t he need for addit ional
bed reinforcement. Blocks are set o n th e
edge o f th e fioor slab. Block co urses are laid
o n a bed o f m ortar w it h th e head o f each
panel of glass blocks allowing for th e str uc-
tural defiection of fioor slabs.A reinforced
co ncrete fioor slab spanning 7500 mm (25 ft)
between co lum ns can have a defiection of
aro und 20m m (O.S in) at it s cent re.Th is
defiect ion is allowed for th e head of th e
block w it h an alum inium channel restr aint
used at th e perimeter t o ho ld th e glass
blocks in place but allow th e slab above t o
defiect under load.
Glass blocks can be laid o ut in visually
co nti nuo us lengths. but are divided up w it h
stee l T-sect ion s at 2.0 - 3.0 metre (6ft 6in -
l Oft) cent res t o provide th e later al st abilit y o f
th e panels.Th e addit ional T-sect ion results in
a w ider jo int th an th ose used elsewhere in
th e panel but in a lon g run o f glass blocks t his
is barely visible from th e o ut side . th ough visi-
ble o n th e inside. C urve d panels have t he
advantage of inherent str uct ural stability but
minimum radius dim ension s for different
block sizes as fo llow s:
150mmx 150mm blocks: 1200mm min. radius
(6in x 6in blocks: 4Sin m in. radius)
200 mmx200 mm blocks: 1600mm min . radius
(Sin x Sin blocks: 65in m in. radius)
300 mmx300mm blocks: 2500 m m min. radius
( 12inx 12in blocks: 9Sin m in. radius)
Movem ent jo ints are set at th e jun ction
of st raight and curve d panels.T hese joints
usually serve also as st r uct ural joint s fo r th e
blocks.
In alte rnative gener ic exam ples, glass
blocks are set in o penings in a reinforced
co ncrete wa ll. Openings in th e wa ll have t o
be form ed in close t ol er ances in o rde r t o
have even edges if th e co ncrete is t o be left
ex posed. W here o penings cannot be form ed
so accurate ly, th e glass blocks are set int o an
alum inium edge frame th at laps ove r th e
co ncrete o r fo rms a shadow gap aro und th e
o pening. If th e co ncrete wa ll is clad in a dif-
ferent materi al. such as m et al o r masonry
rainscr een panels, th en th e cladding can be

MC E 11 9
GlassWals 0
Glass blocks

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Horizontal section I : IO. Connection between glass blocks, conc rete wall Horizontal sectio n I : IO. Corner Horizontal section I: IO. Connection between glass
and conc rete column glass block block and insulated external wall

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Ho rizontal section I : IO. Connection Horizontal sect io n I : IO. Glass blocks Ho rizontal section I : IO. Detail of door Horizontal section I : IO.
between glass blocks & cavity wall supported by steel sections set into glass block wall Glass end block

adjusted to meet th e glass blocks neatly
w it ho ut th e makeup piece in th e o pening
being visible.
Steel support frames
Glass blocks can also be suppo r te d o n stee l
fr ames.Th ese have th e advantage of making
th e glass blo cks appear t o have a co nt inu-
o us surface unint errupted by suppo r t ing
st r uct ure.
In ot her cases, steel T-section s suppor t
th e blocks for modest spans, w hich can be
increased from 1.5 metres t o 3.0 metres (5ft
t o l Oft) w it h th e use of a box section set
behind it t o form a cont inuous suppo rt ing
fr ame both vert ically and horizontally.W it h
as a st ro ng fr ame w hen lit intern ally at night,
from o utside.
A complete frame of ro lled st eel sect ions
can suppo rt glass blocks by setting th e blocks
directly onto th e steels.This meth od requires
close dimensional co-o rdinat ion of stee l size
and block w idt h in order for th e blocks t o be
aligned o n th e o ute r face t o drain wate r
down th e face of th e stee l w it hout th e need
for a drip , w hich is visually o bt r usive.
A recent developm ent in glass block
design has been t o insert a st eel suppor t
fr ame int o th e jo ints between individual
blocks. This is made more economic by using
th e largest 300 x 300mm ( 12in x 12in)
blocks and adapt ing th eir edges in o rder t o

Isometr ic view of glass

both o pt ions, th e frame is parti ally visible conceal t he st eel box section w it hin.This
block wall assembly from o utside, as a shadow line in daylight, and concealed steel fr ame can be suppo rte d by

MC E 120

Horizontalsection I:IO. Framed comer in
glass block wall
3-D view of connection between glass blocks
supported by steelbox frame
3-D view of glass block wall supporte d between
steel framework
brackets back t o secon dar y vertical po sts,
such as t ube s.Alternatively.th e con cealed
steel frame can be made t o hang or sit on
supp orting structure in th e manner of curtain
w alling, using steel posts to provide lateral
stability throug h its height. Glass blo cks are
bo nded together w it h silicone w hich allow s
fo r the highe r amounts of structural m ove-
m ent assoc iated w it h stee l suppo rts than
those in reinfo rced co ncrete str ucture s.T he
co nt inuo us surface of blo cks, unint errupt ed
by floo r slabs o r co ncrete beam s, do not
require any drips t o t hrow w ate r clear of
t hese surfaces, giving an ove rall sm oot h
appearance t o t he glass blo ck wa ll.
Horizontal section I: IO. Glass block wall supported by
steel framework
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Masonry and timber framed
D etails
w indow o penings I. Glass block
2. Bedding reinforcement
G lass blocks cannot be bedded directl y int o
3. Bedding compound, mort ar or
mason ry w alls, such as con crete blo cks, since silicone-based bond.
4. Adjacent blockwork wall with rainscreen
any movement at joints between blo cks w ill
5. Adjacent concrete wall
result in a crack in the nearest glass blocks . 6. Adjacent light gauge steel framed wall
7. Reinforced concrete frame
For t his reason w hen glass blocks are held in
8. Steel box section
mason ry o pe nings,they can be set d irectly 9. 900 corner block
10. 450 corner block
o nto a concrete cill if o ne is used. Sometimes
I I. Steel I-section, usually specially fabricated
t he co ncrete cill can fo rm a complete rein- 12. Steel angle
13. Inside
forced co ncrete fr am e, aro und 50 -75m m
14. Outside
(2 in- 3in) w ide in w hich t he glass blo cks are 15. Fl oor deck
I6. SteelT-section
set. Openings in t im ber fr amed w alls, and
17. Adjacent brick cavity wall construction
o penings in cavity w all co nst r uct io n (t ypically 18. Thermal insulation
19. Ext ruded aluminium sections providing
brick o uter leaf, air gap and inner blo ck/t im -
support
ber wa ll) use an extr ude d alum inium frame 20. Adjacent reinforced concrete wall
to ho ld t he glass blocks in place, w hich is usu-
ally po lyester powder co at ed.T he alum inium
MC E 121
Glass Walls 05
Glass blocks
3-D view of storey height glass channels ascladding system
fram es are t herma lly broken, fixed to t he
masonry o pening, usually w it h screws, Similar
alum inium sect io ns are used between some
joints t o pro vide additi on al suppo rt if
required.W here glass blocks are set int o an
op ening in a timber frame, th e alum inium
pro file edge can be co mbined w it h a t imb er
cill t o give a co nt inuo us t imb er appearance
both int ernally and exte rn ally.
Cast glass channe ls
The effect of translucency pro vided by thi ck
glass can also be pro vided by cast glass chan-
nels,T hese are like half blocks in section
w hich are made in lengths up t o aro und 2.5
metres ( I ft 6in), Most are aro und 250mm
w ide x 60mm deep ( l Oin x 2.5in) w it h glass
aro und 6-7mm (0,25in) t hick, Planks can be
set both vert ically and ho rizont ally, but ver t i-
cal applicat ions are th e most co mmo n as
t hey are far easier t o fix,W hen set ho rizon -
t ally,glass planks cannot sit on t op of o ne
anot her ; each plank is suppo r te d individually
at it s end t o pro vide a wate rproo f seal
between planks th at can accommo date t her-
mal movement.
MC E 122
A n advantage of cast glass channels o r
'p lanks' ove r glass blocks is t hat t hey are self-
suppo r t ing, w it h th e ability to span th eir full
length of aro und 2.5 metres (Bftj .T he glass is
held in place w it h t hermally broken alumini-
um ext r usions at its ends, using sect ions simi-
lar t o t hose used fo r glass blocks in w indow
o penings,T he ext r usions are anodised or po l-
yester powd er coate d t o suit t he design,
Light t ransmission is aro und 85%, reducing t o
70% if two channels are int erlo cked t o fo rm
a wall of doub le thi ckness t o improve th er-
mal insulati o n and increased sound reduction
t hro ugh t he wall.A double t hickness of int er-
locking channels can pro vide a sound reduc-
ti on similar t o t hat of a double glazed unit in
a glazed wa ll of aro und 40dB, w it h t hermal
insulation also similar t o th at of a doub le
glazed unit at aro und 2,0 W /m 2 K if a hard
low emissivity (lowe) coat ing is applied t o
t he inner face of t he o ute r channel.A n
advantage of cast glass channel glazing is t hat
it is much cheaper th an a co nvent ional glazed
wall syste m,T his coat ing changes t he surface
appearance slight ly,A hard coat ing allows th e
channels t o be assembled o n site ,T he higher
@
)
-
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Vert ical section I:Ia.Vertically set glass channels
used aswindow
performance soft coat ings are required t o be
sealed as do uble glazed unit s in t he factor y,
w hich is not possible w it h cast glass channels
as th eir ends are o pen unti l installed in th e
aluminium edge framing already descr ibed.
Cast glass channels are sealed t ogeth er
w it h silicone, w it h translucent w hite being t he
most commo nly used co lour,t o match th e
glass as closely as possible. U nlike glass blocks,
cast glass channels can provide o nly very lim-
it ed fire resistance of aro und 30 minutes
w hen th e length of th e plank is restricted t o
aro und 2.5 metres (8ft) .T he glass is rein-
forced w it h a grid of w ires, giving t he appear-
ance of traditional w ired glass, and jo ints use
a fire retardant silico ne.
 '[
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CD
CD

3-D view of storey height glass channels used as cladding

system

Details
I. Glass block
2. Bedding reinforcement
3. Bedding compound , mortar
or silicone-based bond .
4. Adjacent blockwork wall with rainscreen
5. Adjacent concrete wall
6. Adjacent light gauge steel framed wall
7. Reinforced concrete frame
8. Steel box section
9. 90 0 corner block
10. 45 0 corner block
I I. Steel l-section, usuallyspecially fabricated
....---
12. Steel angle \ ,
13. Inside
14. Outside I

15. Floor deck Vertical section I:IO. Interlocking horizontally Vertical section I:IO. Horizontally set glass
16. SteelT-section set glass channels used as window channels used as window
17. Adjacent brick cavity wall construction
18. Thermal insulation
19. Extruded aluminium sections providing support
20. Adjacent reinforced concrete wall

Horizontal section I: IO.Vertically set glass channels 3-D view of ope ning set
used as window in glass channel facade

MC E 12 3
--~G l ass ails 0
Glass blocks

3-D exploded view of glass block system with

supporting structure

CD

3-D view of glass block facade system with

supporting structure

3-D exploded view of top of glass block facade system and fioor slab connections

Details
I. Glass block
2. Bedding reinforcement
I 2.
Steel angle
3. Bedding compound, mortar or 13.Inside
silicone-based bond
14.Outside
4. A djacent blockwork wall with
15.Floor deck
rainscreen
I 6.
SteelT-section
5. A djacent concrete wall
17.Adjacent brick cavity wall
6. A djacent light gauge steel framed
construction
wall
18. Thermal insulation
7. Reinforced concrete frame
19. Extruded aluminium sections
8. Steel box section
providing support
9. 90° corner block
20. Adjacent reinforced concrete wall
10. 45° corner block
I I . Steel I-section, usually specially
fabricated
3-D exploded view of glass block facade system
with supporting structure

MC E 124
 3-D exploded view of junctions in 'kinked' glass block
wall configuration

3-D view of top of glass block window set in cavity

3-D view of bottom of glass block window
wall construction
set in cavity wall construction

3-D exploded view of bottom of glass block window set in cavity wall construction 3-D exploded view of top of glass block window set in cavity wall construction

MC E 125
GlassWals 01)
Steel windows

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Elevation and section I:25. Storey height steel window assembly

3-D view of rolled steel window details

D eta ils Steel fram ed w indows are a rob ust w indow ened w it h a fr ame formed from integral
I. Outside
const r uct ion t hat is ofte n used as a fire stee l fins th at pass through t he w indow.
2. Inside
3. Steel supporting structure resistant glazing. Steel glazing was develop ed These narrow w indow sect ions cannot
4. Transom
primari ly for single glazing,w here th e main incorporate a th erm al break.
5. Mullion
6. Single glazed or double glazed advantage was t heir t hin sight lines w hen W indow walls w it h larger panel sizes can
unit to suit application
compared t o t hose in aluminium.T he t hin, be formed in larger pressed stee l sect ions
7. Fixing bead
8. Fixing lug rigid, rolled stee l sect ions we re also more and ro lled hollow sect ions rath er t han t he
9. Projecting transom
economic t han th eir aluminium co unte r- smaller G-shaped or T-shaped sect ions.Their
10. Rubber-based seal
I I. Fixed light parts.The rolled sect ions can accommo date sight lines are very similar t o t hose in alumini-
12. Inward opening light
doub le glazed unit s of most thi cknesses, but um, t hat is considerably w ider th an hot rol led
13. Outward opening light
14. Window cill are not t hermally broken.These rolled sec- sect ions. Pressed stee l sections are w ider and
15. Condensation tray
ti ons are used w it h small w indow sizes up to deeper in sect ion th an th e ro lled types but
16. Damp proof course (DPC)
17. Internal finish a maximum of aro und 3000 x 1800m m t hey have t he advant age of being able t o be
18. Drip
( l Oft x 6ft) and a minimum of 250mm x form ed int o larger walls as we ll as being able
19. Packing
20. Aluminium clip to secure 400mm ( l Oin x 16in) w it h doub le glazed t o incorp orate a th erm al break.Therm al
double glazed unit
unit s. Fully glazed walls made fro m w indow breaks are held in place by folding t he mate-
21. Steel cill
22. Meeting stile sect ions can be made using thi s relatively rial tightly over t he ends of t he polymer
23. Pressed steel frame
small w indow size.The 'w indow wall' is st iff- mat erial, w hich is current ly t oo difficult t o do

MC E 126
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Vertical section I: I0, Internally Ver t ical section I: I0, Internally 3-D view of rolled steel window details
glazed rolled steel frame glazed rolled steel frame

Ho rizontal section I : I0, Internally glazed ro lled steel frame Horizontal section I : I0, Externally glazed ro lled steel frame

eco nomically in thin hot ro lled sect io ns,
The most commo n use of steel w indows
is in fire resistant glazing, typically w here
glazed w alls enclose a fire resisting compart -
ment.Th e fire integrity is usually between 30
minutes and I hour, but 2 hour int egrit y Can
be achieved w hen used w it h fire resisting
glasses,A lt ho ugh st eel glazing pro vides st r uc-
tura int egrity during a fire, it does not pro -
vide th erm al insulation t o co unte r th e heat
generate d by fire.Th is is dealt w it h eit her by
pro viding sprinklers th at drench th e wall t o
keep it coo l o r else th e wa ll is position ed in a
way th at building user s do not come int o
direct contact ,A reas of fire resisting glazing
Can be combined w it h areaS of unprotected
glass w it ho ut changing th e outward appear-
ance of th e glazing,Th is is a big advantage
w here a co nsiste ncy of appearance is
required over a cont inuo us facade w it h dif-
ferent requ irement s for fire protect ion in dif-
ferent areas of th e same facade,
Small-scale glazing
Fixed and o pening light s framed in sizes up t o
3000mm x 1800mm ( l Oft x 6ft) use a stand-
ard single section w hich is used for both hor-
izontal and vertical glazing sect io ns as we ll as
for o pening light s,W here o pening light s
occur,th e profi le used for th e w indow frame
is different, as is th e profi le for th e o pening
light it self A lso, profiles are different for
inw ard and o pening lights, Unlike aluminium
fr amed glazed walling, w here a single ext r u-
sion is used throughout, w it h o pening light s
J-LJ view ot Junction with adjoining cavity wall
glazed int o th e syste m, small-scale stee l glaz-

MC E 127
Glass Walls Ob
Steel windows

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n
Vertical section I :I O. Rolled steel frame with
singleglazing
Vertical section I:I O. Rolled steel frame with
singleglazing
Vertical section I :I O. Rolled steel frame with
double glazed unit
1
Details ing requires a family of different pro files t o wall, mild st eel T-sect ion fins are set betwee n
I. Outside
create a single glazed wa ll. For t his reason, th e w indows t o form a st iffening frame.T he
2. Inside
3. Steel supporting structure manufactu rers offer a small range of stee l adjacent fr ames are screw ed t o t he fins in
4. Transom
w indow ty pes in o rder t o remain economic. o rder t o cont ribute t o th e overall st iffness of
5. Mullion
6. Single glazed or double glazed Because sectio ns are ro lled rather t han t he frame. Unlike aluminium, t he T-sections
unit to suit application
ext r uded, t here is very littl e possibility of cre- used are different fro m t hose set vert ically in
7. Fixing bead
8. Fixing lug at ing a new profile for a specific project. Sin- o rder t o provide a projecting drip. Profiles
9. Projecting transom
gle glazed panes of glass w ere traditionally are designed so th at th ey are glazed from
10. Rubber-based seal
I I. Fixed light fixed w it h stee l pins and glazing putty like tra- eit her t he inside o r t he o utside.T he choice of
12. Inward opening light
dit ional w indow fr ames, but th e pract ice has syste m is usually dictate d by th e method of
13. Outward opening light
14. W indow cill given way t o t hin steel channels and angles. glass replacement , w hich may be fro m an
15. Condensation tray
Mo re recent ly,aluminium ext r usions are used, intern al fioor o r from an exte rnal ladder or
16. Damp proof course (DPC)
17. Internal finish w hich are clipped int o place.T he ext rusions cleaning and maint enance cradle.
18. Drip
are both more reliable in t he long t erm and O utw ard o pening light s have pro files w it h
19. Packing
20. A luminium clip to secure far easier t o replace, parti cularly in large-scale edges th at proj ect over th e front of th e sup-
double glazed unit
glazed wa lls. porting frame t o exclude rainw ater.A pro-
21. Steel cill
22. Meet ing stile W hen w indows, eit her fixed o r o pening jecting drip is prov ided at t he t op to prot ect
23. Pressed steel frame
light s, are joined t ogether t o fo rm a glazed t he vulnerable t op joint. A ny rainw ater t hat

MC E 128

@
Vertical section I : I O. Inward opening Vert ical section I: I O. Outward
rolled steel frame with double glazed opening rolled steel frame with
unit double glazed unit
CD
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~ CD
Ho rizontal section I : I O. Rolled steel frame glazed internally
drip s into th e inner surface of th e frame is
dr ained away aro und th e edge of th e fr ame
and o ut at th e bottom of each frame. Rub-
ber-based seals are now used t o assist w it h
reducing air infiltration th rou gh th e w indow.
Inw ard o pening light s use th e same pro -
files w it h th eir proj ecting edges set against
th e frame in a similar w ay At th e w indow
head, a projecting fin is not needed as a dr ip,
since th e oute r frame is lapped over th e
inner light. Rubber-based seals are used t o
reduce air infiltration .W indows and glazed
walls are fixed t o adjacent masonry walls
w it h stee l lugs t hat allow th em t o be fixed
away from th e edge of th e concrete o r
masonry These lugs are co ncealed by int ernal
finishes.W hen fixed into a timber or pressed
steel edge fr ame, stee l glazing can be fixed
~-0-
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Ho rizontal sect ion I 10. Rolled st eel frame with single glazing and outward
op ening light
@
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Horizontal section I 10. Meet ing stile on rolled steel frame with double
glazing
-~~=;;:;:=4J=~=='@'=====
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Ho rizontal section 1:5 . Junction between steel window and adjoining cavity
wall construction
direct ly th rou gh th e fr ame into th e suppo rt-
ing mater ial.
A ddit ional st iffening for larger walls is
provided by tub e or box sect io ns set away
from th e glazed w all.T he glazing is fixed t o
th e suppo rt fr ame w it h steel cleats and
br ackets.Th ese provide a meth od of taking CD
up tolerances and alignme nt adjust ments
between t he w indows and th eir suppo r t ing
fr ame.
Doors are fixed t o t he suppo rting fr ame
in t he same way as w indows, but th eir con-
st ruct ion is more robu st.They have th icker
sect ions at t he cill and have a horizontal rail
at mid -height t o provide st iffness. Some also
have m ild stee l plates, glazed in at cill level as
kicking plates.The plate s have an internal 3-D view of steel glazing set in cavity wall
construction
insulati on co re if used in co njunct ion w ith
MC E 129
Glass Walls OiS
Steel windows

Ho rizontal sections I : 10.Various pressed steel window configurations with double glazing and thermall y bro ken

0- -

Horizontal sections I: I O. Pnessed steel frame win - Horizontal sections I: 10. Pressed steel frame
dows with double glazingand thermally broken. windows w ith double glazingand thermally
Junction with cavity wall construct ion broken. Junction with cavity wall construction

3-D view of various pressed steel frame wind ow configurations with double glazingand thermall y broken

Details do uble glazing.Th e thinn ess of st eel w in- front t o allow fixing t oggles t o be inserted
I. Outside
dow fr ames in relation t o aluminium allows int o it. Rubber-based air seals are set against
2. Inside
3. Steel supporting structure doo r cills t o be visually more discrete t han t he carrier frame onto w hich t he double
4. Transom
th o se in aluminium, w it h a low upstand glazed units are set.The glass is secured w it h
5. Mullion
6. Single glazed or double glazed formed by t he cill at flo or level. D oors, in pressure plates and int egral ru bber-based
unit to suit application
commo n w it h ot her cills, have a co ndensa- seals in th e same w ay as aluminium glazed
7. Fixing bead
8. Fixing lug t ion channel w hich co llects wate r at t he wall syste ms.The pressure plate is fixed w it h
9. Projecting transom
bottom of th e glazed wall and directs it t o a bolt th at is secured into the t oggle. In alu-
10. Rubber-based seal
I I. Fixed light t he outs ide .These channels are needed minium const r uction, a projecting groove
12. Inward opening light
since t he fr ame is not t herm ally brok en and forms part of t he ext r usion t o w hich t he bolt
13. Outward opening light
14. W indow cill co ndensat ion can occur on t he int ern al face is fixed. Rolled or pressed st eel cannot incor-
15. Condensation tra y
in te mperate climates. porate such a complicated and rigid profile.
16. Damp proof course (DPC)
17. Internal finish The ru bber-based air seals fixed t o t he box
18 Drip
19. Packing
Large-scale glazing sect ions have an addit ional lip w hich t ucks
20. Aluminium clip to secure Large-scale glazing uses a carrier frame of down over th e top of th e do uble glazed unit
double glazed unit
mullions and t ransoms form ed in steel box below.T his provides a sealed inner chamber
21. Steel cill
22. Meet ing stile sect ions similar t o t hat in aluminium.The car- for drainage and pressure equalisation in t he
23. Pressed steel frame
rier fr ame has an indented groove at th e manner of aluminium glazed walls. Manufac-

MC E 130

3-D view of double glazed steel frame w indow set
in cavity wall construction
Hor izont al section I :I a.Vertically set glass channels
used as window
tu rers provide systems to suit different glaz-
ing layo ut s and spans.T he shape of th e box
section can also vary. fro m t hin long boxes,to
a rectangular box. t o a po inted aerofo il-type
sect io n.The overall sight lines are t hinner
t han an equivalent in alumini um. Special cor-
ner pieces are made w it hin manufacture rs'
systems w hich are similar to those in alumini-
um.Th ese special profiles make co me rs more
elegant t han t hey wo uld be by combining
struct ural sections,w hich w o uld necessitate
th e adding of sheet metal in co rners.
Parapet s are form ed by glazing a metal
fiashing int o t he transom (horizont ally) at th e
t o p of th e w all and exte nding th e fiashing
down th e parapet w all behind w hich t he roof
build-up is retained.A n advantage of steel
glazed walls in box sect ions is t hat t hey can
--,J
Ver tical section I: I a. Outward op ening double glazed
st eel frame wi ndows set in cavity w all con~~:~~~~n
@
Vertical section I :I a. Fix ed light double glazed
steel frame windows set in cavity wall
construction
be combined wit h a glazed roof. In thi s det ail
a co ping is glazed int o the roof member adja-
cent t o th e wall at o ne end and glazed int o
th e t op t ranso m of the w all at its other end.
The coping profile is usually formed to project
slight ly forward of t he top face of the pres-
sure plate in order t o pro vide protect io n fro m
maint enance equipment and ladders th at can
damage th e parapet co ping. Cills at gro und
level have met al fiashings glazed int o th em t o
pro ject dow n over adjacent co nstr uct ion, such
as an insulat ed co ncrete upstand.A n alumini-
um o r EPDM fo il is also glazed in behind t he
fiashing t o pro vide a wat ert ight seal against
adjacent co nst ruct io n such as a fioor slab. Slot
dra ins at cili level are increasingly used t o co n-
ceal t he minimum I SOmm (6in) upstand
3-D view of double glazed steel framed wi ndow set
required between th e low est transom and t he in cavity wall construction
MCE 131
Glass Walls 06
Steel windows

@ @ @

Vertical sections I : I O. Pressed steel singleglazed fire resisting Vertical section I:I O. Pressed steel doors with thermal breaks. Outward opening
doors without thermal breaks (left) and inward opening (right)

Horizontal section I: I O. Fixed pressed steel singleglazed fire

resisting doors without thermal breaks
Horizo ntal section I: I0, Outward opening pressed steel door with thermal
break

Horizontal section I :I O. Inward opening pressed steel single

glazed fire resisting doors without thermal breaks
Horizo ntal section I

Jr
break

- '

Horizontal section I :I O. Outward opening pressed steel single

glazed fire resisting doors without thermal breaks

Details
I. Outside ® ®
2. Inside
3. Steel supporting structure
4. Transom
5. Mullion 3-D view of outward opening pressed steel door with thermal break
6. Singleglazed or double 16. Damp proof course
glazed unit to suit (DPC)
application 17. Internal finish
7. Fixing bead 18 Drip
8. Fixing lug 19. Packing
9. Projecting transom 20. Aluminium clip to secure
I O. Rubber-based seal double glazed unit
I I. Fixed light 21. Steel cill
12. Inward opening light 22. Meeting stile
13. Outward opening light 23. Pressed Steel Frame
14. Window cill ®
15. Condensation tray
3-D view of outward opening pressed steel singleglazed fire resisting door without
thermal break

MC E 132
Horizontal section I: I0. Steel framed cur t ain walling details at var ious junctio ns
exte rnal gro und level for wate rproofing pur-
poses.The use of an exte rnal slot drain also
allows t he exte rnal level t o be t he same as
t he int ernal fioor level w hile providing a
semi-co ncealed upstand.
Met al fiashings and an EPD M foi l behind
it are also used t o seal steel glazing against
areas of adjacent co nstruct ion such as
masonry and co ncrete wa lls. O pening light s
and doo rs are set int o stee l glazing as sepa-
rat e it ems glazed w it h an opening.As w ith
alum inium glazed walls, t he door or o pening
light has an addit ional frame w hich is visible
from t he o utside. D oor and w indow light s
are formed from pressed steel sections
w hich are fold ed t ogeth er t o form a family of
pro files t o suit different sizes and glass ty pes.
Steel fr amed w indows and doors are also
made as separate items for glazing into o pen-
ings in mason ry wa lls. In t his inst ance t hey are
fixed t hro ugh t he fr ame int o t he adjacent
st ruct ural wa ll.A n EPDM foi l or silicone seal-
ant is th en used t o seal th e gap between th e
stee l w indow/door and t he adjacent co n-
crete or mason ry wa ll.
Steel glazing w ith box sections has a lim-
it ed th erm al break provided by t he rubb er-
based seals.Similarly,doo rs can have a mod -
est t hermal br eak int ro duced t hat avoids
co ndensat ion forming o n th e inside face of
t he door in t emp erate climates. D oo r s and
o pening light s have rubb er-based seals
between t he light and t he carrier frame t o
reduce air infilt rat io n. Stee l glazing is usually
finished as either galvanised or po lyest er
powd er coate d. PVDF is not used o n stee l.
Somet imes a combinat ion of galvanising and
coat ing is used, but galvanising can disto rt
small compo nents, making it much less popu -
lar t han polyester powd er coat ing.
Steel glazing w it h box sections has a lim-
ited th erm al br eak provided by th e rub ber-
based seals. Similar ly, doors can have a mod-
est t her mal break int roduced t hat avoids
co ndensat ion fo rm ing o n t he inside face of
t he door in t emp erat e climat es. D oors and
o pening light s have rubb er-based seals
between t he light and t he carrier fr ame t o
reduce air infilt rati on . Steel glazing is usually
finished as eit her galvanised o r po lyester
powd er coate d. PVDF is not used o n steel.
Somet imes a co mbinat ion of galvanising and
coat ing is used, but galvanising can distort
small co mpo nents, making it much less po pu-
lar t han polyester pow der coat ing.
MCE 13 3
- - -GI ails 06---~--'"
Steel windows

Details
I. """'"
2._
I 1 Steel supportrog wueture
-s.Transom
S. Mu11'on

I 6. SlI'Igle g\aled or double gLued

l.I1ct to ~ applatoOn
n 7. Fomgbead
8.Fi>arIg Ug
9. PrOjectl'lg tranSOffi
,O. Rubber-based seal
II . Fixed light
12.Inward opening Iigtlt
13. Ovtwara openrog light
I"'Wndow61
15.Cc:nOensabon tray
16.Damp proof ccc-se (DPC)

- ""'"
17. Internal fin,sh
18. Drip
19. Packing
20.A!l.rniruum clipto secure

III "'"
21. Steel dI
21 Meebng stile
21 Pressed steel frame

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MC E 134
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3-D view of pressed steel window detail 3-0 exploded VIeW of pressed steel
~ masonrycavity wal constructJon wttIWl ~ waf

MC E_ 135
GlassWalls 07
Al uminium and PVC- U w indows

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with extemal balustrade
A luminium w indows are used eit her as indi- fianking sound passing from apartment t o
vidual light s set int o a structural opening o r apartment. 'W indow wa lls' of w indows linked
as 'w indow w alls' w here w indows are st ill set by glass o r metal panels is ofte n pr efer red
int o op enings, but are linked t oget her w it h w here a fire separat ion zone is needed
metal or opaqu e glass panels t o give t he between apartment s,w hen combined w it h
appearance of a cont inuo us glazed w all. t hermal and acoust ic mass.
T he essent ial difference between alumini-
um w indows and aluminium glazed w alls (o r Window s in openings
'curta in walls') is t hat w indows are set indi- W hen fixed into a str uctu ral op ening in a
vidually into structural op enings,w hereas w all formed in another mat erial, aluminium
curta in w alling uses a co nt inuous carrier w indows have dri ps and flashings t o seal
fr ame fixed fo rw ard of t he suppo rt ing struc- against t he adjacent materi al. Specific inter-
t ure.W indows are not t echnically inferior t o face det ails of w indows w it h adjacent mat eri-
curta in wa lling, but are a different met hod of als are discussed elsewhere in t his book,
glazing.W indow systems are we ll suite d t o under t he heading of each wall typ e.T his sec-
3-D view of aluminium opening doors apar t me nts, w here t he discontinui ty of fram- t ion deals specifically w it h t he issues of glaz-
and fixed lights
ing is prefer red for acoust ic reasons,avo iding ing aluminium w indows and doors into any

MC E 136
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
 ~r~-.----1 Vertical
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External

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opening
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Vertical sections I: I O. Aluminium windows fixed into openings in masonry concrete walls

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struct ural opening. st r uct ural stability.

A luminium w indow s and doors are often In commo n w it h aluminium curtain walls,
preferred for th eir th erm al and acoust ic aluminium w indows are pressure equalised
insulation prop erties, t ogether w it h low lev- and internally dr ained, providing two lines of
els of air infiltration .They have a generally defence against rainw ater ingress.The oute r D et ails
I. Opening door or window
higher performance in th ese areas th an stee l line of defence is provided by a rubb er-based
2. Fixed light
or timber fr ames, and th eir dur able finish seal fixed t o th e w indow frame.A ny rainw a- 3. Floor slab
4. Thermal insulation
gives th em a consist ent appearance over 20 t er penetrating th is oute r seal is dr ained away
5. Surrounding wall
years, depending on th e t ype of finish used. in a vent ilate d cavity w it hin th e w indow 6. Internal finishes
7. W indow cill
Their main disadvantage is th e w ide sight fr ame and is released back t o th e outside
lines required t o accommo date smoot h through th e cill profile.
movement of th e opening light in t he fr ame There is an increased use of 'flipper' seals
as we ll as th e seals and th erm al breaks w it hin w indow frames t o both keep any rain-
required. Manufacturer s are ever-st riving t o wate r th at penetrates th e oute r seal in a
make th e sight lines th inner but th is usually chamber at th e front of th e section (similar
results in th e depth of th e w indow and door t o unitised cur tain walling) and t o provide a
increasing substant ially in order t o maintain th erm al break in th e void w it hin th e w indow

MC E 137
GassWalls 07
A luminium and PVC- U w indows

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Horizontal section and elevation 1:25.
I Door fixed into a stick curtain wall system
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fr ame.This prevent s air t emper ature and
humidity levels in th e outer chamber from
passing all th e way through th e void in th e
fr ame and reaching th e inner seal.T he inner
seal is th en used only as an air seal rather
th an a full weat hert ight seal.T his meth od is
similar t o th at used in unitised curta in wa lling,
w here t wo air chambers are used at th e joint
between panels,Th ere has been an increased
use in recent years of th erm al breaks in both
th e frame and th e o pening light in aluminium
w indows ,The breaks are position ed t o coin-
cide w it h th e rubb er-based flipper seal t o
reduce th e th erm al brid ge across th e com-
plete w indow sectio n,
A luminium frames for doors and w in-
dow s differ subst ant ially in th at w indow
3-D view of window fitted in to unitised glazing
fr ames are narrow er but deeper th an doors
in o rder t o provide much low er levels of air
and w at er infiltr ation, D oor fr ames are gen-
erally w ider so as t o provide stability for th e
infill panel of glass but are not usually th er-
mally broken in o rder t o provide a rigid
fr ame t o suppo rt th e infill glass,W indow
fr ames are often used for doors w here th ese
low er levels of air and wate r infilt rati o n are
required, as in doors t o balconies in apart -
ment s, for example, D oors using door pro -
files can reach 3.0 t o 3.5 metres in height
w it hout w ide sight lines w hereas thi s is not
th e case for doors using w indow fr ame pro-
files w hich can reach a maximum of around
2.4 metres high (2400mm) ,A bove thi s height.
it is difficult t o use th e frame t o support th e
glass, For doors exceeding 2.4 metres in
height using w indow sect ions, it is visually

MC E 138
 .---

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Outward opening ther- Inward opening door with
mally broken door. Fixed no t hermal break.Fix ed
into stick curtain walling into stick curtain walling

Ho rizontal section I:25.A luminium doors fixed into a stick curtain wall system

D et ails
I. Opening door or window
2. Fixed light
3. Floor slab
4. Thermal insulation
S. Surrounding wall
6. Internal finishes
7. W indow cill

Hori zontal sect ion I: I O. Junctions between fixed light and opening door and window Meet ing stile I: I0

necessary t o silicone bond th e frame t o the both by th e minimum manufacturable size of

glass so th at th e fr ame and glass become a
single structural component.The glass is th en
used t o stiffen th e fr ame rather than being a
non-structural infill panel w it hin th e fr ame.
This is more expensive and also difficult t o
replace th e glass if broken w it hout replacing
th e comp lete frame. If t he fr ame is replaced
th en t he colour of th e replacement door
may not match th e surro unding framing.
Maximum w idt hs of aluminium glazed doors
are a function of th e height, in order t o
restrict the overall we ight of th e door leaf,
but 850mm w ide doors (for a 1700mm w ide
pair of doo rs) are commo n.The minimum
w idt h of th e opening door is abo ut 250mm
t o 300mm depending on door height and
w idt h.The minimum dimension is determ ined
double glazed unit and by th e need t o open
th e light smoot hly.
Top hung light s, ofte n set above fixed alu-
minium w indows and opening door s t o pro-
vide night t ime natural vent ilat ion, have a
minimum height of abo ut 800mm t o 900mm
in order t o accommodate the o pening mech
anism. Fixed light s above doors can be
reduced t o a height of around 200mm.Top
hung, bottom hung and t ilt!t urn w indows use
similar sections t o side hung w indow s.Tilt!
3-D view of alumnium window
turn w indows have t he advantage of combin-
ing th e functions of side hung w indows w it h
th eir ability t o open complete ly, and th e abili-
t y of bottom hung w indows t o provide high
level natural vent ilat ion has led t o th eir
increased use.

MC E 139
Glass Walls 07
Aluminium and PVC-U windows

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MC E 140
 ,
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I. O pening door or w indow
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Sliding doors are usually t op hung, sliding
on ro llers set at th e door head.The bottom
of t he door is rest rained by guides t hat both
hold th e do or in place and allow it t o move
w it hout being o bstr ucte d by dirt and grit
accumulat ing in t he bottom of th e cill pro -
file. Bottom rolling doors, w hich are sup-
ported on th e cill profi le and are restrained
at th eir head, are much less commo nly used
for exte rnal doors since dirt and grit can
hinder t heir movement.There are t w o t ypes
of sliding door: th ose th at ro ll in a constant
plane and th ose w hich lift o ut and th en
slide.Th e fir st t ype has higher levels of air
infiltration associate d w it h side hung door
profiles.Th e second type has much low er
levels of air infiltration but has w ider sec-
ti ons,creating w ider sight lines.
W hen aluminium w indows are glazed
int o a st ructural opening, t he joi nt between
w indow and adjacent wall is made eit her
w it h a sealant, such as silicone, or w it h an
EPDM foil glazed int o th e w indow fr ame and
sealed against th e face of t he surro unding
wall.The choice of seal is dependent upon
th e material used in th e surrounding wall, but
silicone seals are generally used w here th e
adjacent wall is of sealed const r uct ion, such
as an open joint ed wall, sheet metal or
render on concrete . EPDM foil is used w here
th e adjacent wall has an open joi nt ed finish in
front of th e struct ural wall, as in rainscreen
construct ion, in metal or sto ne, for example.
The EPDM foil is sealed against th e wate r-
proof backing wall used in thi s ty pe of con-
struction.This method makes it necessary to
fix t he w indows and seal t hem t o t he backing
wall before th e exte rnal cladding is fixed.This
is often an advantage, w here aluminium w in-
dow s and backing walls provide a weat her-
t ight enclosure at an ear lier stage t han wo uld
be achieved w it h more traditional method s
w here t he w indows are glazed in afterwa rds.
The ear ly date for weat hertight enclosure
allows construct ion wo rk int ernally t o com-
mence at the same tim e as th e exte rnal clad-
ding is being installed. Forming a seal w it h
sealant, w it h silicone or a polysulphide for
example, rather th an EPDM, allows th e w in-
dow t o be installed afterwa rds. Since t he
joint s are visible, and are formed w it h a t ool

MC E 141
G assWans 07
Alum inium and PVC-U w indows

3-D view of aluminium window as part of a unitised glazingsystem

3-D view of aluminium window as part of a unitised glazingsystem

3-D views of frame details

B.

Deta ils
I. Opening door or window
/ 2. Fixed light
D. 3. Floor slab
4. Thermal insulation
5. Surrounding wall
6. Internal finishes
7. Window cill
3-D detail view of aluminium glazing

MC E 142

c.
from outside, care sho uld be t aken t o choo se
a colour w hich is compat ible w it h both t he
w indow and th e adjacent const ruct ion,
Window walls
This syste m is parti cular ly useful w here a dis-
cont inuity is required, usually for fire o r
acoustic reasons,w hile maintaining an overall
modular facade,T hey are usually less expen-
sive th an glazed cur tain walling,Th e o paque
areas are usually filled w it h eit her an alum ini-
um sheet (coate d t o mat ch t he colour of t he
adjacent w indow frames) o r w it h o pacified
glass,T hese infill panels are suppo rte d by t he
w indow frames and do not have a suppo rt
fr ame behind as wo uld be used in cur tain
walling syste ms,
In a w indow wa ll, th e aluminium profi le
visible fro m o utside is adapte d t o give t he
same appearance as th e junction betw een
o paque spandrel panels,T his gives t he
exte rnal fr aming an ove rall consiste nt
appearance associate d w it h ot her modu lar
glazed wa ll t ypes,W indows are suppo rte d
eit her direct ly o nto a floor slab o r co ncrete!
block upst and, o r alte rnat ively are set for-
B,
D,
wa rd of th em on br acket s, If th e w indow is
sitting o n a suppo r t , t hen t he o paque panel
adjacent t o it is usually set fo rw ard of th e
w indow in o rder t o accommo date it s t her-
mal insulati on ,W hen t he w indow is set fo r-
wa rd of th e o pening, th en th e glazing in th e
aluminium w indow can be aligned w it h t he
o paque glazing.Thi s glazing t ype is commo n-
ly used w it h both ribbo n w indows and row s
of individu al w indows,
A n advantage of w indow wa lling is th at
t he o paque spandrel panels can be made in a
different form of construction from t he w in-
dow s, Insulat ed composite panels can be
used for exam ple as metal rainscreen panels,
o r o pen joint ed o paque glazing,T his can
make t he system very economic w hen com-
pared t o curtain wa lling. If th e spandrel pan-
els are not set int o a framing system t hat is
internally drained and vent ilate d like th e w in-
dow s, t hen t he vo id behind t he o paque pan-
els must be drained at t he head of th e w in-
dow below, In addition, th e th erm al insulation
behind t he spandrel panel fo rms a cont inuity
w it h th e doub le glazed unit of th e w indow,
Comp osite wi ndows
A recent developm ent has been in t he use of
aluminium w indows w it h an inner frame in
timber t o suppo rt th e o ute r aluminium pro -
file,T his is effectively an aluminium w indow
wall w it h a timber carrier frame, From th e
int erior,t he framing has an all-wood appear-
ance, However,th e glazing sect ions used are
t hose from w indows rather th an curtain waIl-
ing, Som e manufact urers make w indows w it h
timber frames behind th em t o form a timber
fr amed uniti sed system,T he o ute r joint is an
o pen joint ed rainscreen.This protects t he
inner seals between t imber frames fro m t he
wo rst effects of w indblow n rain,T he t imb er
fr ames are screwe d o r bo lted t ogether.Th e
complete carrier fr ame is fixed back t o floo r
slabs w it h stee l o r aluminium brackets in th e
manner of glazed curta in w alling.T hese
brackets are describ ed in th e section o n st ick
glazing and unitised glazing.
MC E 14 3
Glass Wa Is 07
Aluminium and PVC-U windows

1'1 ~
3-D exploded view of wall with aluminium window Exploded axonometric view of wall with aluminium window

3-D view of top hung aluminium window open 3-D frame detail of top hung aluminium window open

3-D view of side hung aluminium window open 3-D detail of side hung aluminium window frame open

MC E 144
 3-D view of wall with aluminium windows Exploded axonometric drawing of wall with aluminium windows

D etails
I. Opening door or window
2. Fixed light
3. Floor slab
4. Thermal insulation
S. Surrounding wall
6. Internal finishes
7. Window cill

3-D exploded view of wall w ith aluminium window

3-D view of aluminium window

3-D view of aluminium window exploded from wall

3-D exploded view of aluminium window
MC E 145
Glass W aifs 08
Timber windows

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Elevation I:25.O pening casement door~ With fixed sIdelight

Verti cal section I :5.Inward

opening casement dOO<"S

Hor izontal section 1:5. Fixed casement window

Elevation I :25.Fixed casement window

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Like aluminium w indows. timber windows are
used either as individual components or as
assemblies o f 'w indow walls' of opening win -
dows and fixed lights wh ich are linked
together
W indow walls
These are formed either as individual w in-
dows linked togeth er and reinforced by a
secondary frame. usually steel flats. or are
formed as full curtain walling systems.Where
t imber sections form the full structural sup-
port for t he glazing.the glazing is secured
w ith timber glazing beads.Where individ ual
w indows are linked together with steel rein,
forcement, addit ional support may be need-
ed fro m a secondary structure. Steel tubes.
3-D views showing side hung and fixed light
windows T-sect ions or box sections are typical ly used
to avoid much larger equivalent sections in
timber In common w ith other framed glaz-
ing systems. t imber windows are required t o
be held in a rigid frame. w ith only small
structural deflections allowed under wi nd
load. For t his reason, cable-assisted st ruc-
tures are seldom used, since they are associ-
ated with higher deflections than framed
supporting structures.These reinforcements
or addit ional supports are usually set inside
the building to avoid penetrat ing the exteri-
or seal o f th e timber frame s.W hereas alu-
min ium glazing systems can accommodate
support brackets penetrating the oute r seals
with rubber-based gaskets and silicone seals.
the high moisture movement associated w ith
wood makes thi s much less practical w ith
timber w indows .

M C E 146
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
 D etails
I. Fixed light
I @ @ 2. Supporting structu re
3. Outside
4. Inside
/ 5. Head
\ 6. Cill
7. Metal stiffening insert
8. Timber infill panel
9. Thermal insulation
I 10. Singleglazed or double
glazed unit to suit
I @ @ application
/ I I. Fixing bead
12. Rubber-based seal
\ / 13. Inward opening light
14. Outward opening light
15. Damp proof course
(DPC)
16. Internal finish
17. Flashing to seal against
adjacent wall
18. Vertically sliding sash
19. Sliding door frame top
hung or bottom rolling
20. W indow or door
jamb
Vertica l section I :5.Top hung
Elevation I :25. Side hung window

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W here w indows are linked t ogether and t imb er sect ions over aluminium extrusions is
reinforced w it h a mild st eel flat a drainage t he ability of t imber t o be routed t o form a
---
groove is cut int o t he o utside of t he fram e as variety of juncti on s between mullion (ver t i- I
I
part of a st andard w indow frame. A ny w at er cal) and tran som (ho rizontal). Slots and con- I
I
t hat passes through t he o ute r seal is dr ained t inuous gro oves can be cut int o t he sectio ns I

,
I
away in t he groove w hich is used on all fo ur t o give t hem a visual richness t hat is ofte n I

sides of a t ypical fr ame.W ate r is dr ained lacking in metal glazed w alls. Support brack- I
I
away t o th e outside at th e cill.T he reinforce- ets fixed t o th e inside face are form ed in alu- I
I
ment does not exte nd forward of t he drain- minium or mild st eel. , I

age groove t o allow wate r to be drained
away unimpeded. A ll-t imber frames, in t he
manner of glazed cur tain w alling, may have
mullion s and transoms of different dept hs,
reflecting t heir different struct ural require-
ments,and each may be in a different wood
typ e. Hardwoods and softwoods can be
mixed, but moisture movement needs to be
t aken int o account. A n advantage of solid
..
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Timber framed w indow wa lls ty pically '-.
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-,
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span up t o two floors, due t o t he self we ight
of t he panels.This is due t o t he need t o bind
t he frame int o large single unit s t o avoid t he
effects of t hermal movement fro m shrinking
of th e sect ions. If timber sect io ns are not ti ed
t ogether.t hey t end t o warp and t w ist w hen
exposed t o outside eleme nts. Even if th e sur-
faces are painted o r sealed w it h varn ish, any 3-D view showing side hung window

MC E 147
Glass ails 08
Timber windows

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Elevation I :25. Horizontal sliding wind ow

Horizontal section 1:5. Horizontal sliding window

Vert ical section 1:5. Sliding window

movement due t o moisture w ill crack th e
o ute r finish and allow further movement t o
occur.Timber sect ions are jointed w it h eit her
t ongue-and-groove o r rebated jo ints.W here
t ongue-and-gro ove joints are used, th e linking
materi al can be a durable hardw ood o r alu-
m inium. Sections can also be bo lted t ogether
if th e sectio ns are of sufficient size,such as
aro und 75 x 50mm (3in x 2in).
Glazed wa lls can be jo ined relatively easi-
ly t o adjacent wa ll const ruct ion w it h seals
and lapped edges associate d w it h traditional
w indows . Corn er s are st raightfo rw ard to
form as eit her a structural corne r o r as a fully
glazed corne r.St ructural corne rs have t wo
glazing sectio ns brought t ogether. w hich are
reinforced w it h an addit ional co rne r post.
This post is set into routed grooves in th e
edges of t he two w indow frames t o provide
add it io nal st iffness at th e co rne r, bindin g
t he three t imb er sect io ns int o a single
st r uct ural co mponent.
Window design
W indows in recent years have develop ed by
providing better airt ight and better wate r-
ti ght barri ers in th eir design.A ir infiltr ation in
o pening light s has been reduced, w hen th e
w indow is closed by th e addit ion of rubb er-
based seals, often held in place by aluminium
clips so th at th ey can be replaced w hen
wo rn-o ut. Wate rtight ness of opening light s
has been improved by th e use of pressure
equalised rebates in th e w indow sectio n so
th at any wate r ente ring th e profi les at th e
sides is drained away from an oute r cavity
w it hout being drawn into th e inner seal by
capillary action (pressure different ial)

MC E 148
3-D section t hro ugh side hung window details showing different framing methods

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Horizontal sections I:5. Slid ing sash w indow

between inside and outside th e framing. also been improved by th e use of fo lded alu- Details
I. Fixed light
An out er seal prevents excessive w at er m inium and UPVC profi les.These profiles are
2. Supporting structure
infilt ration w hile t he inner air seal also serves set fixed o n all edges of th e w indow by set- 3. O utside
4. Inside
as an acoust ic barrier. providing better sound t ing them into a groove in the w indow frame
5. Head
insulation than t radit ional w indows wi t ho ut and projecting them over th e face of the sur- 6. Cill
7. Metal stiffening insert
th ose seals.The inner rubber-based air seal is ro unding w all.This makes th e sealing of the
8. Timber infill panel
usually 'vulcanised' or fused at th e corne rs of gap between w indow and surrounding w all 9. Thermal insulation
I O. Single glazed or double
the frame t o maintain performance around much easier by avoiding th e need t o seal the
glazed unit to suit
the complet e perimete r of th e w indow.The butt jo int created by setti ng t he w indow applicat ion
I I. Fixing bead
drainage groove or channel around th e frame directly int o th e opening.This projecting pro-
12. Rubber-based seal
of ope ning light s somet imes has an alumini- file is more reliable t han the traditi on al I 3. Inward opening light
14. O utward opening light
um profi le attached to allow th e timber pro- weat her bar used in th e cill with sealed butt 15. Damp proo f course
file t o be simp ler. Holes are drilled int o th e joints o n th e jambs and head. (DPC)
16. Internal finish
alum inium profile at cill level t o allow wate r T here has been an increased cont ro l of 17. Flashingto seal against
t o dr ain t o th e o utside of t he frame.This moisture movement of t he t imber used. adjacent wall
I 8. Verti cally sliding sash
met al profi le is painted t o reduce th e visibility W hen timb er is kiln-dried t o reduce its w ate r 19. Sliding door frame t op
w hen th e w indow is o pen. conte nt prior t o manufacture, t he pro cess is hung or bottom rolling
20. Sliding w indow or
Seals betwee n th e w indow and t he now better controlled t o avoid excessive door jamb
open ing into w hich the w indow is fixed have shrinkage afterwa rds.T imber s are dried to

MCE 149
Glass Walls 08
T imber w indows

3-D view of vert ical sliding sash window

Vertical section I:5, Vertical sliding sash aro und 15% moisture conte nt, depending on w it h coat ings t o aluminium profi les, it is very
window
t he species used.Treatments t o timb er s are difficult t o coat t he edge of a sharp corne r.A
D etails also changing t o avoid t oxic run off w hile pro - radiused edge allow s th e protective coat ing
I, Fixed light
2, Supporting structure viding some protectio n against colour fading t o maint ain a better constant t hickness at t he
3. Outsid e fro m UV radiati on fro m sunlight.T imber st ill vulnerable corne rs,Typically, ro unded edges
4, Inside
5, Head requires re-coating and cleaning t o avoid th e allow an 80% layer thi ckness of coat ing (w it h
6, Cill surface visually fading and causing damage t o 100% on adjacent flat surfaces) compared
7, Metal stiffening insert
8, Timber infill panel t he t imber it self. Some more eco nomic t im- w it h around 5% coat ing t hickness for a sharp
9, Thermal insulation ber w indows have traditi onally suffered from angle,W it h th e increased use of doub le
10, Single glazedor double glazed unit to
suit application poo r jointin g at t he corne rs of t he fr ame, glazed unit s in t imb er w indows, rubber-based
I I, Fixing bead Th ese have been imp roved across all w indow gasket s are also increasingly being used t o
12, Rubber-based seal
13, Inward opening light t ypes in recent years w it h t he use of do uble allow t he moisture movement of t he w indow
14, Outward opening light mortice and t enon jo ints and wood glues fr ame and timb er glazing beads t o move
15, Damp proof course (DPC)
16, Internal finish w it h better resistance t o heat and moisture, w it hout reducing t he w at er ti ghtness of th e
17, Flashing to seal against adjacent wall W it h t he improvement in protective seal between t he frame and do uble glazed
18, Vertically sliding sash
19, Slidingdoor frame top hung or bottom coat ings for timber w indows, parti cularly unit. Soft seals,including th ose made from
rolling t hose on t he o ut side face, has come t he use wet -applied silicone, o r silicone extrusions,
20, W indow or door jamb
of ro unded edges t o profi les,As is th e case perform much better in thi s respect th an th e

MC E 150

Elevation I SO. Sliding doo rs
3-D view of vertical sliding sash window
harder and more brittle putties and sealants
used prev iously.
A luminium trims are also used to secure
the glass, but the appearance fro m outside is
ob viously a mixture of timber and aluminium
rather than all-timber. making the window
more o f a composite design associated with
timber window walls.Th is tre nd will probably
conti nue due to the greater rel iability of alu-
minium for glazing beads and t rims.
W indow s in openings
Where t imber windows are set into an
op ening rat her t han being part o f a wi ndow
w all.the most common mate ri als used are
masonry block, bric k or timber boarding .
W ith all these materials,timber w indows are
fixed eithe r into the reveals of the o pening or
I
®
'It±!, lnf
c
TYPE I TYPE2 TYPE 3 Horizontal section 15. Sliding doors
are fixed onto the face of the o pening.T he
position of the w indow in the o pening has
more infiuence over the junction with the
surrounding wa ll than the cho ice of material
for the wall.
In generic examples. the window is fixed
to the outs ide face of the wall, wh ich would
typically be reinforced co ncrete or co ncre te
block This would be used where a massive.
sound insulating structure, such as an apart-
ment building. is clad in a different material
such as timber rainscreen panels or terracc t -
ta. w hich are often used in a smooth continu-
ous plane without reveals.This construction is
ideal for remscreen construction. It allows the
w indow to be sealed to the structural wa ll,
or backing wall, w ith a lapped jo int around
3-D view of side hung timber window
t he opening and allowing it to be fitted inde-
MC E 151
Glass W alls 08
Timbe r w indows
3-D view showing horizontal section through timber sliding door
®
Horizontal sections 1:5. Sliding doors
pendently of th at opening.This permits t he
w all t o be set out on a precise grid t hat
would be difficult to achieve by setting t he
w indow int o t he opening.This is because t he
const r uction tolerances associated w it h con-
crete frame construct ion are considerably
higher than tho se used for timber w indows.
W indows wo uld ty pically be sealed against
t he concrete w all w it h projecting pro files t hat
wo uld lap under a wate rproo f layer on th e
surro unding wall.This creates a deep reveal
on t he inside face of t he wall w hich has fin-
ishes applied to create a t idy junction w it h
t he int ernal face of t he w indow.
In some cases, th e w indow is set into th e
reveal of t he opening. Because t he w indow
has to be smaller th an t he opening size in
order t o install it, t he joint w idt h has t o be
accurately form ed around th e w indow.
Sometim es th e w indow fram e is built in to
t he wall as t he surro unding wall is co n-
st ructe d, or else a t emp late is used to avoid
accident al damage t o t he w indow during
const r uction.
A lte rnat ively, t he w indow could be set
int o t he oute r wall const r uction and in t his
MC E 15 2
CD
case needs t o allow wate r t o drain t he t op
of t he opening t o t he sides, as in masonry
cavity wall const r uct ion. In th e previous case,
t he w indow does not have t his addit ional
requirement and so is protected from w ate r
penetration by t he w all it self H ow ever. rain-
wate r needs t o be dr ained at t he bottom of
t he opening, w here a cill is pro vided. The
w indow is lapped over t he cill, ofte n w it h an
additional weat her bar for protection against
w ate r ingress through capillary action.
The w indow can also be set int o a
ste pped reveal.This has t he advantage of giv-
ing greate r construct ion t olerance w hen fit -
tin g th e w indow as we ll as creat ing a lapped
joint between t he structural opening and t he
w indow, w hich is easier to seal th an an equiv-
alent butt joint w here a backing strip is
needed t o give a surface t o w hich t he sealant
can adhere.
3-D views of sliding door junctions
 Details
I. Fixed 'ttl!.
2. Supportong str1.lCtl.n
1
4.
"""""
iosoe
5 """
6 GO
7. Metal stdfenong II'lSef't
8. TIr1'Oe<" onlil proeI
9. Thermal nsUabon
10. SlrlgIe glazed or double
gIa=:Il.II"olt to SUfl applicatJOll
I I. Foor>g bead ~==
12. R..kJber-based s.e,JI
13. Irrw.Ird openong 'ttl!.

---
14. Outwa-dopenr.g 'ttl!.
15. ~ pnxl ccc-se (Df'C)
t 6. Irrtemal inIsh
17. Flas/'wIg toseal~

18, Vett.1Ily slidon& sash

19, 510d0ng door frame top tul&
or bottom roklg
20. 510d0ng wncbN or door jan"b

ve-tcal sectco I:5.Outward opening casement doors

3-D _ of b'J'itler> wndows and doors on waI system

MCE 153
Glass W alls 08
Timbe r w indows

Details
I. Fixed light
2. Supporting structu re
3. Outside
4. Inside
5. Head
6. Cill
7. Metal stiffening insert
8. Timber infill panel

9. Thermal insulat ion

10. Single glazed or double
glazed unit to suit application
I I. Fixing bead
12. Rubber-based seal
13. Inw ard opening light
14. Outward opening light
15. Damp proof course (DPC)
16. Intem al finish
17. Flashing to seal against
adjacent wall
18. Vertically sliding sash
19. Sliding do or frame top hung
or bottom ro lling
20. Sliding window or doo r
jamb
3-D view of storey-height timber window
construction

3-D exploded view of storey-height timber window construction

3-D exploded detail view of storey-height timber window construction at upper 3-D exploded detail view of storey-height timber window
fioor level construction at upper fioor level

MC E 154
 3-D views of tercer w indow ccooectcos to
cavity brick wall (above)
3-D exploded view of timbe r w indow
construction (bek>w)

3·0 view of timber window set in cavrty brick wall

3-D exploded VIew of timber w indow set in cavity

brick wall

--'. '-
...
- ,,
• \-=- 'o',
,\ ", "
"
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~~ •
I
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I ••
•• •
If ' "
I. ~ I ~,
3-D exp loded VIewsof various timber w indow coo strucncn configuratKXIs

MCE 155
CONCRETE WALLS
(I) Cas t in situ I
cast-in-place:
Parapets. drips and aIls
F,"""",
As-cast finish
Washed finish
Polished finish
(2) St o re y height
precast pane ls:
Panel types
Thermal Insulation
Joints
Acid etched finish
(3) Sm all precast/GRe cladding
pane ls'
Individually supported panels
Self supporting stacked panels
Parapets and (ills
Openings
Sand blasted finish and tooled finish

MCE 157
Setting reinforcement Setti~ up formwork Setting up plywood formwork

0)

3-D exploded view of window set in 3-D view of precast concrete wall with vertical windows
precast concrete wall

A n essential difference betw een concrete under standing of form w ork is important t o
r CD and ot her mater ials used in facade const ruc- appreciate how t o cont ro l t he appearance of

\01 r(}tJ'1 (2)

I
tion is th at concrete is poured in place into
mould s, o r into form work rather th an being
manufactured as a standard size compo nent
in a factory.W hereas metal, glass, masonry,
plastics and t imber are made t o standard
0) dimension s in th e form of sheets or sect ions,
concrete is cast,eit her o n site o r in a factory
as precast panels.A lt hough th ere are few
constraints on th e size of a single cast ele-
ment in concrete, in pr actice an essent ial
determin ant of concrete panel size is th e
amo unt of concrete th at can be poured at
o ne tim e.W it h precast concrete th e essent ial
constraint o n panel size is th e we ight th at can
be lift ed by a crane o n site .
3-D view of window set in precast In-sit u concrete is dependent o n th e
concrete wall
form work in w hich th e concrete is cast.A n
joints and of bo lt ho les through th e concrete,
since th e form work is th e negative impres-
sion, or mirror image, of th e final concrete .
Th e design of in-situ concrete walls has
changed in recent years t o include th erm al
insulation, eit her set w it hin th e concrete dur-
ing pouring, o r fixed o n th e int ernal face o r
exte rnal face after th e wa ll has been cast.T he
position of th e insulati on w it hin th e const r uc-
t ion affects th e use of th e th erm al mass of
concrete and its ability t o cont ribute t o night-
t ime coo ling as part of an overall reinforced
concrete st r ucture. Co nt inuity of th erm al
insulati on is increasingly impo rtant in th e
interface w it h glazed openings and doors t o
avoid th erm al bri dging. Continuity of doub le
glazing and th erm al insulati o n in th e concrete

MC E 15 8
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Setting up plywood formwork Setting up formwork Securing formwork Concrete pouring

CD
j

3-D view of window set in precastconcrete wall Vertical section I: IO. Connection between in-
situ wall and window

w all is pro bably th e biggest recent change in
th is form of const r uction in recent years. In-
situ concrete walls are formed as eit her a
structural concrete w all w it h th ermal insula-
ti on on th e inside face w it h an int ernal dry
lining, or as a diaphragm/doub le wall of con-
crete w it h th erma l insulati on set between th e
two skins of concrete .
The first method has th e benefit of econ-
omy,parti cularly w here th e th erm al mass of
th e concrete wa ll is not required for use in
night-t ime coo ling.Th e wall zone for th e insu-
lation can also be used t o fit w indow s,so th at
th e o pening light s and doors do not have t o
be set into specially cast recesses in th e con-
crete , w hich makes it more expensive. Drips
are cast into th e t op s of w indow reveals t o
reduce st aining t o th e adjacent wall beneath
caused by rainw ater run off from dust th at
accumulate s on flat surfaces. Parapets have
metal copings th at prevent staining o n th e
w all beneath by directing rainw ater to w ards
a gutter immediately behind th e parapet.
D etails
W it h th e second meth od, in-sit u con-
I. Concrete external wall
crete walls are form ed as 'sandwi ch' walls 2. Concrete internal wall
3. Thermal insulation
w it h int ernal insulati on.Th ese have eit her
4. W indow frame
insulation brok en by st rips of concrete th at 5. W aterproof membrane
6. Metal parapet flashing
link across th e two skins (forming limit ed
7. Internal finish
th erm al brid ges) o r are formed as two sepa- 8. Metal cill
9. Drip
rate concrete skins linked o nly by stainless
10. Metal lined gutter
stee l brackets and t ies.The second ty pe is
increasingly popul ar as it avoids th erm al
br idging w it h it s associate d risk of co ndensa-
ti on forming o n th e inside of th e w all, in t em-
perate climates.

MC E 159
Concrete curing Setting up formwork Concrete poured

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Vert ical section I : IO. In-situ concrete wall constructi on,

o 0 ..
Elevation I :50. In-situ cast concrete wall
cast in two skins with rigid closed cell
insulation between skins
junction at ground level. In-situ cast concrete wall cast in
two skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
Vertical section I :50. In-situ concrete
wall cast in two skins with rigid closed
cell insulation between skins

Parapets, drips and cil ls
Th e detailing of openings, parapets and cills
fo llow s th e same pr inciples for a single wall
of struct ural co ncrete w it h intern al th erm al
insulation. W hen co ncrete is used as an
exposed exte rnal finish, cills, parapets and
drips are detailed t o ensure th at rainw ater is
thrown as clear as possible from th e exte rnal
wall surface.W hen an addit ional o ute r mate-
rial is used, typically a rainscreen in a w ide
range of mater ials, th e concrete wa ll can be
fo rmed eco nomically w it h no regard fo r visu-
dust in adjacent areas of wa ll. If overhangs are
not a part of th e design, th en w at er from
hori zont al o r slight ly sloping surfaces is
th rown clear of th e wa ll by proj ecting cills
and flashings.In highly pol luted enviro nme nt s,
dust -catching wa ll t extures are usually avoid-
ed. and smoot h finishes are ofte n preferred.
However, w here pr otect ive treatment s are
applied t o th e concrete t o reduce po ro sity,
thi s can lead t o greate r run -off acro ss th e
facade w hich can increase staining, and must
be t aken into account in th e design of th e

3-D view of In-situ cast concrete wall cast
in two skinswith rigid closed cell insulation
between skins
al appearance, since th e mater ial is not visible.
Since hori zont al o r slight ly sloping surfac-
es catc h dust, roo f overhangs and deep eaves
are ofte n inco rporat ed int o th e design t o
avoid wash-o ff from rain. Du st washed away
by rainw ater causes th e deposit of dirt and
exte rnal wa ll.
Finishes
Th e main influence in th e base co lour of
co ncrete used for wa ll co nst ruct ion is in th e
cho ice of ceme nt, w it h fair-faced visible co n-

MC E 160
 D eta ils
I. Concrete external wall
2. Concrete internal wall
3. Thermal insulation
4. Window frame
5. Waterproof membrane
6. Metal parapet flashing
7. Internal finish
8. Metal cill
9. Drip
10. Metal lined gutter

+
Moving formwork up to higher fioors

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Vertical section I :IO. In-situ concrete wall window/door Vertical section I :IO. Junction at parapet level for typical wall
condition . In-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skinswith condition . In-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skinswith
rigid closed cell insulation between skins rigid closed cell insulation between skins

cret e wa lls using eit her a grey cement base
or a w hit e ceme nt base.Th e physical prop-
ert ies of th ese t w o cement types are very
sim ilar.
The colour of finished concret e from a
grey cement base is also grey, as expected,
but thi s can vary w it h th e w ate r/cement
ratio, th e porosity of th e shuttering,vibrat ion
condit ions,formw ork stripping t ime and
we at her condit ions.Th e grey type can also
blacken w it h rain due t o th e presence of iro n
oxide. How ever.grey cement based archit ec-
tural quality co ncret e can achieve an even
colour w hen pourin g method s and condi-
ti on s are kept consistent. W hen grey cement
is used w it h a mod erate t o high level of pig-
ment conte nt. as-cast o r treated co ncret es
are much less prone t o co lo ur variat ions due
t o th e st ro ng covering capacity of th e pig-
ments.W hit e cement is much more expen-
sive th an grey cement but it is not subject t o
th e colour variat io ns of grey cement. nor is it
subject t o rain darkening.
Th e most commo n finishes used for in-
sit u cast concret es are an as-cast finish, a
w ashed finish and a po lished finish.The less
commo n t ypes are descr ibed in th e fo llow ing
sect ions o n precast panels, but can also be
used for in-sit u cast concrete wa lls, depend-
ing o n th e ability t o w o rk o n large areas of 3-D view of metal flashingon in-situ cast
complete d wall surface. concrete wall cast in two skinswith rigid
closed cell insulation between skins
As-cast fi nish
Smooth co ncrete finishes can have th eir sur-
faces broken by small air bubbles of
ent rained air, but th ese hardly affect th e sur-

MC E 161
 CD
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to.
4
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to.
to.
4

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Horiz ontal section I: I0, In-situ concrete wall condition at window jamb, In-situ cast concrete wall cast in two
skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skin

CD

CD
4 c,
to.
4

L
to.
to. 4

4
to.
to.
4 t:

Vert ical section I: I0, In-situ concrete wall

3-D view of window in an in-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skinswith r igid closed cell insulation between skin junction at window, In-situ cast concrete
wall cast as a monolithic construction with
internal thermal insulation

D etails
I, Concrete external wall
2, Concrete internal wall
3. Thermal insulation face any more th an w ould be foun d in natu - mix, including wate r, and th e care in pr eparing
4, W indow frame
5, W aterproof membrane ral sandstones and limest o nes, Co lour varia- and setting t he formwork,
6, Metal parapet flashing ti ons from th e use of grey ceme nt result not Textured surfaces w it h eit her a shallow
7, Internal finish
8, Met al cill from its natur al co lour, but its co lour afte r o r deeper conto ured profi le can be form ed
9, Drip pouring, and from fine part icles of sand eit her w it h specially fabricated shuttering
10, Met al lined gutter
becomin g segregat ed in certa in areas as a boards o r w it h an addit ional lining th at is set
result of vibrat ion, If th ese fine particles o n th e inside face of th e shuttering boards,
appear in th e face of t he w all. a marbling against w hich th e concrete is poured.A n
effect similar t o th at of natur al sto ne w ill addit ional lining is usually flexible and is made
occur. If th e parti cles are different from th e of eit her polystyrene board, w hich can be
shade of th e facing, staining w ill occur.As a used only o nce, o r po lyureth ane sheet o r sili-
result, th e t inting of clear mixtures w it h fine co ne rubb er sheet w hich can be used several
particl es of dark sand is avoided. Smoot h t imes, Silicone ru bber mou lds are made by
co ncrete is usually self-co loured, at least in pouring th e mater ial int o a positive-shaped
large areas,t o avoid co lour variat ions associ- mould made from a non-coh esive material
ate d w it h using pigment addit ives, Smooth such as sand, making it s use expensive, but
and visually co nsistent natural finishes are capable of forming comp lex forms in th e sur-
Ax onomet ric view of window jamb in an achieved largely by both t he accuracy of t he face of as-cast co ncrete ,Joint s between th ese
in-situ concrete wall
prop ortion s of th e mater ials in th e co ncrete specially-made shuttering boards are usually

MC E 162
 3-D view of window and external cill
3-D view of window junction in an in-situ concrete wall cast as a mono-
lithic construction with internal thermal insulation
forrned as grooves to avo id uneven and
blurred lines resulting from attempt ing to
bo nd th eir edges.
W ashed fini sh
The washing-o ut or deactivation of fresh
co ncrete is carried o ut in two ways, eit he r
wit h 'faces shuttered' o r wit h 'face s not shut-
te red' .The faces shuttered meth od involves
t he app lication of a product on th e shutt e r
pane ls t hat deactivates, retards o r eliminate s
hydration of t he ce me nt.The prod uct is
applied wit h e it he r a bru sh or by spraying.
After stripping t he shuttering, t he exte rnal
faces are was hed w it h a wate r jet w hich
re moves t he hyd rat ed skin and, dep e nding o n
how deep th e effect of t he deactivator is,
revea ls eit he r th e grains of sand o r, more
co mmo nly, t he coarse aggregate .
3-D view of window junction in an in-situ concrete wall cast as a mono-
lithic construction with internal thermal insulation
The faces not shutte red method is don e
eit he r by spraying deactivator o n t he gree n
(fresh) co ncrete and washing it as just
described. or by direct washing before th e
ceme nt has fully set. Usually t he meth od is
co mplete d wit h a last was h using an aqueo us
acid so lut ion in o rde r to re move traces of
hydrated ceme nt so iling th e ex pose d aggre-
gate, leaving sta ins o n t he o utside face .W he n
this is co mpleted, th e mineralogical nature of
t he coarse aggregate is exposed, w hich gives
a textured appea rance . Som e aggregates,
such as limesto ne , can becom e du lled or
change co lour o n co ntact wit h t he acid. In
deep washing, this meth od is parti cular ly suit-
able for bringing o ut t he visual characte ristics
of coa rse aggregate . It leads to a very differ-
3-D view of window junction in an in-situ con-
e nt fini sh dep ending o n the shape , eit he r crete wall cast as a monolithic construction with
crushed o r rolled , t he mineralogical type (sili- internal thermal insulation
MC E 16 3
Concrete VIa Is 0 I
Cast in-situ / cast-in-place L

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Vertical section I: I 0. Junction at parapet level for typical wall condition .
In-situ cast concrete wall cast as a monolithic construction with internal
thermal insulation

3-D view of parapet junction of an in-situ cast concrete wall cast as a

monolithic construction with internal thermal insulation

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Horizontal section I: I0, Junction at window jamb, In-situ cast con- 3-D view of parapet junction of an in-situ cast concrete wall cast as a
crete wall cast as a monolithic construction with internal thermal monolithic construction with internal thermal insulation
insulation

ca o r limestone), particle size, but also th e
mix composit ion in t erm s of th e density of
stones revealed on th e surface.
Polished fin ish
honeycombing.A fte r th is filler has hardened,
th e surface is again po lished w it h successively
finer grains.As th e scrat ches are removed,
th e colo urs of aggregate reveal th emselves,
but th e surface does not shine naturally.The

/
3-D detail view of window jamb in an in-situ cast
concrete wall cast as a monolithic construction with
internal thermal insulation
Concrete wa lls can be po lished t o vary ing
amo unts of smoot hness by abrasive grinding,
using a grinding w heel w hich is lubricat ed by
wate r.The oute r skin of th e co ncrete is
removed by abrasion t o a depth of between
I mm and 2mm, w it h o ne pass of a grinding
w heel w hich ex poses some of th e fine and
coarse aggregate behind th e surface.A sec-
o nd pass w it h a finer abrasion disc removes
th e big scratc hes left by th e fir st pass, w hich
are parti cularly visible o n darker surfaces.
W it h polishing by disc, a filler is applied t o th e
surface t o fill th e air bubb le pockets and small
co ncrete wa ll surface can, however, be made
shiny by th e applicat ion of a varnish. Co n-
crete walls can be polished further t o create
a sat in finish and even further t o pro vide a
gloss finish.A protective clear coat ing can
also be applied at th is po int
Po lishing is easier t o apply o n flat surfaces
th an o n ro ughened o r curve d areas of co n-
crete . Polishing exposes th e colo ur of th e
minerals w it hin t he co ncrete , giving rich co l-
o ur effects from th e ceme nt, th e sand, and
th e coarse aggregate materi als in th e mix.
Th is method pr ovides a self-coloured finish

MC E 164
 3-D detail view of concrete wall construction and junction with window fiush to exterior face

Vertical section I:IO. In-situ loadbearing concrete

wall with window flush to external face

D etails
I. Concrete external wall
2. Concrete internal wall
3. Thermal insulation
Hori zontal section I:IO. In-situ loadbearing concrete wall with window flush to external face
4. W indow frame
5. W at erproof membrane
6. Metal parapet flashing
7. Internal finish
8. Metal cill
9. Drip
10. Metal lined gutter

w it h a surface t hat is less prone t o ret ain

dust. w hich w ashes off, causing staining, and is
easy to rnaintain by sirnple wa shing, und er-
t aken using th e sarne rnethods o f rnainte-
nance access used for glazed w alls. 3-D view of in-situ loadbearing concrete wall junction with window flush to exterior face

3-D section view of in-situ loadbearing concrete wall junction with window flush to internal face

MC E 165
- - ·Concrete Walls Or-- - - - -,
Cast in-situ Icast-in-Rlace

)-0 view of in-situ cast concrete w,J.11 cast in )-0 exploded view of concrete wall in-situ cast concrete wall
two skOris with rigid closed cell insulation GIst in two sons with ngJd closed cell insulation between skim
between skins

)-0 view of in-situcastconcrete wa ll cast in two

skins with ngid closed cell insulation between skins
)-0 exploded \/lew 0 precast concretewall in-situcastconcrete wall
cast in two skins with r igid closed cell insulation betweenskins

)-0 view of concrete wall frame detail 3-D lirtedrawingof concretewall frame detail 3-D exploded view of concrete wall frame detail

Me E 166
3-D view of loadbearing concrete wall gutter detail

3-D exploded loadbearing concrete wall gutter detail

Exploded axonometric view of loadbearing concrete wall gutter detail

Details
I. Concrete external wall
2. Concrete internal wall
3. Thermal insulation
4. Window frame
5. Waterproof membrane
6. Metal parapet flashing
7. Int ernal finish
8. Metal cill
9. Drip
10. Metal lined gutter

3-D view of loadbearing concrete wall cill detail

3-D exploded view of loadbearing concrete wall cill detail

Exploded axonometric view of loadbearing concrete wall cill detail

MC E 167
Concrete ails 02
Storey height precast pane ls

D etails
I. Concrete floor deck
2. Precast concrete panel
'. 3. Thermal insulation
4. Vertical bafflejoint between
panels
5. Vertical butt joint between panels
6. Horizontal lap joint
7. Horizontal butt joint
8. Window opening
9. Stainless steel dowel or angle
10. Rubber-based baffle
I I. EPDM or silicone-based seal
12, Concrete column
I 3. Concrete corner panel
3-D view of precast concrete cladding panels 14. Concrete coping
15. Roof assembly

W hile in-situ concrete is a loadbearing form
of construction, precast concrete can be
formed as eit her loadbearing wa lls o r as non -
loadbearing cladding panels. Loadbearing
panels are increasingly popu lar, since th ey
provide a weat hert ight st r uctural wall w it h
high fire resistance combined w it h high
acoustic insulation and th erm al mass. In load-
bearing const r uction, panels are stitc hed
to gether to form a monolithic st ructural w all.
N on -Ioadbearing cladding panels have main-
t ained th eir popul arity by providing greate r
freedom in design, from th e visual point of
view, th an th e struct ural constraints imposed
on loadbearing panels.
Loadbearing types consist of units
stacked t ogether t o suppo rt floors by trans-
ferring th eir own we ight and a floor loading
t o a found ation.Th e unit/fl oor connect ion is
usually made w it h a pin joint rather th an a
mom ent (rigid) jo int since th ese are difficult
t o create in precast concrete , as th e amo unt
and length of built-in reinforcement is high,
as we ll as th e fact th at th e t ensile forces
w it hin th e unit can be high.Th e hori zontal
stability, w hich is not provided by th e pin
joint, is usually pro vided by serv ice co res
elsewhere in a building. In addition t o floor-
height loadbearing panels,loadbearing pre-
cast spandrel panels are used.Th ese are in
effect st r uct ural beams spanning betw een
columns. Principles of connect io ns t o floor
slabs are th e same as for full-height panels,
but loads from th e panels and flo ors are
t aken back t o st r uct ural columns rather th an
down through th e wa ll panels.
N on-loadbearing cladding panels are
fixed back t o th e prim ary struct ure eit her by
concrete brackets forming an integral part of
th e panel, by stainless stee l br ackets, o r by a
combinat ion of both .Typically panels are sup-
ported o n an edge beam at th e base of each
panel and are restrained at th e t op w it h
stainless steel brackets. Some cladding panels
are t op hung in order t o benefit from th e
t ensile qualities of th e stee l reinforcement o r
fram ing. Cladding panels are usually made t o
span o ne storey high, w it h a w idt h or height
of panel up t o a maximum of 3600mm in
o rder th at th e panel can be transported o n a
standard fiat trailer. In addit ion, we ight usually
has a maximum of aro und 10 tonn es t o pre-
vent cracking durin g lifting and t o allow a reg-
ular site crane t o be used.
Pane l t ypes
Precast concrete panels are formed mainly
by eit her forming th e finish in th e bottom of
th e mould,th e t op of th e mou ld w it h anot h-
er material t o th e face of th e panel, o r as an
insulat ed sandw ich panel.
Bottom form ed panels,w here th e finish is
set o n th e bottom of th e mould, are used
w here addit ional linings,ty pically polystyrene
board, po lyurethane sheet o r silicone rubb er
sheet, as descr ibed in th e t ext on in-sit u cast
concrete , are used t o create a t extured sur-
face in th e face of th e panel. Som etimes,
ceramic t iles o r sto nes are laid in th e bottom
of th e panel in ord er t o bond to th e con-
crete poured o n t op.Th e small size of t erra-
cotta o r ceramic til es allows th em t o be laid
at th e bottom of th e mould and be individu-
ally bond ed t o th e concrete .
In t op form ed panels,an additi onal deco-
rative layer is applied t o th e t op of th e
poured concrete. Th e thi ckness of th e deco-
rative layer is usually 25mm - 30mm .The

MC E 16 8
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
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junction with window

MC E 169
Concrete a s 02
Storey height precast panels

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Horizontal section I :10. Concrete Horizontal section I: IO. Concrete wall with precast concrete cladding panels.showing
wall with precast concrete cladding junction with window
panels

concrete in th e decorative layer is minimised insulati on is set between th e decorative and

since it is usually much more expensive t han structural layers of concrete .This removes
grey st r uctural concrete .A lte rnat ively, larger t he th erm al bri dge across th e panel and, if
D etails
I. Concrete floor deck scale facing pieces t han t hose w hich can be t he int erio r concrete face is exposed, pro-
2. Precast concrete panel
bond ed directly to th e concrete in t he bot - vides a t hermal mass for night -tim e coo ling in
3. Thermal insulation
4. Vertical baffle joint between t om of t he panel, such as t erracotta, ceram ic th e building.Th e t emperatur e of th e o ute r

5.
panels
Vertical butt joint between panels
til es or natural st o ne, are mechanically fixed lining can reach abo ut 70 0 e in summer t ime,
6. Horizontal lap joint t o th e top of th e concrete in th e mou ld as a depending o n geographical locati o n.The
7. Horizontal butt joint
deco rative finish. D ue t o its larger size and sandw ich panel ensures t hat th e o ute r facing
8. W indow opening
9. Stainless steel dowel or angle we ight, sto ne is usually fixed w it h pins o r o nly is suscept ible t o th erm al movement, th e
10. Rubber-based baffle
stainless steel brackets back t o th e precast cont inuous insulati o n is kept dr y and th e
I I. EPDM or silicone-based seal
12. Concrete column panel.Th e greate r size of st o ne panels over inner massive loadbearing st ruct ure is pro-
13. Concrete corner panel
t iles makes th em suscept ible t o relatively sig- t ected from exte rnal t emperatur e variat ions,
14. Concrete coping
15. Roof assembly nificant th erm al movement for w hich t he pins reducing its ow n th erm al movement. In addi-
o r brackets allow. t ion th e th erm al capacity of th e inner struc-
A not her meth od of construction is t o ture provides a regulation of t emp erature
form an insulat ed sandw ich panel w here th e variat ions w it hin th e building from int ernal
inner part of th e wall is loadbearing.T hermal heat ing and heat sources by absorbing sur-

MC E 17 0
 3-D detail cutaway view of concrete wall with precast concrete cladding panels
Horizontal section I : IO. Concrete wall with precast concrete panel, junction with shadow gap
pluses and suppleme nt ing deficiencies. Exte r-
nal t emp erature changes in th e daily cycle
can be absorbed by th e o ute r layer,w it h th e
th erm al insulati on keeping th e int ernal heat
in and exte rnal solar radiation out.
T hermal Insulat io n
Both loadbearing and non-Ioadbearing ty pes
w it hout integral insulation have th erm al insu-
lati o n fixed t o th e int ernal face of th e con-
crete wa ll. How ever,th e t herm al mass of th e
const r uction is lost.W here an addit ional
exte rnal finish is used, ty pically a rainscreen
panel in anot her material,th e th erm al insula-
ti on can be set o n th e o utside of th e precast
panels, w hich maintains th e ability t o use th e
th erm al mass of t he int erio r face of t he wa ll.
W hen th erm al insulati o n is set on t he
3-D view of fixing elements
CD
inside face of precast panels, w indows can be
set directly above th e insulation, avoiding th e
need t o fit th e w indow direct ly into th e
o pening in th e concrete .Th e w indow, ty pical-
ly aluminium or t imber, has metal pro files th at
form a cill th at is cont inuous w it h t he w in-
dow, avoiding any source of leaks across th e
gap between w indow and precast panel.
W here w indows are set directly into o pen- 3-D view of fixing element s
ings in precast panels, th e o pening often has a
rebate (ste p) cast int o th e edge t o provide
more protection against rainw ater penetrat-
ing th e joint.
Joint s
Jo int s betw een panels are of o pen or closed
t ype.The o pen type has an inner membrane
seal and an o ute r flexible mastic seal o n th e
MC E 171
Concrete a s 02
Storey height precast panels
@ @
_______ ....r~~
Horizontal section I: IO. Panel junction at corners. Horizontal section I: I O. Panel junction at corners.
In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid
closed cell insulation between skins closed cell insulation between skins
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Ho ri zontal section I : IO. Panel junction at corners. Horizontal section I : I O. Panel junction at corners.
In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid
closed cell insulation between skins closed cell insulation between skins
inner face.Th e closed ty pe has a single o ute r
seal of flexi ble mastic.T hese principles apply
t o both vertical and hori zo nt al joi nt s. In t he
hori zont al joint s,a st ep in th e panel may be
provided t o assist in weat her t ightn ess of
panels, w hich are upw ards o f I SOmm t hick.
Minimum join t w idt hs are typically I O-1 2m m
thi ck for panels ranging from 1800m m w ide
to 2400m m w ide, increasing t o a joint w idt h
of 16-1 8mm for panels 600 0mm w ide.T hese
w idt hs help reduce visually any var iat ions in
th e w idt h o f t he joint as a result of joinin g
Vert ical section I: IO. Panel-to-panel junctions. In-
situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid panels.Visually, joint s are recessed as shadow
closed cell insulation between skins
gaps in o rder t o co nceal small differences of
alignme nt between panels.
Open joint s are int ernally drained and
vent ilate d in th e manner of uniti sed cur tain
wa lling. In an o pen joint, w indblown rain is
MC E 172
..-------0 0- - - -
®
Horizontal section I : IO. Panel-to-pan el junctions.
In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid
closed cell insulation between skins
__- - -}0 ---;
Ho ri zontal section I : IO. Panel-to-pa nel junctions.
In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid
-----;0 --....,
Horizontal section I : IO. Panel-to-panel junctions.
In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with r igid
closed cell insulation between skins
allowed t o pass th rou gh an o ute r gap
between two panels t hat form a vert ical joint.
A n EPD M baffle str ip is set int o a cont inuo us
slot formed in th e edges of two adjacent
panels and 3wate r ente r ing t his joi nt, w hich
form s an inner cham ber. is drained away from
t he slot and o ut t hro ugh th e ho rizont al joi nt
below.The int eri o rface of th e joint is eit her
closed w ith an air seal formed using wet o r
extr uded silico ne, in th e case of a non -load-
bear ing cladding panel, o r is mechanically
fixed t o t he panel below and gro ute d w it h a
ceme nt-based mat er ial in t he case of load-
bear ing panels.
H ori zontal o pen joints bet w een panels
are m ade by fo rm ing a ste p in t he pro files o f
th e t op and bottom edges o f adjacent panels
in o rder to drain water out o f bot h vertical
 ."
D etails
I,
2,
v,
3.
4,
5,
6,
7,
8,
9,
10,
I I,
I 2,
I 3.
14,
15,
<,
3-D views of corner junction
between precast panels
Horizontal section I:25, Joint between precast concrete panels
and hori zont al joints as we ll as t o prevent
rainw ater from fiow ing directly through th e
jo int.Th e horizontal st epped jo int is used for
both loadbearing and non -loadbearing ty pe
panels,but th e detail varies w it h th e way th e
upper panel is eit her suppo rte d on th e lower
panel in a loadbearing panel o r is separate d
from th e low er panel in a non -Ioadbearing
panel. How ever.th e general pr inciple for all
panel ty pes remains th e same.T his ensures
th at wate r runn ing down th e EPDM baffles in
th e vert ical joints is drained o ut w here it
meets th e horizontal jo ints,A cont inuous
horizontally-set EPD M strip is set on th e
inner face of th e joint. in th e to p of th e lower
panel.The EPD M st rip in th e ver t ical joint is
lapped over th e face of th e EPD M o n th e
horizontal jo int. The rear of th e joint. adjacent
Concrete fioor deck
Precast concrete panel
Thermal insulation
Vert ical baffle joint between
panels Horizontal section I: I0, Joint between precast panels
Vert ical butt joint between panels
Horizontal lap joint
Horizontal butt joint
W indow opening
Stainless steel dowel or angle
Rubber-based baffle
EPDM or silicone-based seal
Concrete column
Concrete corner panel
Concrete coping
Roof assembly
- - - - - - -0 - - - -
Hori zontal section I: I0, Conn ection between
precast concrete panel and window
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Horizontal section I:25, Connection between precast concrete panel and building structure
t o th e interior face of th e panel is eit her
closed w it h an air seal as for vert ical jo ints, o r
is mechanically fixed t o th e panel below and
gro uted in th e same w ay as th e vertical joints,
Closed jo ints are sealed o n th e o utside
face w it h a wet applied silicone o r polysul-
phide sealant. A ny wate r th at penetrates th is
o ute r seal is drained away in th e void behind.
Wate r is released th rough wee p holes (small
holes) in th e hori zontal joints, Closed joints
are more commo nly used w it h loadbearing
panel const ruct ion w here panels are bond ed
3-D view of junction between precast panels
t ogether at jo ints and w here most of th e
jo int is required t o be filled t o provide struc-
tural continuity from panel t o panel.
MC E 173
 Concrete a Is 02
Storey height precast panels
---""I' -,
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Vertical section I :25. W all to floor connection with Vertical section I:25. W all to floor connec-
sandwich insulation t ion with insulation on inner face
Acid etched finish
In addition t o the finishes described in t he
previous sectio n o n in-situ cast finishes,
w hich can also be used in pr ecast panels,
acid et ching is possible. Ac id et ching is parti c-
ularly we ll adapte d t o precast panels since
t hey are cast flat. w here acid treatments can
be carefully co nt ro lled.
In cured panels,the surface of t he precast
co ncrete is treated wit h hydroch loric acid,
wh ich is t hen rinsed off.T his met hod fir st
removes th e ceme nt skin, th en strips away
th e grains of sand w it hin t he co ncrete
beneat h. depending o n t he co ncent ration of
t he acid solut ion and length of t ime fo r w hich
it is applied.T he acid etch ing method can be
3-D view of precast concrete wall
used to create either a weat hered finish or
MC E 174
3-D view of precast concrete wall
an acid w ashed finish.A w eat hered co ncret e
effect is prod uced by submerg ing a precast
conc rete panel in an acid bath.This pro cess is
most commo nly used w hen all faces of t he
unit need t o be treated.W it h acid washed
co ncretes. a gel co ntaining acid is applied t o
the surface to be t reat ed.T his meth od is we ll
adapted to treatment o n specific areas of
co ncret e. to form a surface texture or pat-
tem o n th e con crete w all.
Aci d etc hing is we ll suited to exposing
small aggregate in th e panel surface by
ex posing o nly a small amo unt of th e con-
crete t exture beneath its skin after casting
has t aken place.T he precipitation of salts
fro m the acid-cement and aggregates quickly
neutral ises thi s,w hich can only be co nti nued
 ---- ------ --------
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Vertical section I: 10. Junction between
panels.Panels insulat ion on inside face
3-D view of junct ion at window jamb, In-situ
cast concrete wall cast in two skinswith rigid
closed cell insulation between skins t> ~
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Vert ical section I : IO. Junction between
Verti cal section I: 10. Junction between
panels. Panels insulation on inside face
panels. Panels insulat ion on inside face

Vert ical section I : IU, Junction at parapet level for t ypical wall
condition and for window jamb, In-situ cast concrete wall cast
in two skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
by rin sing and applying more acid. Ac id etc h-
ing always requires rin sing t o rem ove th e
D etails
precipitated salts and neutralise th e surface. I, Concrete floor deck
2, Precast concrete panel
Ac id etc hing attacks limest o ne aggregate s,
3. Thermal insulation
and somet imes more quickly th an th e 4, Vert ical baffle joint between
panels
ceme nt, w hile th e silica-based aggregate
5, Vert ical butt joint between panels
rem ains.Th e surface t exture can be quite dif- 6, Horizontal lap joint
7, Horizontal butt joint
ferent, dependin g on th e fine aggregate mate-
8, W indow opening
rial, being more granulate d in th e case of sili- 9, Stainless steel dowel or angle
10. Rubber-based baffle
ca and less co loured in th e case of limeston e.
I I. EPDM or silicone-based seal
I 2. Concrete column
I 3. Concrete corner panel Vertical section I: I0, Junction at window jamb,
14. Concrete coping In-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skins with
15. Roof assembly rigid closed cell insulation between skins

MC E 175
Concrete ails 01
Storey height precast panels

3D view of precast concrete wall

Exploded axonometric of wall assembly

3D detail view of precast concrete wall

3D detail view of precast concrete wall

3-D exploded view of wall assembly

MC E 17 6
 Details
I. Concrete floor deck
2. Precast concrete panel
3. Thermal insulation
4. Vertical baffle joint between
panels
5. Vertical butt joint between panels
6. Horizonta l lap joint
7. Horizontal butt joint
8. W indow opening
9. Stainless steel dowel or angle
10. Rubber-based baffle
I I. EPDM or silicone-based seal
I 2. Concrete column
I 3. Concrete comer panel
14. Concrete coping
15. Roof assembly

3-D exploded view of concrete wall with

precast concrete cladding panels

Seriesof compo nents of wall assembly

Internal concrete wall Hanger Bolts Window Precast concrete panels

MCE 177
Concrete ails 03
Small precast / GRC cladding panels
3-D view of wall with small precast cladding panels
3-D view of wall with small precast cladding panels
Smaller precast panels than those used in
sto rey height sizes have been undergoing
considerable developm ent over th e past 20
years.T hey are made as eit her individually
suppo rte d panels o r as self-suppo rt ing
stacked panels.
Individually suppo r te d panels are fixed
direct ly to a background suppo rt ing wa ll. usu-
ally fo rmed eit her in reinforced concrete o r
in co ncrete block. Panels are usually o pen
joint ed t o allow t hem t o dry easily afte r wet-
tin g in rain and t o allow rainw ater to dr ain
easily down t he backs of t he panels or dow n
t he face of t he backing wall. Spandrel panels
are usually part of a propri etar y precast co n-
crete system of frame, floo r slab and spandrel
panel, w it h ribbo n w indows added as sepa-
rate elements, or full-height glazing in areas
w here sprinklers are not required. Self sup-
porting panels are a more recent develop -
ment and com prise precast panels w hich are
stacked togeth er in t he manner of metal
com posite panels,w it h a t ongue-and-groove
co nnect io n between panels in t he hori zo nt al
joints.Th ese panels have th e advantage of
having int ern al insulati on t oget her w it h
MCE 17 8
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
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exte rnal and intern al faces th at require no
further t reatment.
Individually support ed panels
T his system allows narrower joi nt s t o be
form ed between panels th an t hose possible
in full-height panels, and allow a varied, non -
rectangular layo ut t o be used w it h a joint
pattern independent of t he backing w all. Indi-
vidually suppo rted panels use a fixing met hod
w hich is similar t o stone cladding panels, but
w it h th e po ssibility of much bigger panel sizes.
N at ural stone cladding is limit ed to sizes t hat
can be cut from a stone block, w hich is usual-
ly aro und 2000mm x 2000mm x 2000mm,
depending o n stone ty pe.T his yields stones
w hich are a maximum of aro und 1500m m x
750mm, o r 1500mm x 1000mm depending
o n t he strength of t he stone. Precast co n-
crete panels can be much larger,t ypically
1500m m x 3000m m w hich can be suppo rt-
ed on stainless steel fixings back t o floor slabs
and th e prim ary st r ucture.A n advantage of
precast co ncrete over natural stone in small-
er panels is th at corne r units and non -rectan-
gular shaped units can be form ed mo re easily
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and eco nomically th an in stone, th ough th e
number of panel typ es is restricted for any
proj ect in o rder to keep th e syste m eco-
nomi c. Small precast co ncrete rainscreen
panels are used increasingly in apart me nt
buildings w here large areas of o paque wall
can be given a high degree of finish in t he
material w hile benefiting from th e cast ing
ability of t he mat erial.
Panels are most commo nly fixed w it h
stainless steel angles w hich are eit her cast-in
o r are bo lted to th e co ncrete .Th e angles are
secured t o br ackets fixed t o a backing w all.
Slotted holes provide adjust ment vert ically,
hori zontally and lat erally These panels have
t he advantage of being able t o have a rich
surface t exture as a result of t he casting
pro cess in an individual mou ld. Slots,gro oves
and complex profi ling can be inco rpo rat ed in
th e manner of profi led metal cladding. Back-
ing walls are usually wate rproofed in t he
o ute r face. Closed cell th erm al insulation is
set o n th e outside of thi s t o insulate th e
building struct ure.A n alte rnat ive meth od is
t o use metal foi l faced insulation w hich is
semi-rigid.T he insulati o n is fixed direct ly t o
 Details
I. Backing wall r
2. Precast concrete panel
3. Closed cell thermal insula
tion
4. Vertical joint open or
closed type
5. Horizontal joint (typically a
lap) open or closed type '" l
6. Internal finish
7. Window frame t>
8. Reinforced concrete
column
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10. Metal parapet coping
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concrete wall construction. Small-
scale panels with sealed joint

MC E 179
Concrete a s 03
Small precast / GRC cladding panels

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Horizontal, vertical sections & elevation I:SO. Glass reinforced concrete (GRC) panels with
open joints

D et ails
th e blockwork backing wall, w it h an oute r Self supporting stacked panels
I. Backing wall metal foil face th at provides th e full weat her Stacked panels have th e advantage of being
2. Precast concrete panel
3. Closed cell thermal insula
protection.Joint s between st rips of insulati o n suppo rted at th e base of th e wall in single
tion are sealed w it h adhesive fo il t ape. floor buildings up t o around 10 metres, and
4. Vertical joint open or
closed type
Like stone cladding, panels are usually at every floor level in buildings of more th an
5. Horizontal joint (typically a suppo rte d o n sho rt lengths of stainless steel o ne st orey. W hen suppo rted at th eir base,
lap) open or closed type
6. Internal finish angle at each floor level, back t o th e floor stacked panels are set on a concrete beam
7. W indow frame slab.Thi s overco mes t he risk of pro gressive o r st rip found ation forming part of t he pri-
8. Reinforced concrete
column collapse of a cladding panel, w here a failure mary structure. Panels are stacked w it h con-
9. Metal corner t rim in o ne panel wo uld cause it t o drop o nto t inuous vert ical jo ints w here th ey are
10. Metal parapet coping
I I. Concrete fioor deck th e panel below, causing furth er collapse restrained by columns,in eit her reinforced
I 2. A djacent panel in down th e facade. Panels at floor level are concrete o r stee l, but concrete is more com-
different material
I 3. W at erproof membrane fixed directly t o th e slab, w it h fixings mon due t o th e greate r ease of connecting
14. Precast concrete coping designed so th at th ey can t ake th e full load th e panels t o th e pr imary st r ucture.Th e need
of th e panels imm ediately above , in th e t o suppo rt panels at jo ints results in th eir
event of fixings t o panels above failing eit her being w ide in o rde r t o maximise th e distance
partially o r complete ly. between columns, o r suppo rt posts.As a
result t hey are not very t all in o rder to

MC E 18 0
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reduce th eir w eight t o th at w hich can be lift-
ed by a mod est sized crane, typ ically w it h a
lifting capacity of 4 t o 6 t onn es.
The th erm al insulati o n in panels does not
create a complete th erm al break from o ut -
side t o inside, since th e concrete block has
concrete faces o n it s t op and bottom edges
in o rder t o ser ve as a method of creat ing a
t ongue and groove jo int in th e horizontal
jo ints. If th e concrete panel we re formed as a
sandw ich panel th en mechanical fixings,such
as stainless st eel cramps, wo uld be needed
both t o hold th e two sides of th e concrete
panel t ogether and t o connect th em t ogeth-
er as th ey are stacked vert ically.T his wo uld
create a diaphragm wall rather th an a mon o-
lit hic loadbearing wa ll, making it much more
expensive as a result of all th e mechanical fix-
ings needed. However.th e th erm al brid ge
across th e vert ical and horizontal joints in th e
panel can result in pattern staining as th e
result of heat transmission acrossth e panel.
This is parti cularly noti ceable o n th e intern al
face of th e panel.
Stacked panels fabricated in th icknesses
of 75mm t o IOOmm can form part of a com-
plete cavity wall const ruction of 200mm -
300mm th ickness w hen used as a self-sup-
porting oute r skin.The inner wa ll can vary
w idely in it s construction from concrete
block t o light gauge metal st ud w all w it h a
w at erproofed o ute r facing.Th e cavity
between th e oute r concrete panel w all and
th e inner backing wa ll has a vent ilate d cavity
Vertical section I : IO. Parapet and panel-to-panel
of 50mm - 75mm w idt h.Th e cavity is vent i-
joint. Glass reinforced concrete (GRC) panels with
lated at th e t op and bottom of th e wall. open joints

MC E 181
Concrete a s 3
Small precast/GRC cladding panels

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Th e detailing of parapets and cills for both
individually suppo rte d panels and for st acked
wall,w hich protects th e roof membrane
from th e effect s of sunlight. It also provides
Vertical section I :IO. W indow junctions. Glass rein-
forced concrete (GRC) panelswith open joints panels fo llow s th e same prin ciples.At parapet an overcloak t o th e roo fing membrane w hich
level, self-suppo rt ing concrete panels have w raps up th e inside face of t he parapet w all
D etails
I. Backing wall th e advantage of not needing an addit ional and across t he t op of th e precast panel,
2. Precast concrete panel
inner parapet wall but require a pressed alu- w here it forms a complete weat hertight seal
3. Closed cell thermal insula
tion minium coping over th e t op of th e wa ll t o t o th e t op of th e wall.A coping made from
4. Vert ical joint open or
both keep rain from penetrating th e t op precast concrete is less easy t o handle, but
closed type
5. Horizontal joint (typically a panel. w here it is most vulnerable, as w ell as provides effective protection t o th e w at er-
lap) open or closed type
6. Internal finish
t o throw rainw ater off th e coping inw ards t o proof membrane beneath.
7. W indow frame an inner gutter at th e edge of th e roof Th e Th e base of walls in precast panels are
8. Reinforced concrete
column
visible vert ical face of th e coping is usually detailed in a similar way t o ot her forms of
9. Metal corner trim kept t o a minimum in order t o reduce it s vis- loadbearing masonry.A continuous damp
10. Metal parapet coping
I I. Concrete fioor deck ual impact o n th e facade. A precast coping is pro of membrane (D PM) exte nds up from
I 2. Adjacent panel in also used inst ead of aluminium, but th is is th e o ut side of th e struct ure beneath and
different material
I 3. W at erpro of membrane essent ially for visual reasons.The advantage of form s a damp pro of course (D PC) w hich is
14. Precast concrete coping an aluminium coping is th at it can be pressed positioned so t hat it exte nds at least I SOmm

MC E 182

3-D view of wall clad in small GRC panels
3-D detail view of wall clad in GRC precast panels
above external gro und level.Th e DPe is
positioned so t hat t he low est row of panels
at gro und level appears t o sit o n t he gro und
w it h its bottom course level w it h t he adja-
cent gro und or pavement.T his avoids t he
need fo r a I SOmm - 200mm plinth aro und
t he base of t he w all t hat is popu lar in load-
bearing brick construct ion in ord er to avoid
rainw ater t hat is splashed off t he gro und
soaking into th e base of th e w all and causing
damp penetratio n o n t he inside of t he wa ll at
fioor level.
1
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Horizontal section I: I0, W all construction with small GRC cladding
panels
Open ings
Th e characte ristic to ngue-and-groove pro file
of hori zont al joint s makes it necessary t o
provide a complete edging to th e op enings
fo rmed in precast panels, Special precast pan-
els for o penings are not usually made since
t his adds considerable cost t o t he syste m,
Th e mo st commo n method of forming an
edge t o a w indow o r door opening is t o use
metal sheet on all sides of th e reveal to th e
o pening,This provides usually a thin edge as
we ll as being able t o be cont inuo us w it h a
w indow or do or frame and providing an int e-
gral cill t o t he o pening,
Horizontal section I: I0, W all construction
with small GRC cladding panels
MC E 18 3
Concrete a s 03
Small precast/GRC cladding panels

3-D exploded view of wall construction Horizontal section I: I0, W all construction with small GRC cladding panels

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D etails Sand blasted fin ish and t ooled aggregates and du lls th em as a result, produc-
I, Backing wall
2, Precast concrete panel
finish ing a characte rist ic matt surface, Sand blasting
3. Closed cell thermal insula In addit ion t o th e finishes descr ibed in t he abrades both in prop ortion t o th e hardness
tion
t exts o n both in-situ co ncrete and precast of th e co ncrete surface and t o th e prop or-
4, Vertical joint open or
closed type co ncrete panels, th e t echniques of sand blast- t ion of coarse aggregate in th e cement mix,
5, Horizontal joint (typically a
ing and t ooling are commo nly used o n small Th is leads t o different surface t extures,
lap) open or closed type
6, Internal finish cladding panels, depend ing o n t he ty pe of small aggregate ,
7, W indow frame
Th e sand blasting of co ncrete panels is and th e quality and degree of hydr ation of
8, Reinforced concrete
column usually done w it h iron filings rather th an sand th e cement mix, Sand blasting allows th e fin-
9, Metal corner trim
particl es, Con crete is blaste d w it h differing ish t o be obta ined gradually and controlled
10, Metal parapet coping
I I, Concrete fioor deck amo unts of abrasive iron filings at high pres- visually as wo rk progresses, w it ho ut th e need
12, Adjacent panel in
sure, depend ing o n th e hardness of th e con- for rinsing w hich slows down th e pro cess,
different material
I 3. W at erproof membrane crete wall panel.This slight ly ero des th e face Ac id etc hing also allows very localised wo rk-
14, Precast concrete coping
of th e co ncrete , eit her back t o th e surface ing w it h th e use of stencils,
sand grains or more deeply t o t he coarse Too led co ncrete is a meth od of texturing
aggregate beneath,Th e essent ial visual char- co ncrete by eit her striking t he mater ial w it h
acterist ic of thi s meth od is th at it abrades all chisel o r pick, o r by rotat ion, using diamon d

MC E 184
 '<0

Vertical section I: I0, W all construction with small GRC 3-D detail view of wall construction
cladding panels

tipped burring too ls to make grooves for any

shape, depth and distance apart. A claw chis-
el has a tooth ed fi at head th at breaks th e
surface, while a pick is a chisel w it h a sharp
point th at can be used to create a rough-
ened surface ,A boasting chisel is a groov ing
chisel used to make a set of parallel grooves
in th e face of th e co ncrete .These textures
usually sto p sho rt of co rne rs of wa llsto give
a crisp edge ,

3-D view of wall clad with small GRC panels

MC E 185
CC5'n t'rete' Is 03- - - - - -
Smal l recast/GRC cladd ing anels

3-D exploded View of component build-up

3-D view of wall with small precast cladding panels

CD

Details
I. Backing wall
2, Precast concrete panel
3 Closed cell thermal insula
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4 Vertical joint open or
closed type
5, Honzontal jom (typically a
lap) open or closed type
6 lntem al fin,sh
7 W indow frame
8 Reinforred concrete
3-D view of frame detail cohjmn
9, Metal come r tr im
10. Metal parapet coping
I I. Concrete floor deck
12. Adjacent panel in
mat erial
13. Waterproof membrane
14. Precast concrete coping

Exploded axonometric drawingof frame detail

Exploded axOilO metre- drawing of wall detail
MC E_ 186
 I I

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3-D view of wall with precast cladding panels 3-D view of wall with precast cladding panels

3-D exploded view of component build-up 3-D exploded view of component build-up

3-D view of fixing element 3-D view of fixing element

MC E 187
MASONRY WALLS
(I) Masonry loadbearing walls:
Brick, stone and concrete block
Mortar>
Parapets
Cills and openings
(2) Masonry cavity walls:
Brick
Ground level
Window and door openings
Eaves and parapets
(3) Masonry cavity walls:
Stone and concrete block
Wall structures
Ground level
Openings in walls
Eaves and parapets
(4) Stone cladding:
Fixings
Cladding to precast concrete
panels
Closed Joints
Movement joints
Stone finishes
(5) Terracotta rainscreens:
Manufacture of panels
Comer pieces
Fixing systems
Panel sizes
Openings

MC E 189
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In maso nr y loadbearing const ruct ion, a com-
plete wall is bo nded t oget her t o form a sin-
gle struct ure. Loadbearing brick wa lls formed
w it h traditional sized bri cks follow tradition al
Details for hollow
bond ing patt ern s w hich set th e br icks t ogeth -
brick
I. Loadbearing er in a way t hat avoids cont inuity in ver t ical
hollow brick wall
joints.In ot her wo rds, each course is laid in a
2. Timber framed
window way t hat is different from t he co urse below,
3. Internal finish
in order t o ensure t hat joint s between br icks
4. Thermal
insulation are st aggered vert ically This ensures th at th e
5. Hollow brick cill
wall behaves st ructurally as a hom ogenous
construct ion w it h discontinuou s joints.Tradi-
t io nal brick bonds have a recognisable
appearance in elevat ion. For example, Flem-
ish bond has courses of alte rnate header s
(sho rt edge) and st retc her s (long edge) set
side by side. Each course is offset from th e
o ne below t o avoid a cont inuity of ver t ical
joint s t hat wo uld weaken it struct urally Eng-
lish bond has alte rnate courses of all header s
set o n courses of all st ret cher s.
In th e hori zont al joints,bond s in all load-
bearing materi als have a cont inuo us path
from o ut side t o inside, w hich reduces it s
resistance t o w at er penetratio n.Traditionally,
t his is overcome by making t he wall suffi-
cient ly deep t o avoid t he passage of wate r
through th e thi ckness of th e wall. In conte m-
po rar y construction, a vapo ur barrier is usu-
ally added to th e inside face if th e wall is dr y
lined, o r t he w all is faced int ernally w it h a
wate rproo f render t o ensure moisture do es
not penetrate th e joint.
In br ick const ructio n it is usually
assumed th at a wa ll aro und 3 1Smm ( 12in),
w hich correspo nds t o o ne br ick length plus

MC E 190
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
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o ne br ick w idt h in a bond , is sufficient t o
resist rainw ater penetration in t emp er ate c1i -
mates.Th is is dependent upon br ick density
and manufacturin g dim ension s, but walls of a
thi ckness correspo nding t o o ne bri ck length
o nly are usually not deemed t o be th ick
eno ugh, and ofte n suffer from dampness o n
th eir int ernal faces if th ere is no damp proof
membrane and/o r wate rproo fed render o n
th e inside face.
W hile loadbearing concrete block is
commo n in hou sing, st o ne is used mainly as
part of a loadbearing stone wall w here block
or brick is th e prim ary material. It is ofte n th e
case th at stone is used as a facing materi al t o
a more economic mater ial behind. If st o ne is
used as a loadbearing material rather th an as
addit ional cladding th en it s properties must
be compat ible w it h th ose physical prop erties
of t he backing wa ll.
W it h th e increased use of th erm al insu-
lat io n to reduce energy consum pt ion w it hin
buildings,th erm al insulation is set o n th e D etails
inside face t o allow th e mater ial t o be visible 6. U-shaped brick, filled with reinforced concrete
7. Waterproof membrane
o n th e o ut side face. How ever. thi s results in 8. Damp proof course (DPC)
th e th erm al mass of th e wa ll not being used 9. Weather bar
10. Hollow brickcoping
for night t ime coo ling.W here th e int ernal I I. Roof construction
face of th e wa ll is required for night tim e 12. Rendered finish
I 3. Floorslab
coo ling, th e th erm al insulati o n can be set in
th e middl e of th e w all co nstr uct io n, w it h th e
leaves of br ick, sto ne o r block o n eit her side
linked by st ainless steel ti es t o form a dia-
phragm wa ll. H ow ever.thi s is an unusual
solut io n as st ruct ural discontinuity in th e
wa ll const ruct ion is less efficient from th e
st ruct ural po int of view.As th e height of th e

MC E 191
 a
I
IVlasonry Walls I
Masonry loadbearing wal ls: Brick, stone and concrete block

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w all increases between floor slabs o r Int ernally,th e insulati o n is finished w it h plaster
betw een points of restr aint, th e thi ckness of and a proj ecting cill t hat gives a traditional
So lid bri ck detai ls
th e wa ll also increases t o provide st ability. A n visual appearance aro und a w indow.
I. Loadbearing brick
wall alte rnat ive to th e traditi on al method of sim- Th e colour range of cut st one is very
2. Timb er framed
ply making th e wa ll thi cker is to form a dia- important in loadbearing st o new o rk in order
window
3. Internal plaster fin- phragm wa ll.Two skins of br ick, typically t o ensure th at a wa ll has a 'massive' appear-
ish or dr y
2 15mm t o 3 15mm thi ck (9in- 12in), are set ance, as if almo st cut from a single block of
lining/drywall
4. Thermal insulation apart w it h fin wa lls set perp end icular t o th e stone.T his is quite different from masonry
5. Stone lintel
direction of th ese br ick wa lls. Con crete cladding, w here th e stone can be much more
6. Stone cill
7. W aterproof block wa lls w ill be t ypically 200mm or varied acro ss th e facade if preferred, since
membrane
300mm th ick (Sin o r 12in) . cladding rarely tries t o achieve a truly mono-
8. Damp proof
course (DPC) W hen used internally,th erm al insulation lit hic appearance.
9. Reinforced
provides a full cont inuity between t he insulat -
concrete lintel
10. Stone facing ed wall and insulated glazed units set into Mortars
blocks
o penings.Th e th erm al insulation passes under A n essent ial benefit of using loadbearing
th e int ernal cill and is set in a w ay th at avoids masonry walls is th eir ability t o avo id move-
visual clumsiness that can spo il th e appear- ment joints w it h th e use of lime mortar. This
ance of loadbearing br ick, stone and block. binding mater ial is a traditional mortar m ix

MCE 192
 3-D view of window detail
3-D view of window detail

W indow details
I. Ground fioor or fioor slab 6. A ngle fillet
2. External ground level 7. External wall
3. Screed 8. Roof substrate
4. W at erproofing layerto roof 9. Damp proof course (DPC)
5. Brick parapet 10, Damp proof membrane (DPM)

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Vertical sections I: I0,W indow openings

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Hori zontal section I:I0.W indow jamb Vertical section I: I0, Floor junction

w it h low er strength th an mortars used in
cavity wall const ruction but has great er flexi-
bility as a mater ial, allow ing it t o move more
freely w it hout cracking.T his reduces,o r can
avoid th e need for. movement joints w hich
are int roduced t o avoid cracking in masonry
walls. Movement joints are t ypically set at 6.5
metres t o 8.0 metres (21ft-26ft), depending
on t he st rength and size of th e wa ll.
The same prin ciples are used for mortar
mixes in loadbearing wa lls as for cavity wa lls
and masonry cladding, and follow th e same
pr inciples in br ick. st o ne and co ncret e block.
It is commo n t o use th e mortar of minimum
strength required. since an increase in
strength results in a correspo nding increase
in rigidity w hich increases th e risk of cracking
occurring at joint s.Th e st rength of mortars is
varied by vary ing th e prop ortion of cement
and lime w hich are used t o bind th e mortar
t ogether.A higher prop ortion of cement
increases strength, w hile a higher proportion
of lime increases flexibility Mixing th e correct
mortar for a particular wall const ruct ion is
achieved through a balance of st rength and
flexibility.In addit ion, th e comparat ively low
wate r perm eability of lime gives it greate r
resistance t o rain penetration th an more
cement -based mortars. Lime makes a mortar
light er in colour th an cement -based ty pes.
Co lour can be mod ified by pigment addit ives.
In st one w alls, crushed sto ne is added t o th e
mix instead of sand in o rder t o give mortar j-U view ot clll detail
th e t exture and some of th e appearance of
th e st o ne itself.

MC E 19 3

Ho rizontal sections I : IO.W indow jambs
0
CD
Vert ical sections I 10. W indow openings
C on cret e blo ck det ails
I. Loadbearing block wall
2. Tim ber framed wi ndow
3. External render finish
4. Internal finish
5. Thermal insulation
6. Precast concrete cill
7. Precast concrete lintel
8. Damp proof cour se
(DPC)
9. W eat her bar
10. Seal
MC E 194
[]
[:0~] 0)
Vertical sections I: I O. Window open ings
A
A v'® y yAy yAy Y
Ho rizonta l section 1: IO.W indow jamb
Parapets
Unlike parapets in masonry cavity walls or
cladding, t here is littl e oppo rt unity t o incor-
por ate th erm al insulation w it hout concealing
t he int ernal face of t he parapet. In pr actice,
t he parapet is ofte n insulat ed o nly up t o t he
height of t he wate rproo fing layer in order t o
reduce th e t hermal br idge betw een th e insu-
lat ed roof and t he t op of t he t hermal insula-
ti on in th e exte rnal wall. Loadbearing stone
allows for considerable modelling of t he par-
apet w all w it hout th e need for complex piec-
es of st one t hat wo uld be needed in cavity
w alls or cladding.The t hickness of t he stone
can be expressed t o its full exte nt in a para-
pet and t his is a commo n feature of t heir
design, parti cularly w here th e parapet also
serves as a balustrade.The coping sto ne is
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usually much t hicker t han t hat used in clad-
ding t o ensure t hat it w ill not easily crack due
t o freeze / t haw act ion and is stro ng enough
t o absorb norm al impact loads, ty pically from
maintenance equipment.A damp proof
course (DPC) is set underneath t he coping
stone t o avoid wate r being absorbed too far
dow n int o t he const r uction from it s top sur-
face, and t his DPe may be cont inuous w it h a
wate rproofing layer exte nding up from th e
int ernal face of t he parapet. In commo n w it h
ot her copings, th e t op is sloped inw ards t o
drain wate r t ow ards t he roo f rath er t han
down th e front of t he facade w here it wo uld
cause staining.The coping usually projects
beyond t he face of t he wall on t he roof side
in order t o th row t he wate r clear of th e w all
and avoid staining.A cont inuous groove , or
 3-D view of cill detail on concrete block wall.
3-D view of window detail on concrete block wall.
throating, is int ro duced t o avo id rainw ater
being drawn back along th e underside of t he
proj ecting coping, Cop ings are somet imes set
forward on th e exte rnal face of th e st o ne
but thi s is primari ly don e for visual reasons,
since rainwat er th at falls o nto th e t op of th e
coping is directed away to ward s th e inside
face w it h little risk of staining occurring o n
th e exte rnal face of th e w all.
Where bri ck is used, th e coping is ty pical-
ly in stone o r precast concrete, In o rder t o
secure th e coping to th e wa ll beneath, w hich
is weakened by th e need for a damp pro of
course, dowels are ofte n set into th e top of
th e wa ll.T he coping is th en set onto th e
dow els by means of holes dr illed int o th e
underside of th e coping.
' V
]
Isometric view of concrete block wall assembly
Ci lls and o penings
Openings in loadbearing stone, br ick and
block have th e advantage of revealing th e
thi ckness of th e materi al,giving a massive
appearance t o th e wa ll. Openings in cavity
w alls and cladding require corne r pieces that
have a jo int adjacent t o th e corne r,giving th e
appearance of a w all covered in a different
mater ial rather th an being a surface appear-
ing t o have been carve d out of so lid materi al.
H owever, repetition in th e size and shape of
corne r pieces is needed in ord er to keep th e
construct ion as econo mic as possible,
Cills are form ed from eit her th e same
materi al if sto ne is used for th e wa ll, or pre-
cast concrete if th e w all is made from br ick
o r block, In commo n w it h co pings, cills are
sloped w it h a projecting edge th at throw s
MCE 195
JV1asonry a s
Masonry loadbearing walls: Brick, stone and concrete block
D iaphragm brick wall details
I, Loadbearing diaphragm brick wall

1
2, Air void or thermal insulation

Horizontal & vertical sections I 10, Bedding reinforcement between courses, diaphragm wall
,-------'------------~

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I , parapet level, 2, ground level

th e rainw ater clear of th e w all beneat h,A wo rk above, In concrete block const ruction, a
t hroating is also used t o avoid wate r running reinforced concrete lint el is used, w hich spans
back t o t he facade from th e under side of t he t he complete w idt h of t he wa ll, w hile in
proj ecting cill.W here st one is used, th e ty pe sto ne a thin arch is used on th e o ute r face of
of sto ne must be suitable for use as a cill. t he wa ll, ofte n w it h a more rudimentary brick
W here softer sto nes such as limest o nes and arch behind it, concealed by th e w indow
sandsto nes are used for t he wall, sto ne for frame, Since t he t her mal insulati on is set usu-
th e coping must be sufficient ly dense and ally o n th e inside face, th e th erm al bridge is
durable t o avoid rainw ater being absorbed avoided.Throatings are incorp orated into
into th e cill itself. causing staining o n th e t op concrete and stone faced lint els in o rder t o
of t he cill. More dense st ones w ill absorb lit - avoid staining, but t his is not usually do ne in
tl e wate r.w hich w ill instead be throw n clear br ick, w hich is more absorbent and in w hich
of th e cill durin g rain, Som e harder lime- it is difficult to form a groove,
stones and sandstones may still be suitable
for use as cill pieces, Cills are usually made in
single pieces, but w here op enings are w ide,
sect ions are set side by side w it h mortar
joints between th em,Th e DPe, incorporated
beneath cills in all mat erials, drains away any
wate r t hat soaks t hrou gh th e cill, parti cularly
at t he joint s,
The heads of op enings in loadbearing
masonry walls are support ed by lint els o r
3-D view of loadbearing brick wall
arches, In traditio nal br ick const r uct ion, a flat
or curved arch is used t o support th e bri ck-

MC E 196
Types of brick bonds

Flemish bond Old English bond Stretcher bond

3-D view of loadbearing masonry wall with stone cladding 3-D view of loadbearing masonry wall with stone cladding

Solid brickdetails
I. Loadbearing brick
wall
2. Timber framed
window
3. Internal plaster fin-
ish or dry
lining/drywall
4. Thermal insulation
5. Stone lintel
6. Stone cill
7. Waterproof
membrane
8. Damp proof
course (DPC)
9. Reinforced
concrete lintel
10. Stone facing
blocks

3-D exploded view of loadbearing masonry wall with stone cladding

Exploded axonometric view of loadbearing

masonry wall with stone cladding

MC E 197
 Solid brick details
lining/drywall 8. Damp proof
I. Loadbearing brick
4. Thermal insulation course (DPC)
wall
5. Stone lintel 9. Reinforced
2. Timber framed
6. Stone cill concrete lintel
window
7. Waterproof 10. Stone facing
3. Internal plaster fin-
membrane blocks
ish or dry

3-D view of loadbearing brick wall cill detail

3-D view of loadbearing brick wall

3-D view of loadbearing brick wall parapet detail

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Exploded axonomet ric view of loadbearing masonry construction

MC E 19 8
 3-D view of loadbearing block wall

3-D exploded view of loadbearing block wall construction

3-D view of window detail

3-D exploded view of loadbearing block wall with window

I
Co ncrete block details
I.
2.
Loadbearing block wall
Timbe r framed w indow
I
3. Extemal render finish
4. Intem al finish
5. Thenmal insulation
r
6. Precast concrete cill
7. Precast concrete lintel I
8. Damp proof course
(DPC)
9. Weathe r bar
10. Seal

MC E 199
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Vertical section I : I O.Typical connection or restraint to primary structure

Vertical section I : I O.Typical conn ection or restraint to primary structure

1 [ J[
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Isometric view of wall assembly

Horizontal & vertical section I IOTypical window at cill and head

Brick cavity wa lls have th e advantage of pro-
viding a cavity w it hin th e depth of a wa ll for
drainage of rainw ater before it is allowe d t o
be absorbed t oo far into th e wa ll constr uc-
ti on.W hereas loadbearing bri ck wa lls use th e
overall wa ll th ickness t o stop th e passage of
rainw ater from out side t o inside, cavity w alls
use two skins of br ickw ork separate d by a
vent ilate d air gap.Th e inner skin is increasing-
ly form ed in concrete block. ho llow t erracot-
t a block or t imber studwork.T hermal insula-
ti on is usually set o n th e exte rnal face of th e
inner skin in o rder t o keep th e building
st r uct ure insulated.
Th e o ute r brick skin is usually o nly
I OOmm/4in th ick (o ne br ick w idt h) w it h both
skins being suppor t ed either at gro und level
3-D view of typical win dow assembly
o r at int ermediar y floor levels. In th e case of
buildings up t o two storeys, th e o ute r skin is
built up from th e found ation and is restrained
back t o th e floor slab at first floor level and
at roof level.The inner skin is built off each
floor slab and is restrained at th e head by th e
floor slab or roof structure above.Taller
buildings also have th e inner skin built off
floor slabs in th e same way, but th e o ute r skin
is suppo r te d at each floor level o n a cont inu-
o us stainless st eel angle, bo lted back t o th e
floor slab.A damp proof course (D PC) is set
o n t op of th e steel angle t o drain th e cavity
Slots called wee p ho les are form ed in th e
vert ical joints immediately above th e steel
angle in o rder t o allow wate r in th e cavity t o
dr ain o ut. In addit ion t o being restrained at
floor slabs, th e o ute r skin is also ti ed at inter-
mediary po ints back t o th e inner skin w it h

MC E 200
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
 @
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Vertical and hori zontal sections I:I QO.

Typical connection or restraint to
primary structure , window jamb

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Vertical sections I: I O. Junction at parapet. support
3-D top view of typical window opening in cavity brick wall
D
Vert ical section I :25.W all
of outer leaf at fioor slab, window opening
assembly
stainless stee l t ies.T hese are set t ypically at dry as we ll as dr ying o ut t he o ute r skin of
450mm/ I Sin ho rizont al cent res and brick, w hich can become fully sat urate d in a
D etails
900m m/3ft vert ical cent res. rainsto rm.T he cavity is bridged o nly by o pen-
I. Outer brick skin
Histori cally, inner and outer skins we re ings for w indows and doors. 2. Inner blockwork or brick skin
3. Tim ber framed window
ti ed t ogether w it h floor slabs t o form dia- W hen an o pening is form ed. t he cavity is
4. Timber cill
phragm walls, but t heir use is reduced w it h closed by a lint el (beam) t o suppo rt t he 5. Cavity closer
6. Internal plaster finish or dr y
t he concern over th e th erm al bri dge create d inner and o ute r skins at t he top of th e o pen-
lining/drywall
by linking th e two skins of brick. Current ing, and a cill piece at t he bottom of t he 7. Thermal insulation in cavity
8. Air cavity (sometimes
practice uses t he o ute r skin as cladding t o a o pening.T he sides are closed by eit her
omitted where insulation
dr ained and vent ilate d void behind, w it h an returning o ne of th e two skins to meet th e fills cavity)
9. Inner concrete lintel or beam
inner skin t hat is wate rproo fed w it h a high o ute r skin, o r by setting an insulat ed cavity 10. Pressed steel lintel
level of th erm al insulation. Brick types used in closer. usually made as an aluminium ext ru- I I. Steel angle
I 2. Met al coping
cavity const ruct ion vary w idely, fro m trad i- sion filled w it h t herma l insulati on. Because 13. Precast concrete cill
ti on al clay bricks w hich are eit her hand th e down w ard passage of wate r inside th e I 4. Damp proof course (DPC)
15. Brick cill
formed o r w ire cut t o extruded hollow t er- cavity is blocked by th e lint el at th e head of I 6. Movement joint
racotta bricks.T he cavity is vente d t op and t he o pening, a 'cavity tray' is set above t he 17. Ground fioor slab
18. Steel cavity wall tie
bottom t o ensure th e free passage of air lint el t o drain w at er o ut of t he cavity A cavity 19. Foundation
through t he cavity T his allows t he cavity t o tray is fo rm ed from a bitumino us felt st rip

MC E 20 I

Vertical section I : IO. Junction at gro und floor level
w hich is set int o a ho rizo nt al joint in th e
inner skin and set sloping downwards across
th e face of th e cavity.Th e bottom of t he tray
is set o n a hori zonta l co urse o n th e o ute r
skin.W eep holes are left in t he vert ical joints
immediat ely above th e OPC t o allow wate r
t o dr ain o ut.T he ends of th e OPC are tu cked
down into a vert ical OPC set int o th e jambs
(sides) of the opening.The ver t ical OPC is in
tu rn linked to a OPC set under the cill t o
fonrn a com plete w at erti ght seal t o th e
opening w hich is drained and vent ilat ed t o
th e o utside wa ll.A similar prin ciple of cavity
tray is used t o drain w at er at roo f level and
at ground level. In addit ion, a OPC is used at
gro und level t o avoid w at er being drawn up
int o th e wall construction t o th e inside face
of th e w all wit hin the building. OPCs are also
used beneath parapet s and copings as we ll as
at th e junction of wa ll and pitched roof.The
use of th e cavity tray tog ether w it h a damp
pro of course are t he two most impo rt ant
pr inciples of cavity w all detailing.
Ground level
Th e detailing of t he OPC at gro und floo r
level is dependent upon the difference in
MCE 202
®
3-D view of brick cavity w all junct ion at ground floor level
height between gro und floor level in t he
building and t he adjacent ext ernal level.The
OPC in th e o ut er skin is set at around
I SOmm above exte rnal gro und level.The
OPC for th e int ern al skin is set at t he same
level if th e step up fro m o ut side t o inside is
aro und I SOmm. If th e difference betwee n
o utside and inside levels is around
300mm/ 12in t hen th e OPC is st epped up
from outer skin t o inner skin in t he same
place but a separate OPC is added t o th e
inner skin at t he same level as t he bottom of
th e cavity tray.Th e aim of th e damp pro ofing
is t o provide a conti nuity of prote ction from
underneath th e ground floor o r low est base-
ment slab up into t he wall const ruction.
T he cavity is filled below gro und floor
level t o avoid it filling with w at er wh ich
wo uld eventually damage th e construction,
particularly from freezing in w int er in t em-
perate climates. Until recent ly, th erm al insula-
t io n was usually t erm inated at gro und floor
level. More recent ly,t he t hermal insulati o n
cont inues down below gro und w here it is
cont inuo us w it h t herm al insulation set on t op
of or beneat h t he floo r slab to pro vide a
complet ely insulat ed building enclosure.
W indow and door openings
Since a w indow o r door frame has a profile
w hich is t he same on all four sides,w it h an
exte rnal modification for t he cill,t he profile
of t he o pening int o w hich it fits must be
consiste nt on all sides.Visual consideratio ns
are equally impo rt ant in th e detailing of cavi-
ty w all o penings.The dept hs of th e reveal
can make the o ut er skin appear mo re 'mas-
sive' if t he reveal is made at least one brick
deep or more like a th in skin if th e window
is set forward of th e reveal.Where a load-
bearing wall can incorporate a structural
brick arch, th is is much mo re difficult in a
cavity wa ll.This is because the o ute r and
inner skins of a cavity w all are kept separate ,
except w here t hey are bridged by lint els.
Because th ey are linked o nly at th ese points,
th e lintel needs t o be a separate structural
eleme nt w hich suppo r t s both skins w it hout
exert ing lat eral forces in th e adjacent brick-
wo rk, w here cracking could occur in bot h
skins.Fo r t his reason, simply suppo rted lin-
t els are used, w hich exert balanced loads o n
bot h skins. Bot h reinforced concret e and
steel ty pes are used,w hich have the advan-
t age of supporting a course of bricks t o give
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Vertical section I : IO. Junctions at ground fioor level Vertical section I: IO. Support of outer leaf at
Vertical section I :25.Wall assembly
fioor slab and at ground level

3-D cut-aways showing relationship between inner and outer cavity leaf

MCE 203
 CD

3-D view of cavity br ick wall assembly

Vertical section I:2S.W all assembly

th e appearance of a flat arch. Reinforced Lintels are suppo rte d on both skins at
D et ails
concrete lint els appear as beams visible in th eir bearing points.A reinforced concrete
I. Outer brick skin
2. Inner blockwork or brick skin both elevat ion and on th e soffit (underside) , lint el spans across both skins eit her in a pro-
3. Timber framed window
w hile stee l lint els are visible only on th e sof- file th at also forms a cavity tray for w ide
4. Timber cill
S. Cavity closer fit of th e opening, making it clearly visible spans or as a flat lintel for shor t spans.In
6. Internal plaster finish or dry
th at th e br icks across th e t op of th e open- some examples, th e lint el has a beam sect ion
lining/drywall
7. Thermal insulation in cavity ing on th e oute r face are not self suppo rt ing support ing th e inner skin w hich provides th e
8. Air cavity (sometimes
unlike loadbearing wall const r uct ion. For th is spanning element and a t oe suppo rt ing th e
omitted where insulation
fills cavity) reason br ickw ork suppo r te d by a stee l lint el oute r skin.A DPC is set onto th e lint el t o
9. Inner concrete lintel or beam
is ofte n not set on edge t o form an arch, drain w at er. In ot her cases, th e DPC can be
10. Pressed steel lintel
I I. Steel angle but is co ursed th e same as th e br ickw ork set above th e lint el depending on th e config-
12. Metal coping
above, since any arch suppo rt ed by a st eel uration of th e wall construct ion. In both cases
I 3. Precast concrete cill
14. Damp proof course (DPC) lint el is decorative. How ever, an advantage th erm al insulati on is set on th e inside face of
IS. Brick cill
16. Movement joint
of th e stee l lintel is th at it can incorporate a th e w all t o avoid a th erm al bridge. Stee l lin-
17. Ground floor slab cavity tray,w it h rainw ater being drained t els can be used eit her as a pressed mild
18. Steel cavity wall tie
19. Foundation
through wee p holes in ver t ical joints in th e steel lint el w hich has a profile for support ing
bottom co urse. both skins, or as reinforced concrete lint el

MC E 20 4
TYPE A TYPE B
f--'
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Verti cal sections showing window junction variations
3-D views of window and floor junctions
w it h a st ainless steel shelf angle bolted t o it.
In ot her examples, t he lint el has a OPC set
on t op of t he profile formed by t he lint el
w here t he inner block has no st r uctural func-
tion but is instead used t o infill t he gap and
provide a background for plaster. Optionally,
t he OPC can be set onto a stainless steel
angle.The angle supports t he oute r skin,
w hile t he reinforced concrete inner beam
support s bot h inner and oute r skins.
Eaves and parapets
At t he eaves, t he bottom of a pitched roof
t ermin ates against th e t op of a brick cavity
w all.W hile t here are many variat ions for t he
roof it self, t he t op of t he wall maint ains a
consiste nt prin ciple of closing th e cavity at
TYPEC
r
Vertical sections I : IO.Junction at
[r
>
1
ground floor level and at window [ [
[
t he t op w it h a br ick or block t hat allow s t he
load from t he roof st ructure t o be suppo rt -
ed on t he inner skin.A lte rnat ively, t he roof
st ructure may be supported on a column set
into t he inner skin of th e wall or on block-
w ork pier s, also forming part of t he inner
skin.The closing of th e cavity w all at th e t op
allows for cont inuity of t herm al insulation
fro m cavity wall t o roof structure w hile l
allow ing the ro of const r uction t o be vent ilat -
r
ed w here required, and t he t op of t he cavity
in t he wall t o be vent ilated.The t op of t he
wall usually has plastic spacers set int o t he
hori zontal or vert ical joint s t o ensure th at air
movement can occur w it hin t he cavity,A
Isometric view of wall assembly; one with steel
OPC is set on t he underside of t he br ick or
support (top) and one with concrete support
block th at closes the cavity t o ensure cont i- (bottom)
MC E 205
 3-D view showing opening in brick cavity facade

Vertical section I 10.Junction at ground floor level

3-D view of double brick skinned cavity wall system

nuity between th e damp pro of membrane

on th e exte rnal face of th e inner skin and th e
wate rproofing layer of th e roof
Parapets are closed at th e t op by a cop-
ing, usually in reinforced concrete o r stone,A
D Pe is set beneat h th e cop ing t o sto p th e
passage of wate r down w ards, Below th is,
rainw ater can ente r t he cavity from both
inner and oute r skins and th is is prevented by
exte nding th e w at erproof layer from th e roo f
up th e side of th e inner skin up t o coping
level.T hermal insulati o n is usually cont inued
up th e inside of th e cavity wall as well as up
th e exte rnal face of th e inner skin t o avoid a
th erm al bridge th rough th e inner skin,

3-D oblique view of cavity brick wall assembly facade

MC E 20 6
 @

CLL",+jCLLLJJLLl\ '/ ili='J}tr'.L/lLL-i'+--"

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Horizontal sectors 1:1 0, Comer conditions

-- ~
Details
I. Outer brick skjn
2. Inner blockworl<. or brick skin
3. Timber framed window
4. Timber eill
S. Cavity closer
6. Internal plaster f.nish O!" dry
3-D View of t ypical win dow o pening In brick
Iiningldryw-all
cavitywall assembly
7. Thermal irlsulation in cavity

r-"---Ylj 8. Air cavity (somet imes

omitted where insulation
r.ns cavity)
J
9. Irmer concret e lint el or beam
10. Pressed steel lintel
I I. Steel ar'lgle
12 Metal coping
13 Precastconcrete cill
14 Damp proof course (DPC)
15 Brick (ill
16 Movement joint
17 Ground floor slab
18 Steel cavity wall t ie
19 Foundation

MC E_ 207
 y
Masonr cavit

0)

Details
I , Outer brick skin
2.Inner blockwork or brick skin
3.Timber framed window
4.Timberc ill
5. Cavitycloser
3-D exp loded \!lew of 6. Intern al plaster finish or dry lining!
open ing in cavity brick wall facade drywall
]. Thermal iosulatron in cavity
B.A ir cavity (sometimesomitted
where iosulatron fills cavrty)
9. Inner corxrete lintel or beam
10. Pressed steellintel
I I , Steel angle
12. Metal coping
j 13. Precast concrete (ill
14. Damp proof course (OPC)
IS. Brick cill
16. Movement jo int
17. Ground floor slab
18. Stee l cavrtywalltie
19. gooroaton

r J

] ·0 exploded view of cavitybrick wall assembly ] -0 exploded vieW'> at upper floor junction

Me E 208
 @

3-D exploded views of brick cavity wall junction at ground fioor

3-D view at top of window opening in brick cavity 3-D view at ground floor junction 3-D view at bottom of window opening in brick
wall cavity wall

3-D exploded view at bottom

of w indow fitting in brick cavity wall
3-D explode d view at top of wi ndow
fitting in brick cavity wall MC E 20 9
 @

\---

Vertical section I Ia.Junction at ground fioor level Vertical section I: Ia.Typical window at cill and head

Details
I. Stone or concrete coping
2. Outer stone skin with brick
backing shown to create deep window
reveals or where required structurally
3. Inner block skin
4. Timber framed window / door
5. Stone or precast concrete cill
6. Timber inner cill
7. Cavity closer
8. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/dry wall Th e prin ciples of cavity w all design are al is vent ilate d o n both sides, allowin g it to
9. Thermal insulation in cavity
set o ut in t he previou s t ext on br ick cavity dry o ut easily, avoiding a sit uat io n w here
w alls.T he same principles can be applied for sto ne wo uld dr y from o nly t he o ute r face,
use w hen sto ne and co ncrete blockw ork are w hich wo uld draw dirt and dust out int o th e
used to form an outer skin. outside face.
W hen sto ne is used, it can be used eit her T he biggest difference in detailing
as an outer skin appro xim ately IOOmm/4in between bri ck cavity walls and st o ne / block
t hick, o r w it h t hinner stone t hat is bo nded t o cavity wa lls is t hat t here are few er joint s in
br ickwo rk t hat t ogether fo rms a 'composit e' stone / block due t o t heir large size.T his
o ute r skin.W hen used as a IOOmm/4in thi ck means th at th ere are fewer opportunities to
skin in o rder t o be self-suppo rt ing,t he sto ne design a damp proof course (D PC) w it h
becom es expensive, so sandst o nes and lime- fioor slabs, for example, parti cularly w here
sto nes are most commo nly used. Comp osite- shelf angles are used.T he smaller unit size of
t ype o ute r skins suit sto ne that is 40mm to brick makes it a very fiexib le material w hen
50mm thi ck ( l.s in-2.0in), bond ed to a detailing; stone / block requires careful co-
IOOmm/4 in w ide br ick skin.This method suits o rdinat ion of stone / block size and fioo r t o
granites and denser limest o nes. fioor heights to allow for w indows to be suit-
3-D view of cill detail on a blockwork cavity wall In single o ute r skins of stone, t he materi- ably placed. For t his reaso n, alternat ing bands

MC E 2 10
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Horizontal section I: IO,Typical win dow jamb

10, A ir cavity (sometimes omitted where insulation fills cavity)

I I, Inner precast concrete lintel
12, Outer precast concrete lintel or stone fiat arch
I 3. Damp proof course (DPC)
14, Movement joint
15, Timber framed inner skin with quilt insulation
16, Cement fill
17, Foundation
I 8, Vertical DPC
19, Structural column
20, Floor construction

Vertical sections I : IO,Typical W indow at cill and head, parapet and eavesto pitched rOOT

of t hick and t hin sto ne are used in coursing,
T his allow s ho rizont al jo int lines to be pro -
vided at shelf angles, cavity tra ys and DPes at
gro und level w it hout disturbing th e stone
patt ern w it h addition al horizont al jo ints.
Unlike open joint ed stone cladding, w here
t he mortar is om itted, th e mortar and jo int
pro file have a big visual impact.
W all structures
Loadbearing cavity walls used t o suppo rt two
storey st r uct ures on th eir inner skins are very
commo n in hou sing co nstructio n in Europ e
and N or t h A merica.Vert ical mo vement joints
are provided at aro und 7500mm/25ft cen-
t res, o r else are avo ided altoget her in t he
const r uction by keeping lengths of w all w it hin
t hese dimensio ns.W hen cavity wa lls are used
w it h large scale building frames in eit her stee l
o r concrete , t he inner leaf is no longer load-
bearing and inst ead t he complete w all con-
st ruction form s a cladding to t he fr ame.
W hen reinforced concrete frames are used,
t he junction between inner skin, typ ically con-
crete block or t erra cotta block, is st raightfo r-
ward w it h a gap between t he tw o t o allow
for st ructural movement in t he fram e. Stain-
less st eel sliding anchors are used eit her in
t he sides of t he inner skin panel w here it
meets th e column, o r at th e head w here it
meet s t he floor slab.T he oute r skin runs con-
tinu ously in front of it.Th e sit uat io n is more
complicate d w it h a st eel fr ame, w here th e
column needs t o be protected fro m corro -
sion from wate r vapo ur in th e cavity Typically Vertical section 1:25.W all
assembly
t he column is painted t o fo rm a protective

MC E 2 11
 CD
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Vertical section I :IO.Typical parapet

D et ails
I. Stone or concrete coping
2. Outer stone skin with brick backing shown to
create deep window reveals or where
required structurally
3. Inner block skin
4. Timber framed window / door @
5. Stone or precast concrete cill -o
6. Timber inner cill
<J
7. Cavity closer ",I
8. Internal plaster finish or dr y lining/dry wall
9. Thermal insulation in cavity
10. Air cavity (sometimes omitted where insula
tion fills cavity)
I I. Inner precast concrete lintel
12. Outer precast concrete lintel or stone fiat arch
I 3. Damp proof course (DPC)
14. Movement joint Vertical section I 10.Typical
threshold Vertical section I :10.Typical parapet
15. Timber framed inner skin with quilt insulation
16. Cement fill
17. Foundation
18. Vertical DPC
19. Structural column
20. Flo or construction
coat ing and th erm al insulation is set across ISOmm/6in above gro und fioor level w it h a
th e face of th e stee lwo rk t o provide a cont i- hor izontal joint th at can be accommo date d
nuit y of t hermal insulation. Sometimes t he w it hin th e design. Granite is often used
oute r skin is restrained w it h cavity ties fixed below DPC level t o avoid staining from rain
t o th e face of th e reinforced concrete or splashing from th e adjacent gro und and from
stee l column.T his is particularly useful w hen dust and damage in urban locations.The
forming a movement joint in lengths of granite, usually 30mm t o 40mm thi ck ( 1.2in
brickw ork, or movement joints th at form t o I.Sin), is bonded t o brickwork or concrete
part of th e building str uct ure w hich typically blockw ork t o make up th e difference in
occur at columns in th e building fr ame.The th ickness of th e oute r skin t o a minimum of

..
-- --
ver t ical movement joint is filled w it h tw o IOOmm (4in).
part polysulphide sealant th at also matches In order t o avoid dampness reaching th e

J.. lX::0:
C0 th e colour of th e mortar as clo sely as possi- inside of th e building, a mixture of DPCs is
AJ..J..J..J..J.. i9'i'"X ble and provides a seal th at can accommo - used th at provides a cont inuity between
) \' J ( ~.::;:.::
1
~/ 'J date th e str uct ural movement w it hin th e D PC and th e damp pro of membrane for th e
-1f: CD ED cavity wall. fioor slab. D ifferent combinat ions of DPCs
are used for ent ry int o th e building at th e
~ Ground level same level as outside w hen th e fioor level is
Vertical & horizontal sections I: IO.Typical window
A n essent ial design considerat ion at gro und a minimum of ISOmm (6in) above exte rnal
at cill
level is to provide a DPC at a minimum level.W hen internal and exte rnal levels are

MC E 2 12
 ,
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[ Horizonta l sectio n I: I O. Blockwo rk cavity w all con st ructi on
p
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Isom etri c views of wall assembly.
almost th e same, th e OPC is set at gro und
level and is co nt inuo us w it h t he OPM rising
fro m below.A n additional stepped OPC is
set I SOmm (6in) above exte rnal level t o
drain th e cavity above.W hen internal and
ext ernal levels are very different, a first OPC
steps down from internal floor level t o a hor-
izontal joint in the outer skin, ISOmm (6in)
above ext ernal level, w here a second OPC
o n th e inner skin exten ds down t he internal
face of the w all down t o join the OPM.
T he cavit y below gro und level is filled t o
avoid water building up in any voids. parti cu-
larly w here found atio ns for pads for stee l o r
reinforced concrete co lumns are cont inuo us
w it h t he cavity wall. Found at ions need t o be
filled t o gro und level.
There is always a difficulty in prov iding a
cont inuity of th er mal insulat ion down the
cavity and under t he slab due t o th e need t o
~"-
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"r
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3-D view of blockw ork cavity wall const r uct ion
build th e masonry skins direct ly off th e foun-
dation.The t herm al insulat io n in th e cavity is
taken dow n as far as possible t o overlap wit h
t he insulat ion under th e floo r slab to reduce
t he th erm al br idge t o a minimum.
Openings in walls
This sectio n discusses variat ions and details
additional t o th ose set out in the previo us
section o n brick cavity w alls and focuses on
different mat erials fo r t he inner skin.
W hen a t imber framed inner skin is used.
th e w indow is usually an int egral part of that
inner skin so t hat a complete enclosure is
fo rmed in timb er w it h masonry used as an
o ute r skin providing some lat er al stability.The
o ute r mason ry skin can be return ed t o form
a reveal up t o around 12Smm (Sin) depend-
ing o n th e th ickness of insulat ion in t he cavity. Vertical sectio n I : IO.Typical wi ndow at cill
A lternatively t he t imber wi ndow can be set and head
MC E 213
 CD ~~ //

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- Hori zontal section I: I O. Blockwork cavity wall construction
Horizontal section I 10. Blockwork cavity wall
construction

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Isometric view of wall assembly.

]
D etails
I. Stone or concrete coping
2. Outer stone skin with brick fo rw ard close t o th e line of th e oute r face cotta o r even br ick are bond ed t ogether
backing shown to create deep
window reveals or where w it h a t imber cill projecting fo rw ard of th e w it h mortar and th en held in a st eel edge
required st ruct urally wall.Th is gives th e o ute r wa ll an appearance fr ame, w hich is fixed t o th e inner skin.Th e
3. Inner block skin
4. Timber framed window / door of a brick t exture, giving a planar look to th e concrete inner skin is wate rproo fed w it h
5. Sto ne or precast concrete cill materi al. bitumin ou s paint and th erm al insulation set
6. Timber inner cill
7. Cavity closer W it h reinforced concrete inner skins, it is o n th e o utside face of th e inner skin.Th e
8. Internal plaster finish difficult t o set wall ti es int o th e materi al t o steel angle o n th e bottom edge form s a clos-
or dry lining/dry wall
9. Thermal insulation in cavity restrain th e o ute r mater ial. Since it is not er t o th e w indow below, w hile th e stee l o n
10. A ir cavity (sometimes omitted practical t o cast in wa ll t ies in th e precise th e t op edge form s a cill t o th e w indow
where insulation fills cavity)
I I. Inner precast concrete lintel location w here th ey are needed, w hich does above .T he vert ical steel angles are usually
I 2. Outer precast concrete Iintel or not allow for lat er adjust ment, a set of nar- concealed w it hin th e cavity t o give a cont inu-
stone fiat arch
I 3. Damp proof course (DPC) row stainless steel channels are post fixed t o o us masonry appearance.Th e masonry is
14. Movement joint th e co ncret e.Wall t ies are th en fixed t o somet imes restrained w it hin th e panel by
15. Timber framed inner skin with
quilt insulation th ese channels, w hich provide th e adjust ment vert ical stainless steel ro ds w hich are t en-
I 6. Cement fill required. In recent years, o ute r masonry skins sioned against th e fr ame t o form lightly pre-
17. Foundation
I 8. Vertical DPC have been made as prefabricated panels o n stressed panels.Vert ical jo int s between panels
19. Structural column some proj ects w hen fixed back t o a rein- are sealed,ty pically w it h a polysulphide sealant.
20. Floor construction
forced concrete wa ll. Panels of sto ne, t erra-

MC E 2 14
3-D view of blockwork cavity wall constru ction
3-D exploded view of blockwork cavity wall constru ction
Eaves and parapets
Eaves t o cavity w alls in stone and block are
generally t o either a reinfo rced concrete slab
or t o a timber pitched roof. When a rein-
forced concrete slab is used and is visible
from the o utside, both inner and o uter skins
need a joint fo r expansion at the head.A
compressible durable seal is used, recessed
fro m the face of t he outer skin t o avoid a
colour clash w it h t he mor tar below. St ainless
stee l angles w it h slotted connections are also
used t o restrain masonry at t he head, o r
even a stainless ste el channel if t he underside
of t he concrete is revealed.W hen th e con-
crete slab soffit is concealed w it h addit ional
cladding, a hori zontal joint in t he o uter skin is
usually placed t o align w ith t he cladding to
avoid t he appearance of th e stone disappear-
Vertic al section I: IO. Typical window at cill
c---------:-1 'I
Horizonta l sect ion I: IO.
Typical connectio n or restraint to prim ary structure
ing behind the soffit. The o uter skin cont inues
wit h anot her course to close against the slab
soffit. W here a dow nstand beam is used t o
support th e concrete roof slab above, the
beam is usually aligned w it h the inner skin of
the cavity w all.A stepped ope is set the
other w ay rou nd fro m it s usual position,
draining fro m the o uter leaf to th e inner leaf,
but w at er run ning down t he underside of the
ope is dr ained harmlessly dow n t he o uter
face of t he inner skin. If t imber is used in a
projecting flat ro of th e ope is set o n t op of
t he wa ll, on w hich ro of tim ber s are suppor t-
ed. A cont inuity of th ermal insulat io n is pro -
vided.Th e t imber roo f struct ure can also be
vent ilate d t o allow it t o be kept dry w hile 3-D view of blockwork cavity wall constructio n
maintaining t herm al insulation.
For parapets the inner skin is th ickened
MCE 215
 D etails
I. Stone or concrete coping
2. Outer stone skin with brick
it
backing shownto create deep
window reveals or where
required structurally
3. Inner block skin
4. Timber framed window / door
5. Stone or precast concrete cill
6. Timber inner cill
7. Cavity closer ~

8. Internal plasterfinish
or dry lining/drywall
9. Thermal insulation in cavity
10. Air cavity (sometimes omitted
where insulation fills cavity)
II . Inner precast concrete lintel
12. Outer precast concrete Iintel or
stone fiat arch 0
]
13. Damp proof course (DPC) .>
14. Movement joint
. <Y
1
L]
,.- ,.-
..-/. ,.-
15. Timber framed inner skin with
,.-
quilt insulation "
16. Cement fill
17. Foundation
18. Vertical DPC
19. Structural column
20. Floor construction

Isometricview of wall assembly.

up w hen used as a balustr ade. A hand rail o n parapet wa lls, a st epped DPC is used to drain
t op of t he co ping is fixed by drilling t hro ugh w ate r back t o t he inner skin t o ensure t hat
t he t op and bo ltin g it to t he inner skin w at er inside thi s part of th e cavity w all is
beneath.T he co ping is cut t o receive t he bal- drained imm ediat ely, especially in very
ustrade o r handrail. unless t he uprights sup- ex posed co nd it io ns. A st epped DPC is used
porting t he handrail pass bet w een t he joints. instead o f a regular fiat DPC und er th e co ping.
T he adjacent area of fiat ro of o r gutter usual-
ly has a w at er pro ofing layer retu rn ing up t he
wa ll, regard less o f th e ro of finish.Th e water-
proofing layer is set int o hori zon t al join t s in
o ute r m ason ry skin. A m et al flashing is set
int o t he sam e hori zon t al join t and is set ove r
t he t op of th e wate r pro ofing t o protect it
fr o m dam age. Met al co pings are used increas-
ingly o n parap et s in o rde r t o match t he
appearance of w indows and doo rs, particu-
larly w here m et al cills are used .T he same
prin cip les app ly as for co ncrete co pings, w it h
a DPC set o n t op of t he m asonry wa ll. D r ips I

are form ed o n eit her side of t he vert ical face

t o ensure t hat water is t hrow n clear o f t he
wa ll. For all parapet s, th e w at erpro o fing layer
is co nt inued up t he w all t o beco m e co nt inu-
3-D view of sectionthrough blockwork cavity wall and window
o us w it h t he DPC in low parapet s. For high

MC E 2 16
 3-D view of window cill detail
3-D view of window head detail

1 - - - - - L-- 0 -r-- - - - -

®
Vertical sections I : IO. Typical window at cill and head

Horizontal sections I : IO.Window jambs

t>

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3-D view of junction at ground fioor level Vertical section I : IO. Junction at ground fioor level

MC E 2 17
 onry a s
Masonr cavit walls: Stone and concrete block
Details
I. Stone or cooc-ete copong
l Outer stone sb'I WIth bOck
00d<ng ~ to create deep
~ reveals or ~

3.
-4
""""'" """"""
Imer block sb'1
Tmbet" h'amed ~ I dooI"
5. Stone or precast co-crete dl
6. Tm ber irvler dl
7. CavIty closer
8. Intemal plaster 'irush
or dry lining/dry wall
9. Thermal insulation lI"l Cavrty

3-D VIeW of tllocIr<worio: c.wrty w all construetoon

10. Ar UVIty (sometmes OII"Ittect

~ nsuIatoon fillseavrty)
I I. Inner precast eeoc-ere Irltel
II Outer precast eeoc-ere lImel or
stone IIat arch
13. D¥Ill proof course (DPC)
1-4 MoYeITleflt pill:
15. Timber framed inner skI'l WIth
qu,t! ,nsulatlon
16. Cement f,1l
17. Fcuodation
18. Vertical DPe
19. Structural column
20. Floor con structio n 3-D exp loded view of blockwo rk cavrty wal l ccostructoo

] -0 exploded VIeW of bIockworl< cavity wall conwuet:oon 3-D VIeW of blockworl< UVIty w all wrth WI1dow

MC E_ 218
3-D view of stone cavity wall construction 3-D exploded view of stone cavity wall construct ion

3-D exploded view of stone cavity

wall window detail

3-D view of stone cavity wall

construct ion with window

MC E 2 19

Isometric view of sto ne cladding on individual fixings
Cut sto ne used for w all cladding can be
eit her sealed w it h mortar o r sealant o r, alt er-
nat ively, be o pen jo inted fo llow ing rainscreen
principles. In both cases th e sto nes are fixed
t o an insulat ed backing w all.T he stone types
used in cladding are granit es,sandstones,
limest o nes and slates. Marbles are somet imes
used, but are not generally considered to be
as durable as t he oth er sto ne types .Their
we ights vary from 2500kg/m2 for limestone
t o 2750 kg/m2 for granite .
An essential differe nce between stone
and ot her cladding mate rials is that t he mate-
rial may still not be cut from the quarry at
the t ime th e material is chosen fo r a building
project. particularly fo r larger pro jects.The
use of sto ne for cladd ing requires considera-
ble planning, fro m setting t he range of co l-
ours, t o ne and surface marks t hat w ill be
used fo r th e cladding, t o establishing t he
physical pr op erties for t he stone from t he
act ual quarry chosen, t o using thi s data t o
complete a str uctural design t o establish
stone panel sizes and th icknesses.
Stone is varied in its durability and
MCE 220
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
CD
Isomet r ic view of stone cladding on ext ru ded aluminium carr ier system
st rength due to var iat ion in th e bed of t he
stone. Som e quarries have co nsistent st o ne,
w hile in ot her s it s prop erties may vary con-
siderably.Test dat a o n t he physical properties
of t he stone in each quarry are obt ained,
parti cularly its strength, in o rder t o establish
t he panel size and t hickness t hat w ill be used.
T he th ickness of stone fo r a facade applica-
t ion is usually established by structural calcu-
lat io n. Flexural strengt h, also called t he modu-
lus of rupture. is usually t he most important
structural co nsiderat ion . Code s of practice
often set out minimum t hicknesses fo r differ-
ent panel sizes in different stones, but t his is
o nly a general guide and calculation is usually
under t aken fo r facade applicatio ns.
Samples are usually chosen t o set t he
r ange of co lour and t extu re th at are t o be
used in a facade. Because t he sto ne required
for a particular pr oject is not always cut
before co nstruct ion st arts, t he quarr y co n-
firm s t he amo unt of tim e needed t o cut and
finish t he stone panels. w hich can t ake co n-
siderably lo nger t han cladd ing panels in ot her
mat erials. Because the mat er ial is nat ural, care
is taken t o avoid defects such as cracks and
holes in t he material th at w ill affect it s dura-
bility as a cladding material. For slates, nat ural
markings are a part of t he natu re of th e
sto ne and th e mater ial is judged fo r it s par-
t icular applicat ion.
Fixings
Stainless steel is most commonly used fo r fix-
ings rather than other mat erials because of
it s resistance t o corrosion comb ined w it h
high strength and rigidity. Stone fixings allow
for a three-way adjustment t o ensure a prop-
er fit vertically. ho rizontally and laterally (in o r
o ut fro m the facade).W here ancho r slots o r
inser ts are cast int o the floor slab o r rein-
fo rced con crete wa ll,t hese are needed t o be
accurately position ed even t hough t hey pro-
vide adjustment for th e final posit ion of th e
sto ne.T he ty pe of fixing used is dependent
mainly o n t he st o ne t hickness.
Loadbearing fixings,suppo rting th e
sto nes,are usually set o n t he bottom edge of
t he sto ne panel,t hough side fixings are some-
times used, depen ding on the weight and
 ~------
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o
D etails for stone o n
individual fixings
I. Stone panel
2. Backing wall.typically
concrete block
3. Stainless steel fixings (a
wide range is available)
4. Timber framed window
S. Stone cill

.....,. 6.
7.
Timber inner cill
Internal plaster finishor
""'" dry lining/drywall
y •• , ••••

8. Thermal insulation in
"
cavity
9. Stainless steel restraint ®
10.
at each floor level
Air cavity
(2)
~
I I. Precast concrete lintel
~ ~~
12. W aterpro of membrane
13. Floor slab ' (l2W1F/N/
~~
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14. Stone coping

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Horizontal & vertical sections I:I O. Typical stone

carrier system made from individual stone fixings

3-D view of typical stone carrier system made from individual stone fixings

MC E 22 1
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individual fixings

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Horizontal, vertical sections and
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Typical stone carrier system

made fro m individual stone
fixings

<
A !:I st rength of th e panels,Two br ackets at th e o r dowel, set into a st ainless st eel fiat sect io n
:11 < '" '"
)i~ bottom of th e stone are used, w it h not more in an 'L' shape,Th e pins are typically 3mm
ii th an four brackets in total.Triangular panels (0, I I Sin) diameter for st o ne up to 30mm
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J usually have o ne fixing in each corner.At ver-
t ical movement jo ints, adjacent sto nes are
carried on separate supports, each side of
( I ,2in) thi ck and 5mm (0,2in) for sto ne of
greate r th icknesses,
Face fixings are norm ally used w it h mar-
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th e movement joint. The end of th e fixing ble and granite ,Th e bo lts function as both
r~] )!~
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CD suppo r t ing t he st o ne is around 50mm w ide, loadbearing and restraint fixings and are set
Restraint fixings are used t o resist posi- away from th e corne rs in th e manner of bo lt
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ti ve and negative w ind loads as we ll as
imposed loads from maintenance equipme nt.
fixed glazing,A bolt is fixed in each corne r.
usually at a distance equal t o three t imes t he
12 Th e slot in th e stone is eit her a ho le, slot o r stone th ickness but t o a maximum distance
)
) rebate th at is not visible from th e st o ne face, of around 75mm (3in) from th e corne r.
)

®'>j Th ese are usually locat ed at 1/5 po int s for Smaller stones are fixed w it h fewer fixings,
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stack bo nded st o nes and Y. points for % and tri angular panels usually have a fixing in
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bond ed stones, and at least 75mm (3in) each corne r o nly.
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~I l' from th e corne r.A maximum of four Fixings used to suppo rt st o nes th at clad
Horizontal & vertical sections I : I0, Typical stone restr aint fixings per stone is used, Restraint soffits, such as t he under side of a concrete
carrier system made from individual stone fixings
fix ings t ypically co nsist of a stainless stee l pin, slab, are suspended from bolts o r hangers

MC E 222
 @

3-D view of extruded aluminium carrier system

Horizontal & vertical sections I:I O.
Typical stone carrier system made from extru ded aluminium

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,I , Details for sto ne supporte d on carrier
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syste m
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I. Sto ne panel
2. Extruded aluminium carrier system
Q: 3. Stainless steel fixing pins
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6.
Backingwall. Concrete shown.
Thermal insulation
7. Adjacent wall. Rainscreen panels
w hich slide int o anchorages cast int o th e sup- ber-based w asher around 3mm (0. 1IBin) shown.
8. O pen joint configuration as shown
port ing structure. t hick t o allow for th e moveme nt between 9. Support brackets
stone and th e concrete backgro und.The 10. Restraint brackets
I I . Joint betwe en sto ne panels
Cladding to precast concrete dowel penet rates 2/3 th e th ickness of the 12. Flo or slab
pane ls stone and around 60mm - 75mm int o th e
Any of the stones listed at the beginning of concrete (2.3in-3in) .
this section can be used as a facing to precast
concrete panels,but granite is most com- Joints
mo nly used due t o its higher st rength, allow - Joints are eit her of closed or ope n type.
ing it t o be used relat ively thinl y.T hicker sand- Closed jo ints use either mortar o r proprie-
sto nes and limesto nes are also used, however. tary sealant. Closed joints are used where
Sto ne is fixed t o concrete panels w it h dowel th e cladding is suppo rted at each floo r level
pin fixings w hich are inclined at 45° t o 60° t o o n st ainless stee l angles w it h joint ed sto nes.
suit th e size of stone and ho lding it in place. W it h open jointed sto nes,each panel is indi-
Pins are usually set at around 200mm (Bin) vidually suppo rt ed in a rainscreen const ruc-
cent res both vert ically and hori zontally w it h a t io n, w here rainw at er passing through th e
pin t hickness of aro und 5mm . 50% of dowels joints is drained away down eit her th e back
are set in each direction t o provide a bal- of th e sto nes o r down t he face of th e back-
anced suppo rt Each dow el has a flexible rub- ing w all. 3-D view of extr uded aluminium carrier system

M CE 223
 _®
Verti cal & horizontal sections I : IO. Typical stone carrier system made from extruded aluminium
3-D view of extruded aluminium carri er system
Clo sed jo ints
Closed joints need t o be loadbearing and
wat ert ight and must also accommod ate rela-
tive movements of cladding and suppor t ing
building struct ure.T he typ es of jo inting o r
point ing (t he o ute r finish of mo rtar o r seal-
ant) w ill depend on t he ty pe, size, th ickness
and surface finish of cladding unit s. Stones are
not usually butted up against o ne anot her,
since any movement of t he unit o r of t he
structure cannot be accommo dated , causing
damage t o th e stones.
joints in sandsto ne and limest o ne are
usually filled w it h ceme nt/sand mort ar or
cement/ sand/ lime mortar. Granite and slate
ty pically use prop rietar y sealant. such as two-
part polysulphide. Mort ar used for point ing
is made fro st resistant w hen used in t emper-
at e climates,and of sim ilar st rength t o th e
jointi ng mortar,w hich is t he st ruct ural mor-
t ar behind. N eith er mortar sho uld be st ro ng-
er th an th e sto ne. For limest o ne and sand-
sto ne a mort ar of 1/1/5 for cement/ lime/
sand is ty pically used, o r 1/ 2/8 for cement/
lime/cr ushed stone particles, w here t he col-
MCE 22 4
3-D expl oded views of individually fixed carri er syst em
o ur of t he mort ar is blended w it h t he
cr ushed sto ne.
For narrow joints used w it h granite o r
slate , a high ceme nt -to-sand ratio is used.
joint s w ider t han around 4mm are filled w it h
a w eaker mix t o reduce shrinkage cracks.Th e
maximum w idt hs of mortar filled joints are
aro und 12mm (O.5in) but sealant filled joi nts
can be up t o aroun d 30mm ( 1.2in), depend-
ing o n th e prop riet ar y prod uct used. jo int
w idt hs are usually a functio n of th e cutting
t ol erance of th e stone, around 2mm differ-
ence in the cut line of t he stone, depending
o n stone ty pe and th e cutting machine used.
Mo dern machines can cut stones to w it hin
I mm accuracy.jo int widths of 4mm are com-
mon, but thi s can rise to a maximum of
I 2mm w hen required for visual reasons,par-
t icularly w hen t he joint is recessed. Granite,
slat es and hard limest on es and sandstones
can have a jo int w idt h at a minimum of 3mm,
w hile soft sandst ones and limesto nes can be
laid w it h a minimum 5mm joint. W hen a pro -
priet ar y sealant is used, th e minimum jo int
w idth for all stone types is usually around 5mm .
Movement jo int s
Hori zont al movement joints are used t o deal
mainly w it h fioo r slab deflect ions, and t o a
lesser exte nt vert ical shortening, in t he st ruc-
tural frame.This horizontal joint is usually
pro vided at slab level. w here th e sto ne clad-
ding is suppo rted fro m either short lengths
of stainless steel angle, or a contin uous shelf
angle.The joint occurs immediately below
t he stainless steel angle,w here vertical
defiection w ill occur. Hori zo ntal movement
joi nts can be set at inte rvals of two sto reys if
th e stone and support brackets or frame can
be designed to span t he height.The joint
w idth is usually a minimum of 15mm, but
20mm to 25mm (O.8in- 1in) are common
w it h reinforced concrete st ruct ures.T he jo int
is fo rm ed eit her as a sealant o r as a step in
th e st o ne, w here th e upper ston e proj ects
forward of t he sto ne below to conceal t he
w ider joint. In both joint types t he joint is
made w ate rt ight. for closed joint s and for
o pen joint s, w here rainscreen cladding pr inci-
ples are used.
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Vertical section and elevation 1:25.
Typical stone carrier system made from
extruded aluminium. Stone joints with both
straight and staggered joints to show flexibility
of carrier systems

Details for sto ne suppo rte d on

carrier syste m
I. Stone panel
2. Extruded aluminium carrier system
3. Stainless steel fixing pins
4. Stackjoint
5. Backingwall. Concrete shown.
6. Thermal insulation
7. Adjacent wall. Rainscreen panels
shown.
8. Open joint configuration as shown
9. Support brackets
10. Restraint brackets
I I. Joint between stone panels
12. Floor slab

3-D view of stainless fixing method for extruded aluminium carrier system

MC E 225
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3-D view of stone cladding on
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Isometric view of wall assembly

Vertical section 1:25.

Typical stone carrier system

D etails for sto ne o n indi vidu al Vert ical movement joints are pro vided t o are aro und IOmm (O.5 in).Yert ical movement
fixings deal w it h racking in th e st r uct ure as we ll as joints are ext ended int o parapets and copings.
I. Stone panel
2. Backing wall,typically concrete movements in th e cladding itself W here
block
movement joints occur in th e building st r uc- Stone finishes
3. Stainless steel fixings (a wide
range is available) ture, usually fo llow ing a co nt inuo us vert ical Granites, limesto nes, sandst o nes and slate s
4. Timber framed window
line w here it intersects w it h th e facade, a are using an increasingly w ide range of finish-
5. Stone cill
6. Thermal insulation in cavity ver t ical movement jo int is pro vided in th e es,w it h finishes associate d w ith o ne st o ne
7. Internal plaster finish or dry
facade in th e same locati o n.Th e distance ty pe being used for anot her.T he main finishes
lining/dry wall
8. Timber inner cill between joints is ty pically at aro und 6 metres are as foll ow s:A ru bbed finish is a smoot h
9. Stainless steel restraint at each
in a co nt inuous run of st one cladding w it h finish made by rubbing stone w it h an abrasive
floor level
10. Air cavity closed joints.The joint w idt h co rrespo nds t o materi al (ty pically used for limeston e and
I I. Precastconcrete lintel
th e expecte d movement in th e cladding, but sandstone); a hon ed finish has a du ll po lish
I 2. W at erproof membrane
13. Floor slab w here sealed joints are used, th e joint w idt h (used for all t ypes); a polished surface has a
14. Stone coping
is dependent o n th e amo unt of movement high gloss (ty pically used for granite and hard
th at th e sealant is required t o accommo date . limest o ne); a flamed finish is o bta ined by
Minimum w idt hs of vert ical movement joints passing a hot flame over th e st o ne surface

MC E 22 6
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Vertical sections I : I 0,Typical stone carrier system made
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a -a
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from individual stone fixings, Parapet detail (top left) , and
floor junctions (bottom left and above)

/
(ty pically used for granite and slat e), a riven
finish, w here th e stone is cut on it s cleavage
r
plane (ty pically used for slate , sandsto ne o r
limeston e) and t ool ed. w here th e materi al is
wo rked, leaving t oo l marks and is used mainly
on sandstone o r limestone, In addit ion,
sto nes can be filled w it h cements o r pr oprie-
t ary fillers t o conceal natur al vo ids in th e
sto ne,Th e surface is th en coate d o r polished

3-D view of bottom of window opening in stone 3-D view of top of window opening in stone
cladding system made from individual stone fixings cladding system made from individual stone fixings

MC E 227
 y
Stone c1addin
3-D exploded view of extruded aluminium carrier system

CD

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fixings
I.Stone panel
2. Badc ng wall,typically concrete
block
3.Stainless steel fixings (a wide range
is available)
4,Timber framed window
5. Stonecill
6.Timber inner cill
7. Internal plaster ~n ish or dry lining!
dry wall
8.Thermal iosclanon in cavity
9,Stainless stee l rest raint at each
f loor level
IO.Air cavity
II . Precast concrete lint el
12.Wate rproof memb rane
13.Floor slab
14. Stone coping

3-D exploded detail view of parapet for stone cladding system fixed
3-D exploded overview of extruded aluminium carrier system with individual ~xings

Me E 22 8
 ®

3-D exploded detail view of extruded aluminium carrier system 3-D exploded overv iew of extruded aluminium carrier system

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3-D view of bottom of w indow open ing in 3-D view oftop of window open ing in
3-D explo ded overvie w
individually fixed stone cladding system individually fixed stone cladding system
of stone cladding
system with individual
fixings

3-D exp loded view of top of wi ndow opening in individually fixed stone 3-D exploded view of top o f w indow open ing in individually fixed stone
cladding syste m cladding system
MC E 229

Examples of terracotta rainscreen fixing methods
The essent ial prin ciples of rainscreen cladding
are discussed in t he sect ion on met al rain-
screens.Terracotta rainscreens have devel-
oped int o patented pr oprietar y systems from
prototyp es w it hin t he last t en years. O ver
t hat t ime th e sizes of t erra cotta panels have
increased and fixing syste ms have develop ed
for use as solar shading screens t o glazed
w alls as part of an overall rainscreen syste m
for a building facade. H ollow t erracotta sec-
t io ns are reinforced w it h alum inium sect ions
set into th em to form lo uvred screens th at
can match w it h adjacent areas of cladding.
Terracotta is fixed eit her on rails, int o alumin-
ium o r sta inless steel panels,o r o n individual
brackets like mason ry cladding w it h co n-
cealed fixings.Vert ically-set o r hori zont ally-
set rails are used to suit a range of joint
arr angement s t hat imit at e trad itional maso n-
ry bond s,or can be stack bond ed in th e
manner of w all t iling o r glass blocks.Terracot-
t a has been develop ed for use in rainscreens
both from building blocks and br icks,as used
in loadbearing masonry co nstruct ion, and
from decorative ti les,w here many of t he
glazed finishes are derived. Recently devel-
M C E 230
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
f CD
Jlt
Isometri c view of vertically set wall assembly
op ed syste ms have inter locking panels,t o
provide crisp joint s, and double wall sections
to pro vide long spanning ti les w it h high fiexu-
ral strength, o r modulus of rupture, com-
bined w it h lightn ess in we ight.T he range of
glazed finishes has develop ed co nsiderably in
t he past few years t o give a very w ide range
of t extures and co lour mixes derived from
co nte mpo rary potter y.
Manufacture of panels
Terracotta is made from natur al clay th at is
ext r uded and fired in a kiln. Powd ered clay is
mixed w it h wate r in t he facto r y t o achieve a
co nt ro lled level of wate r conte nt. It is th en
ext r uded t hrough dies t hat draw t he mat erial
along a co nveyor belt w here it is w ire cut t o
th e required length.Th e use of dies makes
t he manufacture of t erracotta panels very
fiexib le, giving it th e ability t o make new
shapes and sections fo r each new pr oject
w it h relative ease.Th e die creates different
heights and depth s of block, w it h hollow ing
o ut of t he int eri or t o keep t he mat erial rela-
ti vely light and easy to handle, allowing it t o
be made in long pieces if required.Th e
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ext ruding pro cess gives fiexibi lity to th e
mat erial t hat is sim ilar t o t he creat ion of alu-
minium sections for glazed wa lls and w in-
dow s.W hen t he material is ext ruded and cut
it is dried and fired in kilns of different types
dependi ng o n th e ti le size and shape. Som e
t erracotta panels are machined fo r firing in
o rder t o pro vide th e precise profi le needed
for t he fixing system as we ll as t o provide
precise smaller jo int w idt hs between panels.
Because t erracotta panels have two
ext ruded edges and two cut edges, it is
im po rt ant in arranging panels t o avoid a cut
edge being revealed at a co rne r.T his is
because t he surface finish and colour of th e
end face w ill not mat ch t hat of t he fro nt face.
T he ends of ext r uded t erracotta differ from
t erracotta and fired clay bri cks in thi s respect.
T he ends of panels are usually co ncealed
w it h aluminium trims,somet imes at th e co r-
ners but typ ically aro und w indow o penings.
Corner pieces
Special shapes can be fo rmed by hand t o
match w it h th e sta ndard ext ruded ti les,such
as co rne r pieces and deco rative eleme nts.
 Vertical sections I: IO.Windows at
head and cill

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Vertical section I: IO. Junction with ground

Details
I. Terracotta rainscreen
2. Extruded aluminium carrier frame
3. Support brackets,typically aluminium
4. Thermal insulation
5. Backing wall
6. Floor slab
7. Metal framed window
8. Waterproof membrane
9. Structural column
10. Internal finish
3-D view ofterracotta rainscreen assembly, hung from individual aluminium clips
and horizontally-set support rails

MC E 23 1
Horiz ontal section I: I0, Corner condition s

I-----@----------,

Vertical sect ion I 10, Panel-to-panel

~~~~~~~~0 junctions

D etai ls
I, Terracotta rainscreen
Hori zontal section I :I0,W indow jamb }, Extruded aluminium carrier frame
3, Support brackets, typically
aluminium
4, Thermal insulation
5, Backing wall
6, Floor slab
7, Metal framed window
8, W at erpro of membrane
9, Structural column
10, Internal finish
3-D view of terracotta rainscreen fixed with
individual clips to vertically-set support rails

Vertical section I :I0,
W indow at head and cill,junction with ground
Corn er pieces are made by pressing, usually
w it h a maximum length of I SOmm (6in) on
o ne leg and 300mm ( Il in) o n th e ot her leg,
Large corne r pieces are made by hand by
joining t wo sections t ogether. but th ese cur-
rently produ ce less reliable results th at can
lack a straight and crisp edge. Manufacturer s
ofte n provide ext ruded cill sections for para-
pets and w indow sect ions t o suit wall con-
st ructions of 300mm t o SOOmm ( I l in-lOin)
w ide.Th ese have slo pes t o eit her o ne side o r
t o both sides from th e middl e of th e ext ru-
sion.T he fired t erracotta is eit her left in it s
natural colour o r is glazed w it h a w ide range
of glazes. A glazed finish can give th e material
more visual sparkle by making th e mater ial
more reflective, w hich also provides better
durability from staining. H owever. wate r
absorpt ion of regular t erracotta panels is
between 3% and 6%, w it h a density of
aro und l OOOkg/m 3, making th e use of glazes
not very important in excluding rainw ater
but important more for visual reason s.
Fix ing syst ems
Terracotta t iles have been used in tradition al
const r uct ion for a lo ng t ime, but th eir use as
ext ruded panels in o pen jointed rainscreen
const r uct ion is relatively new and has been
undergoing considerable developm ent over
th e past 10 years.The extruded nature of th e
materi al used for cladding allows it t o be sup-
ported o n clips from both behind and inside
th e mater ial. D epending o n panel size and
thi ckness,th e materi al can be made solid or
hollow t o suit a range of fixing syste ms.

MC E 232

Isometric view of horizonta lly-set wall assembly
3- D view of parapet det ail on terracotta rainscreen facade
Smaller, solid panels have cont inuo us suppo rt
clip profi les o n th e t op and bottom at th e
back of th e panel w hich form s part of th e
material w hen extruded. Some manufactur-
ers use th e hollow s of th e ext rusion t o hold
fixing pegs at th eir ends t o provide a fully
concealed fixing syste m.
The panel is th en fixed back t o suppo rt
rails w hich are set eit her vertically o r hori-
zontally, made from aluminium for th eir abilit y
t o be formed precisely as extrusions for ease
of fixing.Vert ical rails are we ll suite d t o 'stack
bond ed' t erracotta,w here jo ints form a recti-
linear grid of cont inuous vertical and hori -
zontal joints. Hori zont al rails are w ell suit ed
t o staggered bond s of panels th at imit at e th e
stretc her bond used in masonry cavity w all
const r uction. Because vert ical jo ints are not
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Ver t ical & horizontal sections I 10, Vertical section I : I 0. Panel-to-
Panel-to-panel junctions panel junctions
cont inuous, at least twice as many ver t ical
rails wo uld be needed as th ose needed for a
stack bond arrangement. Since horizontal
joints are cont inuous,hori zont al rails are used
t o fix courses of t erracotta.
Vert ical rails are cont inuous, and form a
setting-o ut grid for stack bond ed tiles,w hich
are fixed back t o rails w it h ext r uded alumini-
um clips. Each manufacturer has a proprietary
fixing system w hich makes easier th e pro cess
of fixing panels t o form even jo ints aro und
th e t erracotta panel edges.
Horizontal rails are not cont inuo us in
o rder t o allow wate r t o run down th e back-
ing wall w it ho ut being impeded by th e br ack-
ets.A n alte rnat ive meth od of fixing horizontal
rails is t o set th em fo rw ard of th e backing
3-D view of terracotta rainscreen facade with
wall on brackets t o allow wate r t o pass hori zontally-set support rails
MC E 233
3-D view of terracotta rainscreen wall assembly fixed
with individual clipsto vertically-set support rails
between th e rails and th e backing wall. Some
manufacturers use stainless steel compo-
nents mixed w it h aluminium component s
since th e form er material is considered t o be
more durable.
Hori zontally suppo rted syst ems usually
have extr uded aluminium sections w hich, like
vert ically suppor t ed systems, are fixed back
t o a cont inuous backing wall such as con-
crete blockw ork.A luminium br ackets are
fixed to th e backing wall from aro und
IOOOmm t o 2000mm (3ft 3in t o 6ft 6in)
hori zontal cent res, depending on rail size.
The use of a horizontal clip ensures th at
most of th e rainw ater is excluded at hori -
zontal joints by clipping t he panels t ogether
in a way t hat ensures most of t he wate r runs
back out of th e joint.Terracotta til es used in
hor izontally suppo rte d systems have a
stepped edge th at projects into th e cavity
th at clips int o th e aluminium profile.The bot -
t om edge of th e t erracotta panel above laps
over th e front of th e hori zont al suppo rt pro -
file in order t o conceal it. A cont inuous lip is
form ed in th e back of th e panel. as part of
MC E 2 34
3-D view of terracotta rainscreen
wall assembly fixed onto vertically-
set support rails
th e t erracotta extr uding process,w hich
serves as a suppor t bracket to take th e load
of th e panel onto th e support ing rail.Ver t ical
joints are eit her left open or have a plasti c or
black coated aluminium st rip as a baffle t o
prevent most of th e rainw ater from ente ring
th e joint.Th e baffle also serves as a visual
screen to t he cavity behind w here t here is a
risk of daylight refiecting back out of th e cav-
ity t o reveal th e backing wall behind. A n
advantage of keeping ver t ical joints open is
th at th e gaps allow th e void behind t o be
bett er vent ilate d, instead of relying only on
vent ilat ion points at th e t op and bottom of
th e wall as is th e case in masonry cavity
walls.Joint w idt hs of t erracotta panel rain-
screens vary from 2mm t o aro und IOmm
(up t o O.5in), depending on th e size of panel
and t ype of fixing syste m chosen.
Panel sizes
For th e largest t iles, formed as 'planks' up t o
around I SOOmm long x 600mm w ide x
40mm th ick (Sft x 2ft x I.Sin), a substant ial
aluminium suppor t section is needed behind
t he panels.The ext rusions, set at th e ends of
each panel, somet imes project forw ard of th e
t erracotta in order t o provide enough stabili-
ty in th e sect ion.This gives th e facade a char-
acterist ic appearance of vert ical bays of pan-
els,w here only vertical backing support s are
used, divided by th e visible edge of th e alu-
minium suppo rt. Co rner pieces can be made
in sizes of 2S0mm x 300mm ( l Oin x 12in)
high,w hich ofte n do not match w it h th e
maximum size th at can be manufactur ed for
th e planks, but thi s const raint w ill no doubt
be overcome in th e next few years.Thinner
t erracotta panels of 30mm ( 1.2in) th ickness
are used, in sizes w it h a maximum length of
around SOOmm (2ft Sin) and corresponding
maximum height of 300mm ( I 2in).These
t hinner panels have maximum corner panels
of I SOmm (6in) on one leg and 300mm
( 12in) on th e ot her leg.The minimum sizes
th at can be accommo dated w it h th e vert ical
rail system are t erracotta panels aro und
200mm long x 200mm high (Sin x Sin), w it h
a th ickness of 30mm t o 40mm ( 1.2in- I .6in).
A ll panel dimensions vary w it h a tol erance of
Vertical section I :25.
Ho rizonta l section I: IO.
W indow s at head and cill
Corner condition

I
Details

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Tenracotta rainscreen
Extruded aluminium carrier frame
cd
3. Support brackets. typi cally aluminium
n 4. Thermal insulation
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6. Floor slab
7. Metal framed w indow

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8. W aterpro of membrane
9. Structural column

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MCE 235
 Horizontal section I: I0, W indow jamb
_____---JIC0 ----J
Ho rizontal section I :25,W indow jamb
10
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around ± I .Ornrn in th eir length, since t erra-
cotta is w ire-cut as it comes o ut of th e
ext r usio n machine, and is subject to a toler-
ance of aro und ± l .Srnrn in its w idt h due t o
shrinkage during firing,
Openings
W indow s and doors can be set very easily
int o t erracotta rainscreen cladding, Extruded
aluminium trims w hich proj ect from w indow
o penings can be used t o form a crisp edge t o
] a w indow w hen it is set back behind th e face
of th e t erracotta,as is typically th e case,since
th e w indow is usually fixed int o th e backing
wall,t o w hich th e rainscreen cladding is fixed.
A lte rnat ively, th e w indow frame can form
part of a cont inuo us hori zont al o r ver t ical
Vertical section I :25,W indow at head metal trim th at visually divides t he t erracotta
and cill
int o panels, typically storey height.Th e trims
MC E 236
10
are made from eit her fo lded aluminium o r
rolled stee l channels,Trims are not cont inu-
ous w it h th e st r uct ure behind in ord er to
avoid th erm al brid ging,Th e flat, planar nature
of t erracotta has led t o th e increased o mis-
sion of reveals aro und w indow o penings by
pushing t he w indow frame forward t o align
w it h th e face of th e t erracotta panels, Bays of
t erracotta are also increasingly mixed w it h
ot her materi als such as metal rainscreen pan-
els and metal lo uvre panels w here mater ials
change w it ho ut t he need for any special
detailing at th e junction, since all panels are in
a cont inuous rainscreen arrangement. W here
t erracotta reveals are introduced into w in-
dow o penings, corne rs are mitred w it h open
joints if special corne r panels are not used.
This prin ciple is also used at intern al and
exte rnal corne rs in th e facade,
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Horizontal section I: 10.
Co me r condition,window jamb

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Windows at head and cill

MCE 237
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I .Terracotta rainscreen
:} ;., 2. Extruded aluminium carrier frame
3. Support brackets, typically aluminium
4.Thermal insulation
5. Backing wall
6. Floor slab
7. Metal framed window
8.Waterproof membrane
9. Structural column
I a.lnternal finish
3-D exp lode d view of terracotta rain screen
facade held in place w ith individual support clips

(3) CD

3-D exploded view of wall assembly of terracotta rainscreen supported on vertical and horizontal 3-D exploded view of parapet assembly on terracotta
aluminium rails rainscreen facade

MC E 238
3-D exploded view of ground fioor junction 3-D exploded view of top of window opening in 3-D exploded view of top of corner condition in
terracotta rainscreen wall assembly vertically-hung terracotta rainscreen cladding

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3-D view of parapet 3-D view of top of w indow opening 3-D view of bottom of win dow op ening

3-D exploded view of terracotta rainscreen

mounted on individual aluminium clips on
vertica lly-set aluminium support rails

MCE 239
_________M...;.;CE- 241
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Vertical section I : I O.Junc-

tions at panel-to-panel, win-
dow and junction with
other wall types at top and
bottom

Horizontal sections I : IO.Junctions at panel-to-panel , window and junction with other wall types at top and
bottom, corner

3-D detailed view of window and panel junction 3-D detailed view of wall and panel junction

M C E 242
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Details
I. Translucent GRP claddingpanel. insulat ed
2. Thenmally broken extruded aluminium framing
3. Opaque GRP claddingpanel. insulated
4. Insid e
5. Outside
6. Recessed cover cap
7. W indow inser ted into framing
8. Adjacent wall.Metal rainscneen shown
9. Insulated comer panel
10. Metal cover str ip
II. Supporting structure
Plastics are resinou s. po lym er-based mater i-
als. and th ey are used for both sealed clad-
ding and rainscreens. w hich are discussed in
th e foll owin g t w o sections.Th e materi als
used are pr incipally glass reinforced polyester
(G RP). polycarbon ate and UPVC. Since th e
properties of th ese materi als are generally
not as familiar t o reader s as ot her mater ials.
a bri ef descripti on of each of th ese materi als
is given here.
GRP is a composite mater ial made from
th erm osettin g po lyester resins (t hat set hard
and do not melt w hen re-heated) w hich are
mixed w it h glass fibr e mat.Thi s co mposite
mater ial has high t ensile. shear and co mpres-
sive st rength combined w it h lightness and
resistance t o co rrosion. How ever, like alumin-
ium it deflects co nsiderably under high loads
and requires st iffening. but th e material is
stiffer than ot her plastics. GRP is not combus-
tibl e and can reach one hour fire resistance in
some cladding applicat ions.Glass fibr e mat is
a flexible sheet material made from fibr es
drawn from mo lten glass. It s t ensile st rength
is much greate r th an th at of stee l. Polyester
resin. w it h w hich th e fibre is com bined. forms
a solid materi al w hen a chemical cata lyst is
added. GRP panels are form ed in a mou ld
w here glass fibr e cloth is laid into a mould
and coate d w it h resin and catalyst. A n alte rna-
ti ve method is t o spray a mixture of glass
fibr e and resin into a mould. The face of th e
m ou ld is coate d w it h a releasing agent t o
allow th e GRP t o be removed w hen it has set
hard. GRP sections are made by pultrusion.
w here fibres are pulled through a die dr aw ing
st rands of th e materi al t o form co nt inuous
sect ions in th e manner of aluminium ext r u-
sions. Pultru sion s are beginning to be used as
st ruct ural co mpo nents in footbridges.w here
th eir durability is considered t o be better
th an painted aluminium o r steel struct ures.
W hereas sections are made by an expensive
pultrusion method. panels are made by hand
as a craft-based act ivity in a wo rksho p.The
production of GRP panels is eco nomic.
requiring neither high t emp er atures for manu-
facture. nor expensive equipme nt.
Polycarbonate is a th erm op lastic. th at is. it
melts at high t emp eratures. It is used in c1 ad-
ding for its translucency and transparency,
especially w here its high th erm al insulation
values are needed. Po lycarbonate is made by
melting a polymer and extruding it into
strands w hich are cho pped t o produce poly-
carbo nate granules.Th e granules are th en
ext ruded or mould ed t o form sheet materi -
als. Po lycarbon ate is ext r uded in single wall.
doub le wa ll or trip le wa ll materi als.Twin wall
sheet is an extrusion of t w o layer s separate d
by fins. giving th e mater ial greate r rigidity,
combined w it h an air gap th at pr ovides addi-
t ional th erm al insulati o n.Th e maximum sheet
size is approximate ly 2000mm x 6000mm .
Th e mater ial has a t endency t o yellow w it h
age. w hich can be ove rco me w it h an acry lic
coat ing.Th e mater ial can also be mou lded
into complex shapes. It is also used for its
high strength. ductility and lightn ess in we ight.
Because th e mater ial is combust ible. it s use in
facades is limited. A n advantage of th e mate-
rial over glass is it s im pact resistance. w hich is
higher th an th at of tou ghened glass o r lami-
nated glass.Th e main disadvantages of po ly-
carbo nate over glass are th at it is less durable
MC E 243
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Details o
I, Translucent GRP cladding

2.
pane l, insulat ed
Therm ap y broken extruded
aluminium framing
o
3-D view of junct ion at gutter
3. Opaque GRP cladding
panel,insulated
4. Im ide
5. Outside
6. Recessed cover cap
7. W ,ndO'N inserted into
framing
S. Acjacent wall. Met.ll ram
screen shown
9. Insulated come r panel
10. Meta l cover strip
I I. Supporting structure

Vert ical section 1:10, lorctons at parapet and cill 3-D view of junction at ground

MC E 244
 Isometri c view of wall assembly.
3-D section of window and sealed panel junction
and scratc hes easily, w hich makes th e surface
dull w it h tim e, and its high th ermal ex pansio n.
It expands up t o 20% more than glass.
UPVc. or PVC-u is an unplasticised, o r
rigid PVc. used in plastic-based cladding
mainly for w indow fram es and weat her-
boardin g.Th e materi al can be easily ext r uded
as com plex sect ions t o pr ovide an eco nomic
material w it h low th erm al co nductivity, mak-
ing it ideal for w indow frames w here a plastic
th erm al break would be provided in an
equivalent aluminium w indow. Like po lycar-
bon ate it is combustible but is not easily ignit -
ed, burnin g slowly if ex posed t o a flame
source. If th e flame is removed, th en th e
flame w ill self-ext inguish.Th e material w ill sof-
t en if exposed t o a direct heat source. UPVC
is available in a range of co lours, weat hering
we ll, but is suscept ible t o fading, particularly
w it h br ighter co lours. It is a t ough mater ial,
but also flexible.
GRP panels
GRP cladding panels can be made eit her as
separate panels glazed into an alum inium
3-D cutaway view of wall assembly.
pressure plate system w it h a secondary sup-
porting stru cture behind, or by forming alu-
m inium ext rusions w it hin th e panels.A n
advantage of GRP panels is th eir lightn ess in
we ight, com bined w it h being mou lded, allow-
ing th em to be made in large panel sizes, up
to 6000mm x 1500mm (20ftx5 ft) .T hey are
more eco nomic th an an equivalent insulat ed
glazed wa ll. Panel thi cknesses are usually
70-75mm t o pro vide struct ural stability and
th erm al insulati o n.
W here panels are fixed into aluminium
pressure plates, th e cover capping over th e
face of th e plate is also aluminium.T his can
present a difficulty in co lour matching
between th e capping and th e adjacent panel.
W here th e alum inium is powd er coate d o r
PVDF coate d, th e GRP is coloured w it h a
resin applied t o th e face of th e mou ld during
manufacture.Th is can lead t o co lour variat ion
between th e cappings and th e panels,w hich
can eit her form part of th e design, o r else
different colo urs are used for each. GRP pan-
els are glazed in a similar way t o glass, w it h a
thin panel edge, w hich can be co mpressed,
held between EPDM gaskets by an ext ruded
aluminium plate. Panels are made from two
mou lded GRP skins w hich are bond ed eit her
side of th e rigid insulation . In commo n w it h
metal composite panels, GRP panels have
undergone much development in th e use of
glues to avoid delamination betw een th e
o ute r skins and th e insulati o n core. Edges of
th e GRP panels are bond ed together t o form
a sealed panel.W indows are glazed in to th e
pressure plates as separate panels.W indows
are rarely glazed directly into GRP panels
since it is difficult t o pro vide a drained and
vent ilate d vo id w it hin a GRP panel. Earlier
versions of GRP panels, used in th e 1960s
and I 970s, used a rubb er gasket t o seal th e
jo int between w indow and panel, as w as
used in car w indscreens at that tim e. But th e
lack of a second line of defence behind th is
seal led t o th e leaks.T he same pr ob lem was
enco unte red in car w indows, w hich mo ved
o n t o using silicone bond s. C ills and parapets
are form ed w it h GRP or pressed aluminium
co pings in th e same way as st ick glazing sys-
t ems,discussed in th e Glass chapte r. Copin gs
MCE 245
 D etails
I. GRP or UPVC rainscreen panels
2. Twinwall polycarbonate sheet
3. Support rail
4. Thermal insulation
5. Supporting structure
6. Metal drip
7. Floor slab
8. Metal parapet coping
9. Backing wall
Vertical sections I: IO.
Panel-to-panel junctionand
head and cill condition

Horizontal section I:IO. Corner condition

®

3-D view of panel to panel junction 3-D view of panel to panel junction 3-D view of panel to panel junction

are glazed in to t he pressure plate fram ing in light to pass t hrou gh t he panel. Mineral w ool wa ll, restrain ed by a secondar y steel fr ame.

t he same w ay as a panel. quilt is t ypically used, but fixing t he insulation W hen glazed into an op ening, t he edge

GRP panels can also be fixed t oget her requires care t o avoid t he mat eri al fro m lat er T-sect io n alum inium profiles are sealed

w it h extr uded aluminium sect io ns set w it hin sagging, w hich is clear ly visible t hro ugh t he against t he adjacent concrete floo r slab w it h

t he depth o f t he panel.T his is a more eco - GRP panel. Light t ransm issio n w it ho ut addi- silicone, at both t op and bottom .W hen fixed

nomi c sol ut ion w hich is closer to metal com- ti on al t herm al insulation is t ypically around to a seco ndar y suppo rt fram e, panels are

po site panels in its approach t han t he alumin - 15%, w it h a U -value o f I .5W /m 2 "C, w hich is suppo rte d at each floor level o n met al

ium pressure plate system, w hich is based o n sim ilar t o an argo n filled do uble glazed unit, bracket s in eit her alum inium, mild steel (if

stick-built glazed wa lls. GRP panels are and a shading factor of 20%, w hich pro vid es a int ern al) or st ainless st eel (if ex posed t o t he

clipped into aluminium extr usions w hich have high level of shading for a 'glazed' wa ll. Un like weat her) . Ci lls and co pings are form ed w it h

a t her mal break set int o t he section. Panels t he pressure plate syste m, w indows can be t he meth ods descr ibed in t he sect ion o n

are also st iffened int ern ally w it h alum inium glazed int o th e panels, giving th e possibilit y of met al com posite panels.

I-secti on s o r T-sect io ns w here large scale a rich mix of w indows , doors and translucent

panels are used. Panels can be opaqu e or panels w it ho ut t he need fo r co m plex framing. Polycarbonate cladding
t ranslucent, like t he previo us pressure plate- W indow frames can fo rm part o f t he T sec- Po lycarb onate is used fo r wa ll cladding as

based syste ms describ ed. W here panels are ti on extr usio n aro und a w indow. Int egrat ing eit her profi led sheet or as twin wa ll / trip le

t ransparent, t he int ern al alum inium fr aming t he w indow frame int o t he extr usion sup- wa ll sheet. W here pro filed sheet is used, it is

w it hin t he panel forms a visible gr id, resem - porting t he GRP panels avoids potential leaks ty pically used in lo ng length s to avo id ho r i-

bling t raditio nal Japanese Shoji scree ns.T hese associate d w it h silicone-sealed butt joint s zont al joint s fo rmed by lapping sheets over

int ern al rib s are typically set from 300 mm x w hen a separate w indow frame and panel on e anot her.T he sheet is orientated ty pically
300mm cent res to 300m m x 600mm cen- fram e are fixed together.T he int egrat ed w in- w it h t he profi le lines r unning vert ically to

t res. In t hese t ranslucent panels t he vo id dow frame allow s w ate r t o be drained fro m allow rainwater t o run off w it h a minimum of

between t he two skins can be filled w it h t he frame. GRP panels can be glazed into visible st aining to t his translucent materi al, but

t ranslucent insulati on quilt t o increase t her- large str uct ural o penings, fro m floor t o ceiling hori zont ally o r ientate d sheet is increasingly

mal insulation, w hile st ill allowing a diffu sed for exam ple, or can form a com plete glazed being used. W hen set vert ically, sheets are

MCE 246
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polycarbonate fixed to alumini- I Vertically set, 2. Horizontally set
um support frame

3-D view of parapet detail 3-D view of ground junction

MCE 247
 Details
I, Twin wall po lycarbomte sheet
2. Thermal break

o
I Supporting structure
4. GRP dadding panel.insulated
5. Stickcurtain wall-type support system
CD 6. Extruded aluminium edge framing
7. Rubber-based or silicone-based seal
8. Adjacent wall
9. MetJ.1cover strip
(0

Isometric views of wall assembly

t .Vertlcallyset
2. Ho rizontally set w ith interlocking jo ints.
3. Ho rizontally set w ith stepped joints

3-Ddetail of comer junction

joined by either a straightforward lap of th e ed l-sections. similar to those used in GRP

material,which results in visible staining
through the t ranslucent material,unless an
opaque sealant is used Alternat ively. an alu-
minium to p hat section is used. set between
two adjacent sheets usedas described in the
section on profiled metal sbeet.Tbe manufac -
t ure of polycarbo nate cladding is restricted
only t o t he she et material. and accessories
such as (ill profiles. coping profilesand win-
dow trims are not usually available.Alumini-
um trims are used instead. and are fixed so as
to reduce their visibility to a minimum.Trims
are fixed in the sameway as for profiled wall
cladding described earlier.
CD
JL Twin wall polycarbonate is fixed with
either convent ional aluminium framing for
w indows.or framing for stick glazing curtain
walling. Some manufacturers provide extrud-
cladding. to clip t he twin wall sheets to pro-
vide a completely lightweight system.This is a
very economic form of cladding which can
be screen printed to create visually dramatic
translucent facades. Its lack of fire resistance
makes it a less attractive material for ware-
houses and factory buildings. where it s trans-
lucencyand t hermal insulation. combined
with economy. would make it a much more
popular material. As with profiled polycar-
bonate sheet. other standard components
are not usually manufactured.and folded alu-
minium sections are used for drips and para-
pet copings instead of polycarbonatesec-
tions.which are expensive to produce as
new profiles.

Me E 24 8
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 3-D view of twin wall polycarbonate sheet wall 3-D view of twin wall polycarbonate sheet wall

3-D exploded view of tw in wall polycarbonate sheet wall

3-D detailed view of twin wall polycarbonate sheet wall

MC E 25 0
 3-D view of plastic-based seated panel system

D etails
I. Twin wall polycarbonate sheet
2. Thermal break
3. Suoportmg structure
4. GRPcladding panet insulat ed
S. Stroccurta in wall-type support system
6. Extruded aluminium edge framing
7. Rubber-based or silicone-based seal
8. Adjacent wall
9. Metal cover strip

CD (')
CD 3-D exploded view of ptasnc-based sealed panel system

CD o
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3-D exploded view of plastic-based sealed panel system with window 3-D explode d view of plastic-based sealed panel system w indow detail

MC E 25 1
3-D view of typical polycarbonate rainscreen cladding assembly
The tw o main ty pes of plastic-based rain-
screen are flat panels, cassette panels, profiled
sheet and over lapping ti les.Th ey are used as
eit her o ute r screens t o glazed wa lls, typically
as solar shading, or as rainscreen panels t o an
opaque wall,t ypically in-situ concrete o r con-
crete blockwork. T he mater ials used are
eit her po lycarbon ate or glass reinforced poly-
este r (GRP).Ac ry lic and UPVC, w hile softe r
th an both th ese materials,are used for w in-
dow frames and special mou lded elements. In
addit ion, composites ot her th an GRP
(described in t he previou s sect ion o n plastic-
based cladding) are used for rainscreens.
Thermosettin g po lymer resins can be mixed
w it h cellulose fibres t o provide sheet materi-
als w it h high durability w hich fade littl e in
sunlight. In commo n w it h rainscreens in ot her
mater ials, panels o r sheets are fixed w it h
eit her visible point fixings,vert ical/horizontal
rails w it h partially concealed framing mem-
ber s, o r parti ally inter locking panels w here
th ere is no view through th e joints.
Flat po lycarbon ate sheet
Opaque flat sheet is fixed as rainscreen clad-
ding panels using similar t echniques t o bo lt
MC E 252
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D view of typi cal wind ow o pening in polycarbonate rainscreen
fixed glazing and clamped glazing, w it h o pen
joi nt s betw een panels. Flat sheet is made in a
w ide range of co lours. Sheets are held cap-
ti ve at th eir corne rs w it h an aluminium
clamp o n both sides, w it h a set of bo lts
squeezing th e clamps t ogeth er w it ho ut th e
need t o drill t hrough th e po lycarbon ate.
Since th e cost of dri lling po lycarbon ate sheet
is much low er th an glass (glass has t o be
heat strengthened afte r dri lling), point fixings
are more commo n w hen thi s t echnique is
used. Bolts are much simpler th an th ose
used for glass, since t he mater ial is much
light er.t hough po lycarbo nate has higher
th erm al expansion th an glass. Polycarbon ate
sheets usually have UV protectio n o n both
sides t o avoid yellow ing w it h age.T he prob -
lem of yellow ing has now been largely over-
come w it h t he higher quality sheet mater ials.
Sheet sizes are aro und 2000mm x 3000mm
(6ft 6in x l Oft) and 2000mm x 6000mm
(6ft 6in x 20ft), vary ing betw een manufactur-
ers, in thi cknesses from 3mm to 8mm
(0. 118-0.3mm).W hen o paque colours are
used, rather th an th e translucent o r clear
t ypes, hook-on fixings can be bond ed t o t he
rear face of th e panel w it h st ruct ural sili-
cones.Th e panel can th en be attac hed t o
ver t ically- o r ho rizo nt ally-set rails w it ho ut
th e fixings being visible. A n alte rnat ive fixing
meth od is t o fix th e panels through th e front
face as visible fixings. Panels are set o nto
cont inuo us rails, runnin g vert ically or hori -
zontally, w hich are positio ned behind t he
panels.A layer of EPD M o r silicone is set
between t he panels and fr aming t o provide a
smoot h consiste nt surface for th e panels.Th e
panels are fixed w it h screws from th e front
through ho les pre-dri lled in th e panel.Th ese
screws t hen have a deco rative capping
applied, such as a dom e head screw th at is
secured int o th e head of th e fixing screw
t hat is already in place.
Multi-wall polycarbonate sheet
Like flat sheet, multi-w all sheet can be used
for rainscreens,w here its main advantage is
t he ability t o provide large, flat panels rather
th an its high level of th erm al insulation.Thick-
nesses are from 4mm to 32mm (0. IS- I .2in)
in sheet sizes from 1000mm x 6000mm
(3ft3 in x 20ft) t o 2000mm x 7000mm (6ft 6in
x 23ft) .T he material can be screen pr inted o r
coate d t o provide a w ide variety of colours
 Det ails

JR" L@
I, IOmm plywood sheathing
>- ;0-/
2. Breather roen o -aoce
3. Ver t ical t imber battens
>- 4. Reflective foil breather
. @ membrane
0 : ~0
~ 5. Profiled pofycarbcnate
0 »:
<: 6.
cladding (orientated vertically)
Composite timber joist
~
7. Thermal insuaH:ion
B. Internal dry lining
9, Timber framed window
10. Horizontal timber battens
II . Screw fixing witl1 plastic
spacer
12. A luminium w indow surround
13. Roo f construction
14. Metal coping

o
II
@

3-0 section detail of pofycarbonate rainscreen

Vertical secnoo I: I0 , Deta il of pobcarbonate ramsoeen

3-D section detail of poiycarbo nate ra inscreen

MC E 253
 (')

~ ~:
10 '. A
@
jJ Details
I.
2.
UFVC sect ion
Plastic-compos.te fiat
""'.
X• parers
0 3. UPVC board cladding
-------- 4.
s.
GRPcladding parer
Glazed unit
0 0 6. Thermal insulation

»,
.(!) X 7. Backing wall
~' X 8. Support rails
9. UPVCwindow
10. Plastic-coroposae
coping

3-D view of parapet detail

Section I: 10. Parapet detail,wall

assembly and ground junction

.' 0
~(y\r
~'JJ..
0-----4
J
Horizontalsections I:IO.lntemal comer and external comer

on a large format sheet-Aswith flat sheet
the material can be coated to give UV pro -
tection on one side or both sides to avoid
yellowing.The sheetmaterial is used in
increasing numbers of walls, from twin wall
to five or six walls thick.Panels are fixed using
t he same methods as flat sheet with thicker
sheets being supported up to around
1800mm centres (6ft). Panels can be curved
by setting t hem into a pre-formed aluminium
t ransparent panels with around 90% light
t ransmission. made to match steel and alu-
minium sheetingfrom other companies.They
are used mainly to provide daylight in roofs
and in wall cladding in industrial buildings
without the need for special rooflight panels.
Sheets are made in profiles to suit sheets by
a particular manufacturer with whom they
have an agreement They are prod uced in
both sinusoidal (curved) profiles and trape-

I edge frame,when the material can be curved

Isom etri c views of wall asse mb ly.
I. Horizonta lly set supports, 2.Verticallyset supports
to a minimum radius of ISOOmm (Sft) for
twin wall sheets and around 4000mm (13ft)
for the thickest sheets.
Profiled polycarb onate sheet
Profiled sheets are made from extruded
polycarbonate resin. manufactured to provide
zoidal (zigzag) profiles in lengthsup to
around 10metres (32ft)with thicknesses
around Imm.The width of most sheets is
around 1200mm (4ft).They can also be used
for rainscreen wall cladding, as a material in
its own right vertically set sheeting is being
used in city centre buildings, far from its use
as an economic roofing material. Its high

Me E 254

Ho rizontal sections I: I0, Internal corner (top).
® exte rnal corner (mi ddle). panel to panel junction
(bottom)
~
0)
• -"z-,
~m
<l
r
1 I
0 1
CD
@ (~~ I
~
ill ~~
xX
Cy
Vertical section I: I0,Window opening, ground
level
impact resistance, light ness in we ight and lo ng
t erm high weat her resistance make po lycar-
bon ate very suitable for dr amatic cladding
struct ures w here we ight is a crit ical issue,
Profiled sheets are fixed w it h self-tapping
sealed screws, w it h a wate r t ight washer o n
th e o utside, More elabo rate point fixings are
difficult t o use due t o th e profi led nature of
th e sheet w here a screw or bolt is attac hed
through th e peak o r trough of th e profile,
Sheets are lapped o n all sides, creat ing a
shadow w here th ey lap, w hich can be con-
cealed by th e suppo r t st ruct ure behind,
A lte rnat ively, sheets can be lapped in th e
horizontal direction, regardless of th e sheet
orientat ion, and can be jo ined by aluminium
t op hat profi les in th e ver t ical direction in th e
manner of profi led metal sheet ing, Cill, drip
1]
Isom etri c views of wall assembly:
I.Vertically set supports.
2. Horizontally set supports
, \)
o
CD
0 o
o
'" o
o
l r
®
and coping profi les are made from eit her
ext r uded UPVC, GRP o r extruded alumini-
urn.The material can be curve d t o a mini-
mum radius of aro und 4000mm ( 13ft) for a
sheet of 50mm (2in) thi ckness, Profi led poly-
carbo nate sheet is also made in a translucent
w hite colour t o provide a light transmission
of aro und 45% and in grey colours w it h light
transmission of aro und 35%,
Plastic-com po sit e fiat pane ls
Flat panels can also be made from th erm o-
setting resins m ixed w it h cellulose fibres.This
is usually a mixture of 70% softwood fibre
and 30% resin, manufactured at high t emper-
at ure and pressure, Panels can be coloured
o n o ne side, both sides o r have different col-
3-D view. External corner detail
o urs o n each side, Panels are smoot h w it h an
MC E 255

CD
[HI
Isometric views of wall assembly:2 different UPVC board-type profiles
almost impervio us sealed surface.A lt hough
th e finish colour is form ed by using pigment-
ed resins as a t op coat in th e mou ld, sawn
edges do not require repainting or protective
cover since th e colour exte nds all th e way
through th e material. Rainscreen panels
formed in thi s material are very resistant to
th e lo ng t erm effects of we at her.w it h high
UV resistance and colo ur stability and high
fire resistance. Plastic-comp osite fiat panels
can be cut drilled and routed o n site , making
it more like timber in t erm s of its flexibi lity
durin g const r uction. Comp on ents do not all
have to be cut off-site in a wo rksho p.
Because th e sawn edges are smoot h, t hey
can be laid as over lapping ti les in th e manner
of t imber shingles, a t echnique used in sheet
metal cladding.Th eir high impact resistance
and imper viou s surface make th em we ll suit -
ed t o demanding condit ions w here damage
can occur easily.T he material is made in sheet
sizes from 3600mm x 1800mm ( 12ft x 6ft),
3000mm x 1500mm ( l Oft x 5ft) and
2500mm x 1800mm (8ft x 6ft) in th icknesses
from around 5mm t o 12mm (0.25-0.5in).
Corner panels and parapets are also manu-
MCE 256
ril
,
I
I
I
I'
t
CD
I
I
I
1UI
In
factured in t he same mater ial. Plastic-com -
posite fiat panels can be fixed w it h visible fix-
ings or concealed fixings used for fiat sheet
and multi -w all polycarbon ate sheet.
UPVC Board cladding
Extrud ed UPVC board s are used as a subst i-
tute for t imber cladding, and are ofte n fixed
back to a timber fr ame in th e same way as
t imber board ing.A lt ho ugh th e main advan-
t age of th is mater ial is it s low maintenance
w hen compared t o painted timber boards,
th e material is beginning t o be used in its
own right. w it hout th e imitation of th e lan-
guage of t imber wa ll cladding. Boards are
made as ext r usions in lengths up t o aro und
5000mm ( 16ft) , in w idt hs from 250mm t o
300mm ( I 0-12in).Thicknesses match th ose
of timber bo arding at 18-20mm (aro und
0.7in). Boards are nailed back t o t imber
fr ames o r screwe d back t o alum inium fr ames
and are fixed at aro und 600mm (2ft) along
th e length of th e panels. Manufacturer s have
specially form ed co rne r pieces in a range of
angles t o suit t ypical sit uat io ns of 45° angles
both intern ally and exte rnally. Corn er s can
r
["
([)
CD
I
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®
/'
I
([)
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CD
t-
In ®
ill
Isomet ric view of w all assembly: head and
cill of w indow opening
also be glued w it h solvent adhesives o r
sealed w it h silicone sealants. Other compo-
nent s specially made for UPVC cladding
include end covers for th e exposed ends of
ext rusions, flashings for cills, copings and w in-
dow surro unds. Boards are fixed back t o
batt ens th at pro vide a vent ilate d vo id behind
t o allow th e boards t o function as a rain-
screen.W here th e suppo rt ing wa ll is timber
fr amed, as is ty pically th e case,th is w all is
faced in a wate rproo f membrane w it h ply-
wood sheat hing behind th at forms part of a
timber st ud wa ll. UPVC board cladding pro-
vides a high level of th erm al insulation, w it h
U-values at aro und 0. 15W/m2 " C . UPVC
boards are subject t o relatively high levels of
th erm al expansion w hen com pared t o GRP,
at 7x I 0-5 per °C for UPVC (like polycar-
bonate) and 2.5x I0-5p er °C for GRPA
length of UPVC at 3000mm ( lOft) lo ng w ill
expand abo ut 6mm (0.25in) w it h a 25°C
increase in it s t emp er atur e.
UPVC w indows
Extrud ed UPVC w indows are used for w in-
dow s, ty pically in rainscreen panels in plastic-
Vertical sections I: I0,Window at head and cill, louvre

Vertical section I : I0,Junction with ground

Horizontal section
1:10,
Window, louvre

~,'.
/ 1-- - ---1
®

Horizontal section
1:10,
Window jamb,
internal corner

Details
I, UPVC section
}, Plastic-composite fiat panels
3. UPVC board cladding
4, GRP cladding panel
5, Glazed unit
6, Thermal insulation
7, Backing wall
8, Support rails
9, UPVC window
I0, Plastic-composite coping

0 ----'
' - - - - - - - - - - - ------"
Horizontal sections I: I0, Internal corner, 3-D view of UPVC window
external corner
MCE 25 7
 '====0
Horizontal section I 10, W indow opening

3-D views of ground junction detail

D etails
I, UPVC section
2, Plastic-composite fiat panels
3. UPVC board cladding
4, GRP cladding panel
5, Glazed unit
6, Thermal insulation
7, Backing wall
8, Support rails
9, UPVC window
10, Plastic-composite coping

Vertical section I: I0,

based mater ials, UPVC can be ext ruded t o
provide com plex and accurate sections th at
can be appreciably more eco no mic th an
th ose in aluminium,The material has a much
low er th erm al conduct ivity th an aluminium,
and so requires no addit ional th erm al br eak,
CD W indows have an inner chamber w hich is
drained and vent ilated in th e manner of alu-
minium w indows , w it h rubb er-b ased seals
pro viding th e necessary air seals,W indow s
are ty pically sealed w it h silicone aro und th eir
edges, U-values for w indow frames can reach
.._------
as low as 1.4 W /m2 " C, w hich is comparable
w it h highly insulat ed doub le glazed units,
--......
--. ......
~
Some UPVC w indow sect io ns have a galva-
nised steel int ernal co re reinforcement t o
stiffen th e frames, usually as folded sect io ns
th at are held by th e wa lls of th e ext r usion,
3-D views of window opening in plastic rainscreen Corn er s of frames are bond ed t ogether t o
avoid co rro sion of th e st eel sections, UPVC
w indows have develop ed co nsiderably in
recent years w it h higher impact resistance
and higher crack resistance, parti cularly in th e
low w inte r t emp eratures w here th e mater ial
is more vulnerable,
GRP panels
Po lycarbonate is generally a more expensive
materi al th an GRP. making GRP more suitable
for low er cost applicat ions, How ever, GRP
has o ne advantage over all th e ot her plastic-
based materi als,w hich is its ability t o be
mou lded easily and eco nomically. W hen used
as rainscreen panels th e materi al needs a t op
gel coat t o avoid it s fibres being seen.T he
ability t o see th e fibr es th rou gh th e material
make it very unsuitable for transparent o r
translucent panels, but for mou lded rain-

MC E 25 8
Isometric view of wall assembly
- - - -- - -@- - - - - -

CD
L, J
Vertical section I:I O. Parapet condition

CD

Hori zontal sections I : IO.

External corner,
panel-to-p anel junction

screen panels it is possible t o int ro duce some

3D modelling int o t he facade panels. GRP
can be bonded t o hon eycomb panels fo rm ed
CD
in th e same material t o produ ce large panels
w it h high fire resist ance.T he face of t he panel
can be screen print ed to any design, w ith t he
use of photographic images being increasingly
popu lar,

D etails
I. UPVC section
2. Plastic-composite fiat panels
3. UPVC board cladding
4. GRP cladding panel
5. Glazed unit
6. Thermal insulation
7. Backingwall
8. Support rails
9. UPVC window 3-D view of possible fixing method detail 3-D cut-away view of parapet condition and possible panel
10. Plastic-composite coping fixing method

MCE 25 9
 )·0 expk:xled Viewof plastic rainscreen wal assembly

•
t:

-
I
•
I

)·0 eeeeee _ of top of wndow opet'Wlg in plastic ]·0 exploded _ of bottom of wndow openng in plastic
~ wallassembly ~ wal assembly

MCE 260
3-D exploded view of ground junction in plastic rainscreen assembly 3-D exploded view of parapet condition in plastic rainscreen assembly

/1
I
I

3-D view of ground junction in plastic 3-D view of parapet condition in plastic 3-D view of corner detail in plastic
rainscreen assembly rainscreen assembly rainscreen assembly

3-D exploded view of profiled GRP rainscreen assembly 3-D exploded view of plastic rainscreen corner condition

MC E 26 1
MCE 263
lr~\~(Q;'11
~ {:h'@'~~-F\~ [(r~
Horizontal section I :25, W indow openings
Horizontal section I: I0, W indow jambs
Timber cladding has tradition ally been used
o n load bearing t imb e r frame d wa lls, as d is-
cussed in this section, Its more recent appli-
cat ion as cladding pane ls and as rainscreen s is
discussed in t he seco nd sect io n of t his chap-
te r. There are two tradition al gene ric forms of
t imber frame t hat use small section t imb e rs
to form framed loadbearing wa lls:th e plat-
fo rm frame and t he ballo o n frame , More his-
torical types th at use large t imber sections
w it h an infill in t imb er o r anot he r mate rial are
not discussed here , as th eir applicat ion is cur-
rently very li mit ed. Both t he platform frame
and t he balloo n frame are based o n soft-
wood saw n timb er sections aro und
IOOmmx50mm (4inx2 in),These are eco no m-
ic, and set at close ce nt res of aro und 400mm
( 16in) in o rde r to be a multiple dime nsion of
plywood shee ts and related board mate rials
used to form th e sheat hing for th e walls and
floor decking, Since t he floor joists are set at
t he same ce nt res as t he vert ical studs, board
materials are used for th e floor decking in
t he same size,The platfo rm frame co mprises
studs spanning from floor to floor: w it h t he
t imber floor struct ure be ing suppo rte d at
MC E 2 6 4
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D view of window jamb
eac h sto rey height set of timb er frames.The
ballo o n frame , w hich is now used less, is
e njoying a revival in light gauge steel sect io ns,
This meth od has vert ical framing members
w hich are co nt inuo us, wit h t he int e rmediary
floors being suppo rt ed by th e wa ll running
co nt inuo usly past it.
Timber frames
Timber frames co mprise vert ical sect io ns
called 'studs' fixed to horizontal mem bers
called 'rai lsThe st uds run ve rt ically co nt inu-
o usly, w it h d iscontinuou s ho rizo ntal members
w hich are called 'noggins'The o ute r face of
th e timb er frame is clad wit h plywood
sheat hing t o prov ide late ral bracing, typically
12mm -18mm t hick (0.5in-O,75in), dep e nding
o n th e struct ural requirem ent of st iffening
t he frame ,Timb e r boards can also be used as
sheat hing, this is an expe nsive so lut io n, Fram-
ing mem bers are typically formed from
IOOx50mm (4inx2in) softwoo d sect ions at
40 0mm ( 16in) vert ical ce nt res w hich are
nailed t ogether. Mild ste e l co rne r brackets
and cleats are co mmo nly used to make t he
co nnect ions more reliable and ea sy to fo rm,
e it he r o n-site o r in a wo rksho p.vo ids
betw ee n t he framing mem be rs are fille d w it h
th ermal insulation ,A breath er membrane is
th en fixed to th e face of th e sheat hing laye r.
This provides a wate rproo f barrier w hich
also allows th e vapo ur t o esca pe t o allow th e
t imbe r wa ll to release and abso rb moistu re
wit h changes in t he weat he r. Outer t imber
cladd ing boards are t he n fixed o n t he o utside
of t he breath er membrane ,
W he n t imb e r cladd ing is used o n t imb e r
frames, th e softwood stud wa llsth at form th e
wa ll st ruct ure can use t he t imber cladd ing to
stiffen t he wa ll.Trad it ionally, t his has bee n
do ne by fi xing t he boarding d irect ly to t he
t imbe r frame, wit h a breath er membrane set
betw ee n t he frame and t he t imb e r boards t o
allow th e o ute r cladding to 'breat he', o r d ry
o ut and abso rb moisture , in respon se to t he
changes in weat he r co nd it ions,Alte rnat ive ly,
t he t imb e r board s are fixed to batt e ns w hich
are set fo rward of t he breat her mem brane ,
o r wate rproofi ng laye r. to e nsure th at th e
t imbe r is vent ilate d o n all sides ,W he n bat-
te ns are used, t he timb er boa rds are less ab le
to stiffen t he frame if t he batte ns are not set
 ~
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Vertical section I: IO.
y
Floor junction, window opening

CD
Vertical section I:25.W lndow opening '"

J
.-I

Details
I. Metal parapet flashing
2. Timber boards
3. Plywood sheathing e ""
4. Timber studs
5. Timber rail @
"
6. Breather membrane
7. Window flashing
8. Damp proof course
9. Vapour barrier
10. Timber fioor
I I. Concrete ground slab
12. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/dry wall
I 3. Thermal insulation quilt set within timber
frame
14. Timber framed window/door
15. Timber cill
16. Air gap

Horizontal section I :IO. Window jamb Isometric view of wall assembly

MCE 265
lr~~~(Q)11
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Vertical section I:IO.

Parapet
~
Details
I. Metal parapet fiashing
2. Timber boards
3. Plywood sheathing
4. Timber studs
,
5. Timber rail
~ 6. Breather membrane
/ -'f .
7. Window fiashing
~ 8. Damp proof course
@
I~I~ "
9. Vapour barrier
@
CD I~
10. Timber floor
LX I I.Concrete ground slab
""' 12. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/dry wall
P-<
~ 13. Thermal insulation quilt set within timber
frame
k~ 14. Timber framed window/door
15. Timber cill
16. Air gap
Vert ical section 1:25 Vert ical section 1:25 Vertical section I: I O.
W all assembly Door opening Door opening

3
3-D view of parapet detail 3-D exploded view of parapet detail

MC E 266

Isometric view of wall assembly
in alignment w it h every st ud forming th e
frame of th e w all behind.
The inside face of th e t imber framed w all
has a cont inuous vapour barri er,t ypically
th ick po lyth ene sheet, set o nto it, in t emp er-
ate climates, o n th e 'w arm in w inte r' side of
th e wa ll.Th e inner face of th e wall is th en fin-
ished w it h plasterb oard (drywa ll) t o provide
an internal finish.
Ground level
This t ext focuses o n different condit io ns at
gro und level, upper floor levels and at roof
level.The lightweight nature of timber clad-
ding has led t o it s use w it h a raised t imber
gro und floor, ofte n w it h no co ncrete gro und
slab.This makes th e junction w it h th e gro und
quite different from th ose of th e ot her mate-
rials described in thi s book. D etails aro und
w indows and doors are as th ose described in
th e sect ion o n timber w indow walls in th e
Glass chapte r.
Timb er cladding at gro und level st o ps a
minimum of ISOmm (6in) above exte rnal
gro und level t o avo id rainw ater splashing up
3-D view of window opening at corner
@- - - -- -- -- - - ---~
~~~;;;;;;;;;
CD
Horizontal section I :25.Window opening at corner
th e t imber,w hich wo uld cause staining and
deteri orati on of th e material. Cladding is usu-
ally suppo rte d at gro und level o n a concrete
slab o r edge beam th at forms part of th e
concrete wa ll.A lte rnat ively, th e wa ll can span
between concrete pads at 3000mm -
SOOOmm cent res ( l Oft- 16ft) , w it h timber
beams at th e base of th e wall to provide sup-
port between pads.W here a concrete slab is
used. th e edge of th e slab has traditi onally
been exposed as a base t o th e wall.W it h
increasing concerns of increased th erma l
insulati on at th e gro und level of a building,
th erm al insulation has been introduced on
th e visible edge of th e slab betw een gro und
level and th e base of timber cladding.The
insulati on requires an o ute r protection t o th e
insulati on, typ ically th in concrete slab o r
brickwork.
Th e t imber w all frame is not fixed direct-
ly t o th e floor slab but instead is usually set
o n a cont inuo us t imber section, w hich is first
fixed to th e concrete slab to pro vide both a
level surface t o set th e timber in place and t o
be an easier fixing t o use th an simply nailing.
A damp proof course (D PC) is set beneath
th e cont inuous timber base plate t o protect
th e t imber,th e DPC usually exte nding down
th e vert ical face of th e concrete slab w here it
connects w it h th e damp proof membrane
(D PM) beneath th e concrete slab o r th e ver-
ti cal face of th e basement wa ll.T he DPC w ill
also be cont inuous w it h a DPM set o n t op of
th e concrete slab. Floor finishes are th en
applied in th e same depth as th e cont inuo us
baseplate, allow ing int ernal skir t ing boards t o
be fixed t o th e bottom rail of th e timber
fr ame, w hich sits at th e finished floor level.
W here concrete pads are used, th e timber
beam is set int o stainless steel shoes w hich
are fixed t o th e concrete pads.Th e pads may
exte nd below gro und level t o form found a-
t ions w here th e gro und is allow ed t o cont in-
ue undern eath th e building.A lte rnat ively, th e
panels may sit o n a concrete floor slab set
below th e timber gro und floor t o prevent
th e growth of any vegetat ion beneath th e
raised gro und floor. Gravel is oft en set at
gro und level in th e vo id below a raised tim -
ber floor. D oor thresho lds at gro und level
MC E 26 7
lf~?~~ lQ)JI
~~·~{ijI~r(ifID1l1j@

D etails
I. Metal parapet flashing
2. Timber boards
3. Plywood sheathing
4. Timber studs
5. Timber rail
6. Breather membrane
7. Window flashing
8. Damp proof course
9. Vapour barrier
10. Timber fioor
I I. Concrete ground slab
12. Internal plaster finish or dr y lining/dry wall
13. Thermal insulation quilt set within timber frame
14. Timber framed window/d oor
15. Timber cill
16. Air gap

Vertical sections I:IO. Floor junction, eaves to pitched roof, two ground conditions

usually have a raised profi le t o prevent wate r
from penetrating through th e o pening, and
th ese are also fixed directly o nt o th e cont inu-
o us baseplate.A n addit ional DPC is set o n
t op of th e baseplate t o avoid moisture pene-
tration th rough th e door thresho ld.
T imber can also be suppo rte d o n br ick
walls set at a minimum of I SOmm (6in)
above exte rnal gro und level and be suppo rt -
ed on a concrete st rip found ation o r gro und
beam.As br icks go below gro und th ey usually
change t o eit her a dense concrete block o r a
dense engineering quality brick.A raised fioor
is th en set int o th is br ick wa ll.T he vo id
beneath th e timber fioor is vent ilate d w it h air
br icks th at encourage cross vent ilat ion.This
3-D view of ground condition
avoids stagnant air in t he vo id from damaging
and eventually rotting t he timb er fioor.
Instead of suppo rt ing th e fioor o n th e br ick
wall, fioors can be suppo r ted separat ely as
pads, typically in mild galvanised o r stainless
steel posts.This allows th e ground fioor slabs
t o be built before th e timber w all is st art ed,
and avoids any risk of lo ng t erm damage t o
th e fioor joists from contact w it h a damp
wall below DPC level.A n alt ernat ive method
of suppo rting th e low level bri ckw ork is o n
stainless steel lint els spanning between th e
concret e pads th at suppo rt th e timber fioor.
Th e br ick base can be avoided complete ly by
th e use of beams spanning between concrete
panels as describ ed previously.
Upper floors
T imber fr amed wa ll panels are used t o sup-
port upper fioors also in t imber. Floor joists
are set directly into th e timber frame, w here
th ey are suppo rted, eit her o n th e t op of th e

MC E 268
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3-D view of floor to wall junction

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Vertical section I :IO. Floor junction
3-D view of floor to wall junction S:">-

fi oor-height panel below, o r to th e sides of Corners

th e t imber studs if th e fioor exte nds ove r The most co mmo n co rne r formed in timb er
-;
~

tw o or more fioors in th e balloon frame .
W he re timb er wa ll frames span only from
fi oor to floor; as is more co mmo nly th e case ,
fi oor joists are fixed to th e face of timb er
beam s th at form part of th e wa ll frame
instead of penetrating th e frame itse lfThis
allows th e gap between wa ll and fi oor to be
fi lled wit h timb er. which drastically redu ces
so und transmission between fi oors. Because
th e t imber fi oor and wa ll form a co nt inuo us
struct ure , th ere is no need to form a hori-
zo nta l movem ent in th e t imber cladd ing o ut-
side .This gives th e co nt inuo us surface of tim-
ber cladd ing across two o r three fi oors that
is characte ristic of platform frame co nstruction.
cladding is a single timb er bead set so that
th e timb er board s on both side s butt into %
th e co rne r bead. If a breath er membrane is ~>-
used behind th e cladding, th en an addit ional
~
wate rproo f fiashing is adde d t o th e co rne r. ~
This is formed in a dur able po lymer-based
shee t o r metal sheet. Alte rnat ively, th e board s
~
can be allowe d to make a co rne r wit h a butt ~!L-
joint, and an addition al L-shaped timb er trim, '"
form ed from two se parate t imber sect ions, is
added o n th e face of th e co rne r to protect
L:Y
th e exposed e nd grain of o ne of th e sides
formin g th e co rne r. These trim s also pro vide
Vertical section I :25. W all assembly
a visual t idiness to th e co rne rs. Boards can be
jo ined wit h a mitred jo int (45°) w it ho ut any
cove r strip but th e timb er used must be of
th e highest qua lity t o avoid th e joint o pe ning

MC E 269
lr~~~(Q)11
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Isometric view of wall assembly Vertical sections I:I0. Two eaves conditions to pitched roofs

up wit h rnoisture rnovernent, and very high o r for flat joists. For large scale roo f st ruc-
Detai ls levels of wo rkma nship are required. A water- tures' deep er timb er sect ions are used, set o n
I. Metal parapet fiashing
proof layer o r flashing behind t he rnitred joint e nd, as used for co nnections to upper fl oor
2. Timber boards
3. Plywood sheathing is esse nt ial to th e waterproofi ng perform ance struct ures.The wate rproo f laye r o n th e o ut-
4. Timber studs
of this detail. Inte rnal co rne rs are formed side of th e timb er framing, o r breath er mem -
5. Timber rail
6. Breather membrane using th e same sets of tim ber beads o r brane, is made co nt inuo us w it h th at of th e
7. W indow flashing
mitred jo ints. roof st ruct ure. In th e case of ove rhanging
8. Damp proof course
9. Vapour barrier eaves, th e roo f may be vent ilated o r be
10. Timber floor
I I. Concrete ground slab
Roof eaves and parapets sea led, but in both cases th e membranes
12. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/dry wall O verh anging eaves from pitched roo fs o r flat must be co nt inuo us to avoid wate r pen etrat-
13. Thermal insulation quilt set within timber frame
14. Timber framed window/door
roofs are very co mmo n wit h timb er cladding ing th e joint. O n th e inside face of the wall,
IS. Timber cill as th ey provide protection to th e wa ll th e vapo ur barr ier must be co nt inuo us from
16. A ir gap
ben eath from th e wo rst effects of weat he ring wall to roof, o r wall to ce iling level, ben eath
from water runn ing directly down th e facade . th e roo f
A co nt inuo us timb er section, o r wa ll plate , is
set o n top of th e timb er frame. creat ing a
doub le t hickness of timb er at th e t op of th e
wall. This se rves as a base for slo ping rafters

MC E 27 0
3-D view of eavescondition 3-D exploded view of eavescondition

3-D view of eavescondition 3-D exploded view of eavescondition

MC E 27 1
lrl1i\1liQ:@r'>:0~ (Q)JI
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3-D view of timber framed wall with two openings

3-D view of timber wall construction

Details
I. Metal parapet flashing
2. Timber boards
3. Plywood sheathing
4. Timber studs
5. Timber rail
6. Breather membrane
7. W indow flashing
8. Damp proof course
9. Vapour barrier
10. Timber floor
I I. Concrete ground slab
12. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/dry wall
13. Thermal insulation quilt set within timber frame
14. Timber framed window/door
3-D exploded view of timber framed wall with two openings
15. Timber cill
16. Air gap

MC E 272
 Exploded axonometric drawing of timber wall construction

3-D view of timber wall construction

3-D exploded view of timber wall construction

3-D exploded view of floor to wall junction

MC E 273
lrlIMiQ:@r'>:0~ m
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Details
I, Timber boards
2, Plywood sheathing
3. Timber studs
4, Timber rail
5, Breath er membrane
6, Foundation
7, Damp proo f course
8, Vapour barri er
9, Timber floor
Exploded diagram show ing assemblyof timber cladding
panels
Timber boards
T imber boards for cladding panels and rain-
screens are sawn and are available in many
t imber species, th ough enviro nmental con-
cerns have led t o an increasing preference
for locally-grown t imber for large-scale appli-
cat ions.T his is because t imber has a negative
effect o n C02 levels,reducing th e levels in
th e at mosphere,Th e C02 emissions create d
as a result of cutting and wo rking timb er
before it reaches a local building site are still
less th an th e amo unt of C02 consumed by
th e timber during its growth,The highest tim -
ber grades are used for wall cladding boards,
since exposure t o th e weat her w ill involve
considerable t emperatur e and humidity vari-
at ions, as we ll as fading in sunlight. Softwood s
are generally used for th e cladding of tim ber
fr ames, w it h hardwood s being more com-
monly used for cladding panel and rainscreen
applicat ions,W here hardw ood s are used,
th ose species th at are naturally durable are
used W here less expensive, less durable tim -
ber s are used, th ese require higher levels of
finishing and maintenance, For softwoods,
MC E 27 4
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
preser vative treatment is used, but w it h an
increasing scrut iny of th e meth od s, since
some preser vatives can damage gro und
aro und th e site as a result of wate r run -off
from th e t imber int o th e gro und aro und th e
timber wall. Softwood boards are made usu-
ally in 250mm ( l Oin) w idt hs, w it h trimmed
boards w it h profiles ro ute d into th em usually
trimm ed down t o 150mm - 200mm w idt hs
(ein-Bin), W ider boards cannot generally be
used due t o th e risk of th e mater ial curv ing
in sect ion,
Th e increased use of hardw ood s in rain-
screens, for th eir durability, has led t o differ-
ent thi cknesses and sections of timber being
used Th is has led t o th e increased use of lo u-
vred t imber screens and panels in front of
glazed w indows and doo rs t o pro vide solar
protection w hile cont ribut ing t o th e t exture
of th e timber facade,
A ll t imbers vary in mo isture conte nt w it h
changes in t emp erature and air humidity, thi s
being o ne of th e essent ial aspects t o be con-
sidered in t imber detailing, Most t imber s used
in cladding w ill have a moisture conte nt from
10. Concrete floor
I I. Internal finish
12.Thermal insulation quilt set
w ithin timber frame
13.Timber framed w indow/door
14.Timber cill
Is .Air gap
16. Sliding timber louvre panel
17. Metal facing
18.Ext ernal plywood facing
19. Cover strip
20. External floor deck
21. External glass wall in twi n wall
22. Structural t imber frame
aro und 5% t o 20% w hen in use. Similar levels
are found in t imber s from t imber suppliers,
and are classified as 'dry', 'kiln dri ed' o r 'sea-
soned'. How ever, some softwoods are sup-
plied unseasoned, depending o n th e supplier,
so th e amo unt of timber drying and season-
ing is crit ical t o th e way th at t imber is cut o n
site t o fit a junction. Unseason ed timb er w ill
shrink as it dr ies, and consequent ly an allow-
ance is made for lat er shrinkage by increasing
th e over lap between t imbers w here applica-
ble, o r making tighter butt joints w here th ese
are used Unseason ed timb er s are fixed in
place soon afte r delivery t o site t o avoid any
twisting o r wa rp ing of th e timber.As a result,
lapped boards are not nailed t ogether w here
th ey over lap, and nails and screws are
secured so t hat th e timber can move w it ho ut
th e t imber splitting or being damaged
Finishes
Timber cladding is finished w it h th e tim ber
being left eit her as supplied, w it h preser vative
applied o r injected by th e supplier,o r alte rna-
ti vely is given coats of preservative in clear,
3-D Elevation.Timber cladding panels and relationship with structural frame

1= = '111'= =1

--------------------------------------

3-D sectional view of timber louvre cladding panel and

Horizontal sections I :25. Cladding panel in twin wall configuration for taller buildings junction with upper floors

MC E 275
lr~_~m
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Vertical section I : IO. Junction with fioo r

slabs

Right: - Vertical section I : I O.Tim ber louvre

cladding panels and typical assembly

3- D views showing connection between timber

cladding panel and supporting frame
sta ined. o r o paque fini sh o n site wit h pre-
se rvat ives th at rep el rainwater, o r wood
sta ins and paint. Paints can be oil-based or
acrylic,w hile preservatives are clear and can
be used as a fin ish th at penetrates th e depth
of th e wood wit ho ut ap preciably changing its
appea rance . It can also be used before stain-
ing o r painting th e timb er. Preservatives help
t o prevent mo isture abso rpt ion as we ll as
redu ce fungal growth.This is because th ey
e nhance the life of the timb er but do not
prevent th e material changing co lo ur and fad-
ing t o a silve r grey appea rance . Site-applied
finishes and regular mainten ance he lp ove r-
co me th e effects of th e weat he ring of timb e r.
In addit ion to the use of preservatives
and coat ings, th e o rientat ion of t imbe r
boa rds is critical to t he lon g term perform -
ance of t imber cladd ing.The most co mmo n
types of jointing of boards is 'shiplapping'
whe re t imber board s are set horizontally and
lapped ove r on e anot he r wit h th e upper
board lapp ed ove r th e top of th e board
be low to protect it from rainwater ingress.
Shiplapping can be assisted by th e use of
'feath ered' o r we dge -shaped board s to give
t he lapping a more elegant ap pea rance .
Ton gue-and -groove board s are used to give a
co nt inuo us fl at appea rance, while having th e
advantage of locki ng board s togeth er int o a
co ntinuo us plate-like struct ure . Board s are
typically aro und 20 mm (O.75in) thick, made
as lo ng as possible at aro und 3000 mm -
3500 mm ( lOft- I Ift6in), to avoid vert ical
jo ints which are a pote nt ial so urce of rainwa-
te r pe net ration except in rainscreen co nfig u-
ration. W he re to ngue-and-groove boards are
used , t he groove is set o n th e underside to

MC E 27 6
 Details
I. Timber boards
2. Plywood sheathing
3. Timber studs
4. Timber rail
5. Breather membrane
6. Foundation
7. Damp proof course
8. Vapour barrier
9. Timber floor
10. Concrete floor
I I. Intemal finish
12. Thermal insulation quilt set
within t imber frame
13. Timber framed window/door
14. Timber cill
15. Air gap
16. Sliding timber louvre panel
17. Metal facing
18. Extemal plywood facing
19. Cover strip
20. Extemal floor deck
21. Extemal glass wall in twin wall
22. Structural timber frame

3-D view showing ground floor junction

Left:-Vertical section I :IO.Timber board

3-D view of cladding panel assembly with built-in opening window
cladding panels and typical assembly
1 ,

avo id wate r accumulating w hen t he board s
are set horizont ally o r diagonally.W here
t ongue-and-groove boards are set vert ically,
th e gro ove is set away fro m th e prevailing
w ind direction t o avo id w indblown rain being
blown int o t he joint. Jo int s betw een boards
are never sealed alo ng t heir lo ng edges w it h
silicone o r mastic sealants as t his prevents
th e t imber from dr ying properly, w hich
wo uld cause t he mat erial to deter iorate and
event ually rot. However,sealants are used o n
th e ends of t imber boards w hen t he com-
plete exte rnal surface is sealed w it h paint.
Cladding panels and rainscreens
T imber cladding t o a platfo rm fr ame o r a
balloo n frame is cont inuo us, fo rming an int e-
gral part of t he w all st ruct ure. In cont rast ,
timber cladding panels are fixed t o building
fr ames in reinforced co ncrete , stee l and ti m-
ber. In t his applicat ion, cladding panels fo llow
th e prin ciple of ot her form s of cladding,
requiring pre-fabricatio n of panels and allow -
ance for st ruct ural movement in t he sup-
porting frame associated w it h larger-scale ®
st r uctures. Cladding panels can also be faced
w it h plywood rather t han ti mber boards,in
rainscreen app licatio ns. Because of t he higher
moisture movement associate d w it h t imb er
t han w it h ot her mat er ials, junction s bet ween
cladding panels require allow ance for move-
ment as a result of changing moistu re levels
in t he mat er ial. J
W hen reinfo rced concrete or stee l
fr ames are used, t he t imber cladding panels
are set fo rw ard of t he floor slabs in t he man-
ner of glazed curta in w alling. Panels exte nd
Isometric views of wall
from floor t o floor, being eit her hung from a assemblyat ground level

MC E 277
lfJlniitp~~ (Ojzl
~f?h-~OO~
Vertical section I :5.Timber board cladding panel
wall assembly and junction with upper floor
fioor slab o r else sitting on a bracket o n th e
fioor below. In t aller buildings, t imber cladding
is used in conjunct ion w it h a twin wall con-
struct ion w it h an inner t imber wa ll and an
oute r open jo inted glazed wall.Th e oute r
glazed wall pro vides protection against w ind,
dust and no ise, allow ing th e w indows t o be
opened for natur al vent ilat ion.Th e oute r wall
provides a 'th erm al buffer' t o reduce th e
effects of heat and cold at different tim es of
th e year.Th e two walls are set 700mm -
IOOOmm (2ft3 in-3ft3 in) apart t o allow access
from th e inner t imber wa ll t o th e zone
between th e two walls for maintenance and
cleaning access. Th e o ute r glass screen also
provides protection t o th e t imber cladding
from th e effects of rain and w ind, allow ing
th e material t o maintain its appearance w it h-
out full exposure t o outside condit ions.Vert i-
cal joints between panels have a ste pped
jo int t o allow for defiection s in fioor slabs
between panels, followin g prin ciples of glazed
curtain walling.T his ste pped joint is covered
on th e o utside w it h t imber boards, set for-
ward of th e face of panels o n battens in rain-
screen configurat ion.Th e const r uction of
MC E 27 8
Vert ical section I :5. Connection between timbe r
cladding panel and supporting frame
panels follow s th e same prin ciple of timber
cladding descr ibed in th e previou s sect ion.
H ori zont al joints have an inner chamber
form ed between two adjacent panels.A ny
rainw ater th at penetrates th e o ute r seal,
w hich is also kept open in some designs,is
drained down an inner chamber w here th e
wate r is discharged through th e hori zontal
jo int at fioor level.T he o ute r t imber cladding
has cont inuo us vert ical joints to allow panels
t o be fixed sequent ially, unless th e oute r t im-
ber bo ards are applied afte r th e panels have
been installed, but th is is cont rary t o th e pan-
el-based form of const r uct ion.
W here timber frames are used t o sup-
port t imber cladding panels, cladding is set
between fioor struct ures rather th an forward
of th em, since th ere is no significant th erm al
br idge from o utside t o inside, allow ing th e
st ructural frame t o be exposed on th e o ut -
side.W here t imber frames are exposed, lami-
nated timber is often used, since it can be
form ed in beams of significant loadbearing
capacity, and is able t o form a fr ame rather
th an th e cont inuo us loadbearing wa ll of th e
platform frame. Cladding panels are set int o
op enings in th e laminated timber frame, w it h
panels suppo rte d at th eir base o n th e t op s
of beams. Floor decks in timber are th en
fixed t o th e side of th e laminat ed t imber
beams.T imber panels are fixed at th eir base
t o th e beam beneath, but have a sliding
restraint at th e t op t o allow th e slab and
panel above t o defiect w it ho ut damaging th e
panel below.A metal fiashing at th e base of
th e panel drains wate r at its base and throw s
it clear of th e beam beneath in o rder t o
avoid staining of th e timber beam.The oute r
t imber rainscreen cladding is set flush w it h
th e o ute r face of th e laminat ed t imber fr ame
t o avoid any views into th e wate rproo fing
layer behind.
Th e use of compute r numer ically con-
trolled (CNC) machines ensures th e accu-
rate cutting of compo nents t o make t imber
wall panels w it h th e close t olerances of high
quality, large scale construction, parti cularly
housing,w here timber has undergon e a huge
revival, partl y due t o its low er levels of
embodied energy in it s construction.Th e use
of composite aluminium I timb er w indows ,
w it h th eir high perform ance, low U-values
 ®
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Details
~
,
I. TIIT'ber bo¥ds ---::
2. Plywood sheathng
3. TIlT'lber studs
4. T,mber rail
~_ Breather merrbr~
6. Foundatton
7. Darro prcot coo-se
8. vecoo- ba-rer
9. Timber floor
I 0 Concrete nco-
I I , Internal f,nlsh
12. Therma l insulation quilt set
wltt"n t imber frame
11 Timber framed WI'ldow'ldoor
14. Timber (ill ®
15. AIr gap
16. Sliding twTtler k::luvre panel
17. Metal facl1&
18. External ~ fao'lg
19. eo.er strip
20. External ftoor deck
21. Extemal glass wal 11 twlI'I wal
21 Struetl.nl tn'ber frame

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Horizontal sectJOfl I:I WrndoN ~

MCE_ 279
 00
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3-D view of basictimber cladding

wall assembly

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sometric views ot wall assembly

Vertical section I :IO.

Timber cladding wall and acoust ic attenuat ion, has given timber set over t he face of th e adjacent panel. I Im-
assembly cladding panels great er impetu s fo r large ber st rips can also be set over joint s t o pro -
D etails scale proj ects w here traditionally t he t herm al t ect t he o ut side face of th e plywood but also
I. Timber boards
2. Plywood sheathing and weat her resisting perfo rmance of t imb er allow t he rear face t o be vent ilate d int o a
3. Timber studs w indows and fr ames has been much poorer cavity t o allow t he mater ial t o be kept dr y.
4. Timber rail
5. Breather membrane t han t hat of aluminium o r UPVC w indows Since plyw ood sheets can now be supplied in
6. Foundation
and doors. very large sizes, bays of plyw ood can be
7. Damp proof course
8. Vapour barrier made from a single sheet. reducing t he need
9. Timber fioor
Plywood sheets for edge protection of t he plywood. Plyw ood
IO. Concrete fioor
I I. Internal finish W hen plyw ood sheets are used w it h t imber sheets are also lapped in t he hori zont al joint s
12. Thermal insulation quilt set
cladding panels, t he edges of t he sheets are t o create a visual effect like shiplapped t im-
within timber frame
I 3. Timber framed window/door protected. since th e edges of plyw ood are ber boards,o r are shingled in t he manner of
14. Timber cill
suscept ible t o damage and rot if left exposed sheet met al cladding.T he increased use of
15. A ir gap
16. Slidingtimber louvre panel in an exte rnal enviro nment. Edges can be rainscreen tim ber cladding w it h a w at erproof
17. Metal facing
protected w it h met al trims and flashings, backing wa ll has increased t he freedom for
18. External plywood facing
19. Cover strip w here an aluminium Z -shaped profi le is set timber panel design.
20. External fioor deck
o n th e back of o ne sheet. proj ecting o ut
21. External glass wall in twin wall
22. Structural timber frame t hro ugh a vertical o r hori zont al joint. and is

MC E 280
 @

Vertical section I :25. Cladding panel in twin wall

configuration for taller buildings.

-.... _-._-.
3-D detail view of fioor junction in twin wall configuration for taller buildings 3-D view of cladding panel in twin wall configuration for taller buildings

MCE 28 1
lr~\~(.Q~
~~~~[~~:l£

3-D exp loded view of timber cladding system consisting of

fixed glazingand louvre screens

Details
I .Timber boards
2. Plywood sheathing

-z: - --
3.Timber studs
4.Timber rail
.-- - -:.::-
~-" -.:
5. Breather membrane
6. Foundation
7. Damp proof course
S'vapour barrier
9.Timber floor
I O. Concrete floor
I I . Internal finish
12.Thermal insulat ion quilt set
within timber frame
I 3.T imber framed window/door
14.Timber cill
IS.Air gap
16. Sliding timber louvre panel
17. Metal facing
18. External plywood facing
19. Cover strip
20. External floo r deck
21. External glasswall in twin wall
22. Structural timber frame

CD

3-D exploded view of window opening and connection between cladding panel, 3-D view of timber clad facade incorporating both louvred and board panel
supporting frame and upper floor in fixed glazing-louvre screen system types

MC E 282
 3-D exploded detail view of ground fioor 3-D exploded detail view of conncection
junction between timber cladding panel and upper fioor

3-D exploded detail view of top of window opening in timber cladding 3-D view of ground junction in timber 3-D view of window opening in timber cladding
system claddingsystem system

3-D exploded view of cladding panel in twin wall configuration for taller 3-D exploded view of timber cladding panel wall assembly
buildings

MCE 283
METAL ROOFS
(I) Me ta l standing seam
Site-based method
Prefabricated methods
Sealed and ventilated roofs
Roof openings
Ridges and valleys
Ea-es and parapets
(2) Profile d metal s heet
Profiled metal decks
as substrates
Profiled metal roof sheeting
Sealed and ventilated methods
Twin skin construction
Ridges
Openings
Eaves and parapets
Ridges and valleys
(3) Compo site panel s
Single wall composite panels
Twin wall panels
Ridges
Verges
Eaves
Parapets and valley gutters
(4) Ra insc ree ns
Panel arrangement
Parapets
Monopitch ridges and verges
Roof geometry
Roof soffits
(5) Me tal canopies

Bolt " ' " " _

Fixed metal louvre canopies
Electrically operated louvres

MCE 285
f1etal Roofs 0 I
Metal standing seam
3-D section through metal profile roof on timber structure
Vertical section I : IO.Typical roof assembly without acoustic layer
Standing seam ro ofs are increasingly being
used for industrial and commercial buildings
in preference t o profil ed metal sheet w here
concealed fixings and low roof pitches are
required for visual reasons.This is because
standing seam ro ofing is both economic and
has crisp, uninterrupted jo int lines th at allow
it t o be made a visible part of th e building
design, ofte n w it h as much architectural pres-
ence as th e facade beneath.Th e main advan-
t age of standing seam roofs over profiled
metal ro ofs is th at almo st no fixings pass
th rough from o ut side t o inside th e construc-
ti on.Th is gives th e roo f surface a visually crisp
appearance w it h very few visible fixings.The
standing seams allow th e t echnique t o be
used on very low pitch roofs.
The traditional method of forming a
standing seam ro of is t o set th e sheet onto a
timber subst rat e, and t o fold th e long edges
of th e metal upw ards t o form a standing
seam joint. However.thi s method is increas-
ingly giving w ay t o prefabricated systems
w here th e sheet metal is fo lded t o a specific
profil e eit her in a factory o r o n sit e w it h a
ro lling machine.Th e fo lded metal is th en
MC E 2 8 6
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
secured w it h a clip-based fixing system rather
th an o nto a cont inuo us subst rat e. Bot h ty pes
are discussed in thi s sectio n.
Site-based meth od
This method of fixing sheet is we ll suit ed t o
small-scale applicat ions, or w here complex
geomet ries are used Th ese applicat ions make
th e use of prefabrication both unnecessary
and unecon omi c, due t o th e time needed t o
make special junction s and edges o n sit e.Th e
use of a single sheet metal profi le and angle
suppo r t clips used in prefabricate d meth od s
is usually t oo inflexible for such condit ions.
In thi s tradition al meth od of forming
standing seam roofs, timber boards o r ply-
wood sheet are used t o form a cont inuous
substrate, or suppo rt ing surface. Standing
seams are formed by t imber st rips of rectilin-
ear o r curve d sect ion w hich are set at 450-
600mm cent res down th e slope of th e roo f.
correspo nding to t he w idt h of th e sheet
metal used Sheet met al is laid along t he
length of th e roof from t op t o bottom , w it h
th e sides of th e sheet fo lded up and over th e
t imber batt ens. Successive st rips of metal
- - -0-----.==-------
!
,
,
l
Vertical section I : IO. Typical roof assembly without
acoustic layer
sheet are lapped over th e next t o form a
cont inuous sealed surface.Th e st anding seam
joint is formed by foldin g th e metal t ogether
t o form a seal. Because th e roo f is form ed,
effectively, as a series of linked 'gutt er s', th e
standing seam between each gutter is above
th e level of th e wate r dr aining down it. Rain-
wate r is avoided being drawn th rou gh th e
jo int by capillary act ion by one of two meth-
ods, w here th e joint is eit her sealed o r vent i-
lat ed In a sealed jo int th e seam is pressed
ti ght, as in a tradition al lead o r copper roo f
eit her by fo lding th e met al over it self t o form
a th in seam, o r by form ing th e metal over a
timber ro ll o r sectio n. In a vent ilated joint, a
small gap is left between th e fo lded sheets t o
allow air t o pass through but not rainw ater.
Sheet metal is fixed t o th e timber
upstand strips eit her by clips,w hich avoid
penetration of th e sheet metal, o r by a
mechanical fixing through one side of th e
sheet.T he fixing is applied t o th e side w hich
has th e adjacent sheet lapped over it, in
o rder t o avoid rainw ater passing through th e
fixing penetration.Timber-based subst rates
are increasingly being replaced by profiled
3-D cuta way view showing typ ical roof assembly

Vertical secnon 1:1 0, Ridge with flashing

Details
I. Metal sheet
2 Standing seam joint 10. Clips at centres
3 ~mermemb~e II . Folded metal gutter
4 Thermal insulat ion 12. Curved eaves sheet
5. Substrate, typicallytImber/metal 11 External wall
rafters with p!ywood facing 14. Structural frame
6, Vapour barrier I S. Outer meet ~xing bracket
7, Drywall/dry lining if required 16. Rooflight
8, Outer stand,ng seam sheet 17. Metal flash ing
9, Inner lining sheet 18. Ridge piece
Vertical section I : I °
Ridgewith recessed flashing

, .
,
,,, , '
,

Vertical section I: 10, Ridge with recessed flash ing

I =- -
~
, - K

, K I

I 0-
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ve- neer section I: 10, Ridge wrth flam ing 3-D cutaway view of typ icalroof assembly

MC E 28 7
f1et al Roofs 0 I
Met al standing seam
Vert ical section I: I0. Ridge deta il on pitched met al stand ing seam roo f
Vertical sect ion I : I0. Flat met al standing seam roof
metal sheet w hich has a much greate r span-
ning capability t han plywood sheet, helping t o
reduce th e cost of th e support ing structure.
T imb er-based subst rates, typically plywood o r
t imber boards, require suppo rt at 400-
600mm cent res. Profiled metal sheet is
increasingly being used as a substrate , as it
provides a self-finished soffit (underside) t o
t he space below t he ro ofThis is particularly
useful w here acoust ic ceilings are used, w it h
perforated sheet t hat has a paint coat ing on
its underside.
Prefabricated meth od s
Th e most commo n configurat ion of prefabri-
cate d standing seam roofs is a st ruct ural
deck, t ypically reinfo rced concrete o r profiled
metal sheet, w it h insulation set on t op and
an o ute r (upper) sheet suppo rte d o n brack-
ets set o nto th e st r uct ural deck.A n alte rna-
t ive configurat ion is t o fix t he brackets sup-
porti ng th e o ute r sheet t o a set of metal
pur lins.A metal liner sheet is set below th e
pur lins t o suppo rt t he t hermal insulati on
quilt, set between th e pur lins.A vapo ur bar-
rier is set betw een t he insulati on quilt and
MC E 288
®
--
3-D view showi ng pitched met al standing seam roof assembly
th e liner tray o n th e wa rm (in w inte r) side of
t he t herm al insulati on. In hot, humid coun-
tri es an addit ional vapo ur barri er is set o n
t op of t he insulati on w here t he risk of int er-
st it ial condensat ion is fro m t he outside as
we ll as th e inside.
For both construction configurat ions t he
roof pitch can go down t o 1°, afte r t aking
int o account any st r uctural deflections t hat
wo uld further reduce t his angle. Met al sheets
can be made up t o 40 metres in length, but
road transport is difficult, w it h long sheet s
(longer t han a trailer length) requiring special
arrangements for ro ad transportatio n in
most count ries. For larger proj ects, long
sheets are fo rm ed o n site w it h a rolling
machine t hat can fo rm t he profile of t he
standing seam sheet t o any length required.
t he profile being fo rm ed from metal coil.
Suppo rt brackets are usually T-shaped
and are fixed eit her t o t he st ructural deck o r
t o pur lins w it h self-tapping screws.The br ack-
ets are usually made from ext r uded alumini-
um in order t o pro vide a pro file t hat is both
thi ck enough t o form a rigid co nnect ion and
sufficient ly precise in sect ion t o ret ain a given
standing seam profi le in place. Met al sheet is
form ed in long lengths of fo lded t rays w hich
are th en fixed o nto th e suppo rt brackets.
Finally t he standing seam joint s are crimped
t o form a seal, usually w it h a 'zip up' t oo l t hat
travels along th e joint and across th e ro of,
sealing t he joint as it moves along.T his fixing
meth od gives very smoot h and st raight joints,
but t he long lengths of sheet metal fo rm ing
t he ro of surface can result in 'o il canning',
w here part of t he met al surface appears t o
be crinkled as a result of uneven th erm al
expansion. Generally,t herm al expansion is
accommo date d by allow ing t he long lengths
of metal sheet t o slide over t he suppo r t clips,
w it h t he sheet it self fixed rigidly in only a few
places along it s length.
Standing seam sheet s can form shallow
curves by gent ly bending t he metal o n site , o r
alte rnat ively by curv ing th e sheet s in th e fac-
t o r y, t o give a smoot h appearance. Small
radius curve s are formed by crimping t he
sheet in t he factory,w here th e materi al is
mechanically form ed w it h small local fo lds.
Sharp folded corners are made by we lding
two sheet s t ogether along t he fo ld line.
Details
I. Metal sheet
2. Standing seam jo int ®
3. Breather memb rane
4. Therm al insulatiOl1
S. Substrate, typically timber/metal
rafters with plywood facing

<0'- - - -1
@

Vertical section I:10. Eaves w~h curve d gutte r

3·0 vIews showing eave, condition on pitched

metal standIng seam roof with curved gutter

6. Vapour barrie r
7. Drywall/d ry lining if requ ired
8. Outer standing seam sheet
9. Inner lining sheet
10. Clips at centres
I I. Folded metal gutte r
12. Curved eaves sheet
13. Extern al wall
14. Structural frame
15. Outer sheet fixing bracket
16. Roofiight
17. Metal fiashing
18. Ridge piece

MC E 289
rJetal Roofs 0 I
Metal standing seam

\
@ \
\
~ \
I
JL
@ Ver t ical section I: I O. Pipe op ening in pitc hed metal standing seam roof
assembly

Vertical section I: I O. Eaves condit ion on pitched metal

standing seam roo f assembly

3-D view showing mono-pitch metal standing seam

roof assembly Sealed and vent ilat ed roofs joints t o make t hem both airt ight and wate r-
Th e choice of a sealed o r vent ilate d roof t ight. Moisture vapo ur th at builds up inside
configurat ion depends upon both th e metal th e construct ion is released by slots for pas-
D etails
used and th e natur e of th e const ruction sive vent ilat ion at th e ridge and eaves.
I . Met al sheet
beneath.Vent ilat ion is essent ial if th e th erm al Unlike ot her metals, zinc sheet requires
2. Standing seam joint
3. Breather membrane insulation is set some distance below th e vent ilat ion o n th e underside t o avoid corro-
4. Thermal insulation
metal sheet. as in a pitched roof w here th e sion from wate r vapo ur trapped inside th e
5. Substrate, typically timber/metal rafters
with plywood facing insulati on is set hori zontally,above a closed constr uct ion.Vent ilation for zinc ro ofs has
6. Vapour barrier
7. Drywall/dry lining if required
ceiling.Vent ilate d roofs are also suitable tradition ally been provided w it h o pen jo inted
8. Outer standing seam sheet w here th e exte rnal roo f form has a complex timber boards, but thi s meth od is being
9. Inner lining sheet
I O. CIips at centres
geomet ry,This allow s th e th erm al insulation replaced on larger applicat ions by a plastic-
I I . Folded metal gutter t o be set horizontally beneath, w hile th e roof based wove n mat set o nto a substrate , w hich
12. Curved eaves sheet
I 3. External wall form can be free of th e constraint s of making allows air t o pass across th e inside face of th e
14. Structural frame th e ent ire ro of co nstructio n fo llow th e same zinc w hile using a cont inuo us substrate mate-
15. Outer sheet fixing bracket
16.Roofiight geomet ry,Vent ilate d roo fs have slot s at ridg- rial beneath.
17. Metal fiashing es, valleys and per imeter gutter s t o allow air
18.Ridge piece
t o pass th rough th e const r uction t o ensure Roof openings
th at t he ro of build-up remains dry,Sealed Roofiights are set into st anding seam roofs in
roofs use sealing strips in th e standing seam o ne of t wo ways: eit her by form ing a pressed

MC E 290
Vertical section I: I0, Eaves and gutter on pitched
metal standing seam roof assembly
3-D cutaway view showing typical roof assembly
metal upstand aro und th e o pening so th at
th e roofiight projects up aro und I SOmm
above the level of th e roof, or by setting it
level w it h th e roof finish and forming a gutte r
aro und t he edges of th e roofiight.T his sec-
ond meth od avo ids th e need for roofiights t o
appear as projecting box-like forms in an
ot herw ise smoot h, cont inuo us roof plane, If
th e roofiights are set int o th e opening, t hen a
metal fiashing is fixed aro und its edge, being
lapped under t he st anding seam roof o n it s
t op edge,At th e sides th e flashing form s a
standing seam w it h th e adjacent joints run -
ning down th e ro of, and it s bottom edge
lapped over th e t op of th e roof sheet imme-
diately below it. Penetration s for small ducts
and pipes through th e standing seam ro ofs
use simplified flashings,A n upstand is form ed
as a cont inuo us skirt aro und th e projecting
Vertical section I : I0, Eaves and gutter on pitched Vert ical section I: I0, Abutment
metal standing seam roof assembly
3-D view showing metal roof at abutment
pipe and a flashing usually we lded t o th e
pipe, fo lds over th e t op of th e upstand t o
avo id rainw ater from penetrating th e joint.
Th e base of th e 'skirt' flashing is bond ed t o
th e metal sheet roof covering and sealed,
t ypically w it h a silicone-based bond and seal.
Standing seams th at clash w it h th e base of
th e skir t flashing are stopped and closed
above and below th e penetration ,
Ridges and valleys
Ridges are form ed by a variety of meth od s, In
some cases a fo lded o r curve d metal sheet is
set over th e gap between th e two sides of
th e ro of on th e level of th e t op of th e stand-
ing seam,Th e gap betw een th e t op and bot-
t om of th e standing seam is closed w it h a
form ed metal filler piece, o r st r ip, Elsewhere,
3-D view showing eaves condition on pitched metal
a sharp ridge line Can be form ed as a stand- standing seam roof assembly
MC E 29 1
f1etal Roofs 0 I
Meta l standing seam

m
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-
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y 1 l I

1 Q)i
I ®r
-
@ I I I
\
I 1 I

I 1 I I \ fL ~

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~
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Vertical section I : IO. Gutter at abutment Vertic al section I : IO. Parapet gutter at abutment

Vertical section I : IO. Gutter detail Vertical section I 10. Parapet

3-D view of gutter det ail
ing seam joint, w it h th e seams meeting th e
ridge being t erm inated t o avoid th e need for
visually bulky filler that could be seen from
below.A lte rnat ively, th e ridge can be treated
as a soft fo ld, w it ho ut any break in th e mate-
rial.A lt hough thi s may appear to be th e most
st raightfo rward of th e ridges t o form , th e
alignment of th e ridge piece is as crit ical as in
previou sly discussed versions, in order t o cre-
ate a st raight ridge line. Shadow s from th e
sun cast across t he ridge w ill reveal any wavi-
ness in th e line of t he t op of th e roof
Valleys are formed by lapping th e ends of
th e st anding seam roof int o a fo lded metal
tray forming a cont inuo us gutter.Th e gutter is
ofte n we lded at th e joint between o ne length
of fo lded sheet and th e adjacent sheet in
o rder t o avoid th e possibility of a wate r leak
in th e gutte r. Because of t he reduced roof
depth at gutters, th erm al insulation set below
it is ofte n th inner th an th e adjacent areas of
roof Th e reduced th erm al insulation can be
improved upon by using eit her higher per-
form ance insulati on in th at area, or by deep-
ening th e st r uct ure of th e roof beneath
w here th is is possible, t o allow th e depth of
th erm al insulation t o be increased.
If th e ro of is vent ilate d, th e gap formed
between th e t op of th e gutte r upstand and
th e under side of th e st anding seam roofing
allows th e passage of air int o th e roof void
w it hout th e need for vent ilat ion slots, visible
from below, being set int o th e o ute r face of
th e ro of
Eaves and parapet s
Eaves are formed in a similar w ay t o a valley,
w it h a gutter set at th e edge of th e roof

MC E 292
Details
I. Meta l sheet
2. Standing seam joint
3. Breath er mem brane
4.Ther mal insulat ion
S.Substrat e. t ypically t imber/me tal
raft ers w ith plyw ood facing
6.Vapour barrier
7. D rywall/dry lining if requ ired
8. Outer standing seam sheet
9. Inner lining sheet
10. Clips at cent res
I I . Folded met al gutter
I 2. Curved eaves sheet
Vertical section I : I0, Abutment on curve d
I 3. Extern al w all metal standing seam roof
14. Structural fram e
I S. O uter sheet fixing bracket
16. Rooflight
17. Metal flashing
I 8. Ridge piece
~.
~~ @

o @
® ®
'11
y
I
®

"J I
®

Vertical section I: I0, Eaves on curved metal standing seam roof assembly Vertical section I : I0, Abutment on metal standing seam roof

o..-.- ....-...
Increasingly,gutters are being integrated into ...... ---

roof form s in order t o avoid a we ak visual

-------------_..-
line formed by a gutter w hich is not continu - ",-
,---
/ '.

®
/
ous w it h th e smoot h lines of th e roof W hen
addit io nal closer pieces are used, such as bull
nose profi les,th e metal panels are usually
/f
designed t o be drained and vent ilate d t o th e
I
exte rior.and th e line of wate rpro ofing co n-
tinu es up th e exte rnal wall t o th e under side
/
./
of th e standing seam roof
Parapet s are formed by t aking th e side
,•
;
.i
of th e gutter th at is adjacent t o th e exte rnal J
I
wa ll up to th e parapet coping, w here it is
t erm inated w it h a rubb er-based seal bond ed
to th e t op of th e exte rnal wa ll.A parapet
coping is set int o th is seal as an overcloak
flashing and second line of defence against
rainwater penetration. 3-D roof show ing curved metal standing
seam roof assembly

MCE 293
 f1eta l Roofs 0 I
Meta l standing seam
---

Details
I. Metal sheet
2. Standing seam joint
3. Breathermembrane
4.Thermal insulation
5. Substrate. typicallytimber/metal
rafters with plywood facing
6.Vapour barrier
7. Drywall/dry lining if required
8. Outer standing seam sheet
9. Inner lining sheet
10. Clips at centres
I I. Folded metal gutter
12. Curved eaves sheet
13. External wall
14. Structural frame
15.Outer sheet fixing bracket
3-D exploded view of curved metal standing seam roof assembly
16. Rooflight
17. Metal flashing
18. Ridge piece

3-D exploded view of metal standing seam roof assembly with timber frame 3-D view of curved metal standing seam roof assembly

MC E 294
 3-D exploded view of metal standing seam roof parapet
and gutte r detail

3-D view of meta l standing seam roof parapet and 3-D view of metal standing seam roof parapet and 3-D view of metal standing seam roof parapet and
gutter detail gutter detail gutter detail

3-D exploded view of metal standing seam roof parapet and gutter detail for 3-D explo ded view of metal standing seam roof assembly
curved roof edge

MC E 2 95
rletal Roofs 02
Profiled met al sheet

3-D view of flat profi led metal sheet roof 3-D detail view of flat profiled metal sheet roof

==-== -==- == - == ==---= =- ::::=: -== -== ==--=== ===- --

Vertical section I : IO. Typical profiled metal sheet roof construction Vertical section I : IO. Typical profiled
metal sheet roof construction

The main advantage of profi led metal sheet
over other met al roof typ es is t he ability of
th e material to span economically up to
aro und 3.5 metres between pr imary struc-
t ural suppo rts.T his self-suppo rt ing ability of
t he material, combined w it h its we at her
resistant painted coat ing applied during man-
ufacture, allow s for it to be used as both a
substrate material for a finish in a different
material set onto it or as a single layer struc-
t ural and weat herproo f mat erial.W here
standing seam roofin g, w it h its high proj ecting
fo lds,is suite d to long, straight o r gent ly curv-
ing spans,profiled met al sheet can both span
between suppo rts and form complex
geomet ries.It is t his flexibility of being both
struct ural deck and w ate rproo fing layer t hat
has an advantage w here th e interior finish is
designed t o be in a different material, such as
dr y lining o r decor ative boarding. In recent
years ro of pitches have great ly reduced t o
make th e roof as fiat as po ssible, usually for
visual reasons. Most profi led sheet is laid to a
minimum pitch of around 4°. Standing seam
roofs can go down t o a I ° pitch, depending
on t he geomet ry of t he roof
W hen used as a substrate, profi led metal
sheet can be cut t o fo rm com plex
geomet ries, t ypically suppo rte d by a steel
frame t o create a t hree dimensio nal fo rm .
Profiled sheet w it h an overall dept h of SOmm
is used typically,but much deeper sections
are used for spans above 3.5 metres t o
aro und 6.0 metres,w it h a depth up to
aro und 200mm.T he deep sectio ns are also
used in composite roof decks w hen filled
w it h concrete . Fo r a stee l profile, sheets of
O.7mm thi ck are used for th e outer skin; for
aluminium a 0.9mm th ick sheet is used. Steel
is galvanised and coate d, w hile aluminium is
mill finished or coate d.
Profiled metal decks as substrat es
W here profi led metal is used as a deck rath -
er t han as a roofing mat erial, a lightweight
build-up is usually applied, since th e metal
decking is chosen w here a light w eight roof is
required.Th e lightweight finishes used are
t ypically an addit ional layer of profi led sheet,
met al standing seam (discussed in t he previ-
o us sect io n), membranes (mainly elasto mers)
and light planted ro ofs.A typ ical build-up is of
closed cell insulation set onto th e profi led
met al deck, rigid eno ugh t o span across t he
peaks of th e profi le w it ho ut defiecting signifi-
cant ly w hen it is w alked upon fo r mainte-
nance access, w hich wo uld ot herw ise st retc h
t he joints in th e membran e.A single layer
membrane is t hen set o nto t his insulati on,
usually an elastome ric membrane that can be
left exposed t o t he effects of t he sun w it ho ut
damage. Sometim es a t hin layer of smoot h
pebbles is laid o n t op t o keep t he sun off t he
membrane and allow maintenance access
w it hout risk of punctur ing t he membra ne.
T he closed cells of t he mat erial ensure t hat
any wate r vapo ur trapped in th e const r uc-
t ion is not absorbed by t he insulati on w hich
wo uld ot herw ise cause it s deterioratio n.
Profiled metal roof sheet ing
W hen used as a finish material. called 'roof
sheet ing', profiled metal sheet provides a
cont inuous weat herproo f skin w it h t he ability
to be curve d in one direction. A limit at ion of
t he material is t hat openings for roofiights,
edges, and junction s w it h ot her materials are
not easily int egrat ed int o t he pro file of t he

MC E 296
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
 3-D view of gutter detail
3-D view of fiat profiled metal sheet roof construction

3-D view of fiat profiled metal sheet roof construction

Vertical section I:I O. Concealed gutter junction

Deta ils
I. Outer profiled metal sheet
2. Inner lining sheet
3. Fibre quilt thermal insulation
4. Vapour barrier
5. Purlin or structural beam ---=---@
6. Profiled metal structural deck
7. Folded metal gutter
8. Folded metal drip
9. Metal fascia panel
10. External wall
I I. Outer sheet fixing bracket
12. Curved eaves sheet
I 3. Structural frame
14. Ridge piece @
15. Metal flashing
16. Roofiight
17. Pipe or duct penetration
18. Parapet flashing
19. Vented filler piece

Vertical section I:I O. Profiled metal sheet Vertical section I :I O. Edge detail
roof with parapet

MC E 29 7
rletal Roofs 02
Profiled met al sheet

l @
( I
( I<----J
Vertical section I:I O. Eaves detail with gutter 3-D view of eaves detail with gutter

----. ))
CD ~

b--)
]
@

~~)

z->
~
---:;;:::::---
@
~ ,
.---
--:=:)
f.~
--
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l -------===-
--- Vert ical sect ion I: I O. Eaves detail

sheet. Even simple rectilinear o penings have ing in eit her sealed o r vent ilated const ruct ion.
few standard profiles t o close off th e gap Vent ilat ion is used mainly w here a t imber
betw een th e flat flashing and th e gaps suppo rt ing st ruct ure is used, w it h th e timber
Detai ls betw een th e peak and trough of th e profi le. being vent ilated t o avoid rot in th e mater ial
I. Outer profiled metal sheet
How ever, o ne of th e main advantages of pro- from mo ist air in th e vo id th at wo uld ot her-
2. Inner lining sheet
3. Fibre quilt thermal insulation filed metal sheet is it s ability t o be curve d w ise be trapped w it hin th e const ruction.This
4. Vapour barrier
easily, w here th e suppo rt ing structure is discussed further in th e sect ion o n t imber
5. Purlin or structural beam
6. Profiled metal structural deck beneath requires o nly a few structural mem- pitched roofs .The followin g t opi cs in thi s sec-
7. Folded metal gutter
ber s t o be curve d, and most framing can be t ion deal w it h th e use of profiled sheet as a
8. Folded metal drip
9. Metal fascia panel st raight. Used as roof sheet ing, th e material is sealed roo f covering.
10. External wall
lapped on all four sides like metal standing In sealed roofs, th e th erm al insulati o n
I I. Outer sheet fixing bracket
12. Curved eaves sheet seam roofs.The laps are made lo ng eno ugh usually fills th e voids in between th e inner and
13. Structural frame
t o avoid capillary action through th e joint. o ute r skins, but vent ilato rs are ofte n prov ided
14. Ridge piece
15. Metal flashing Th is simple jo inting system provides large at th e ridge and eaves t o allow some breath-
16. Roofiight
areas of reliable, w eat her t ight ro ofing th at can ing t hro ugh th e ribs of th e pro filed sheet.This
17. Pipe or duct penetration
18. Parapetflashing be inst alled quickly. helps t o keep th e insulati o n complete ly dry.
19. Vented filler piece
Because th e inner lining sheet presents a
Sealed and vent ilat ed m eth o ds hard surface under th e roof. perforated
In commo n w it h standing seam roofing, pro- sheet s are used t o im prove sound absorpt ion.
filed metal roofs can be used as a ro of cover- Sound is allowed t o be absorbed partl y by

MC E 29 8

'-----''---' - - - - -
Vertical section I : IO. Eaves with partiall y concealed gutter
- - _ - '0
---
Vertical section I : IO. Valley gutter
----===-_::=
t he insulation quilt.This helps t o reduce
reverberatio n, particular ly in noisy int ern al
enviro nment s.A vapo ur barri er is set
between t he t herm al insulati o n and t he t hin
layer of acoust ic insulati on beneath.
Tw in skin con struction
Profiled metal sheet roofs have th e ability t o
conceal t he suppor t ing structure w it hin t he
dept h of th e roo f construction.T his gives a
smoot h finished appearance t o t he inside
face of t he roo f A n o ute r met al sheet is sup-
ported o n metal roo f pur lins, and an inner
lining tray, w hich suppo rts t he t hermal insula-
ti o n, is fixed to t heir under side.The purlins
are usually Z -shaped galvanised stee l ty pes,
ty pically l .5mm thi ck, w it h nylon w asher s o r
sleeves betw een t he pur lins and t he o ute r
and inner sheet s t o provide a t her mal break
as w ell as a pad t o seal th e screw fixings on
@== -- ~~ --- r----'
--
_
~_~0-ryF! ~
@
Vertical section I : IO. Profiled metal sheet connection with roofiight
-
-==----
Vertical section I : IO.
th e o ute r roo f sheet. In recent years th e
Z -shape sect ion has develop ed int o a w ide
range of sect ion ty pes. Sheet s are fixed w it h
self t apping screws w hich, in addit ion t o fixing
t he sheets t o t he suppo rt ing st r ucture, are
also required t o be weat hert ight. A vapo ur
barrier is provided o n t he wa rm (in w inte r)
side of th e insulation, between t he liner tray
and t he t herm al insulati on.
T his construction method co nt rast s w it h
composite panels, w here t he oute r skin, min-
erai fibre t hermal insulati on quilt and inner
lining are combined into a single panel th at is 3-D view of monopitch edge detail
fixed o nto a supporting st ructure w hich
remains visible.T he suppor t ing ro of st ruct ure,
visible fro m below t he roof, is eit her left
exposed o n its underside or is concealed
w it h a layer of dry lining.
Laps between profiled sheets along t heir
t op and bottom edges are sealed w it h butyl
MCE 29 9
f1 etal Roofs 02
Profiled met al sheet

3-D view of profiled metal sheet roof with gutter detail

---~ 0
~---

- !

@ Exploded axonomet ric view of gutter detail

-
Vertical section I:I O. Prefabricatedvalley gutter

sealant strip.Two st rips are normally used, Ridges

one at t he end of t he exte rnal lap and t he Ridges at t he junction of a double pitched
D etails other at t he t op end of t he int ernal lap.T he roof use a folded metal st rip t o form a con-
I. Outer profiled metal oute r seal provides protection against capil- t inuous ridge sheet.These sheets can be fold-
sheet
2. Inner lining sheet lary act ion of rainw at er being draw n up int o ed on a straight line or form ed t o a curved
3. Fibre quilt thermal t he lap between sheets, w hile t he ot her line.The void beneath is filled w it h t hermal
insulation
4. Vapour barrier provides a vapo ur barr ier t hat avoids mois- insulati on in addit ion t o t hat used beneath
5. Purlin or structural beam
ture, generate d inside th e building, from th e pro filed sheet. Closer st rips are used t o
6. Profiled metal structural
deck condensing in t he joint. Self t apping screws seal th e gaps in th e profiled sheet w here it
7. Folded metal gutter
th at hold th e sheet s in place clamp th e t wo meet s t he ridge cover strip set on t op of t he
8. Folded metal drip
9. Metal fascia panel sealed surfaces t oget her. Sheets are norm al- profiled sheet.
10. External wall
ly lapped 150mm over one anot her,w hile W here a pitched roo f meet s an abut -
I I . Outer sheet fixing bracket
12. Curved eaves sheet laps between sheet s on th eir side edges are ment w it h an adjacent wall,th e cover st rip
13. Structural frame
made w it h a single lap of profile, w it h a sin- between wall and roof is folded up t he wall
14. Ridge piece
15. Metal fiashing gle seal of butyl t ape set at th e cent re of th e and is fixed t o it. A fiashing projecting from
16. Roofiight
lap. In commo n w it h standing seam roo fs, th e wall is lapped over th e outside of th e
17. Pipe or duct penetration
18. Parapetfiashing th e t hermal insulati on quilt is usually 150- ridge strip in order to direct rainwater over it
19. Vent ed filler piece
200mm t hick in order t o achieve a U-value and down onto the roof
of 0.25 W /m2 K.

MC E 300
 @

3-D sectionthrough typical valley and ridge construction

@ L
Vertical section I: IO. Ridge detail Vertical section I: IO. Ridge detail

Openings usually w elded t o form a single upstand collar

In commo n w it h rooflights fixed int o standing aro und th e pipe and fixed t o th e roof deck

seam roo fing, a gutter is required along th e A lso in co mmo n w it h standing seam roofs,a

t op edge of roo flights, along w hich wate r counte r flashing is w elded or bond ed t o th e

running down th e ro of is directe d t o th e upper part of th e pipe, above th e roof, w hich

sides.T he gutter can be form ed in front of laps down over th e flashing t o protect it from
@
th e metal sheet as in a parapet detail, o r be rainw ater runn ing down th e pipe above th e

concealed by setting th e profiled sheet close ro of level.

t o th e roo flight and concealing th e gutter,

leaving o nly a SOmm gap between roof sheet Eaves and parapets
and ro oflight.Th e gutter can be concealed for Parapets are form ed by creat ing a gutter at

small ro oflights w hich carry o nly littl e rainw a- th e base of th e profiled sheet, th en cont inu-

t er and so do not need t o be very big.Th e ing th e line of th e gutter up t o a parapet

sides of roo flights parallel t o th e slo pe, and coping w it h laps over th e t op.Th e gutter is
Vertical section I:IO. Roof penetration
along th e bottom edge, have flashings lapped form ed from a single fold ed sheet t o avoid

down from th e roo flights and onto th e adja- th e possibility of leaks, and is lapped under

cent roof sheet s. th e vertical sheet th at form s th e seal

Penetration s for small ducts and pipes between gutter and coping. Parapets in pro -

through th e roof are sealed w it h a flashing, filed metal sheet are ofte n used w here th e

MC E 30 I
fletal Roofs 02
Profiled metal sheet

----

Vertical section I: I0. Curved profiled metal sheet roof with concealed gutter

3-D view of curved profile metal sheet roof with gutter 3-D detail view of curved profile metal sheet roof with gutter

D etails
exte rnal w all is fo rmed in a different mater ial, pieces are usually made by crimping t he
I. Outer profiled metal
sheet so t hat t he parapet fo rms a visual break mat erial along t he vertical edges of t he pro-
2. Inner lining sheet
between t hem. However, many profi led metal filed sheet, t o give a characte ristic appear-
3. Fibre quilt thermal
insulation roofs are used in conjunct ion w it h walls in ance, but t hese pieces are increasingly being
4. Vapour barrier
t he same mat eri al using a concealed gutter made w it h a cont inuo us smoot h appearance.
5. Purlin or structural beam
6. Profiled metal structural t hat allows wa ll and ro of t o be cont inuo us.
deck
7. Folded metal gutter
Manufacturers provide standard curve d piec- Ridges and valleys
8. Folded metal drip es t o different radii in profiled met al sheet T hese fo lds in met al roofs are fo rmed using
9. Metal fascia panel
10. External wall th at allow th e same material t o form a gent ly th e same methods discussed in th e previous
I I. Outer sheet fixing bracket curved edge o r,alte rnat ively, a sharply curve d sect ion o n standing seam roofs. However,
12. Curved eaves sheet
I 3. Structural frame t ermin ation t o t he roof w hich can be lapped w hereas standing seams can be cut down t o
14. Ridge piece into th e profi led sheet forming th e wall form a fiat ridge w it ho ut a proj ecting ridge
IS. Metal flashing
16. Roofiight beneath. Eaves pieces w it h sharp edges are piece, t his is not possible in profiled sheet ,
17. Pipe or duct penetration also manufactured as part of proprietary sys- and inst ead a fold ed ridge piece is fixed t o
18. Parapet fiashing
19. Vented filler piece t ems.These are formed t o different angles by t he upper surface of t he pro filed sheet.T he
we lding two profi led sheet s t ogether t o form gaps between t he ridges and t rou ghs of t he
a cont inuous smoot h fo ld in t he roof. Cur ved profiled sheet are filled w it h a prop rietary

MCE 302
 Vertical section I: I0, Connection to masonry wall.

3-D view of iunction between profiled metal roof and wall

3-D view of profiled metal wall and roof with vert ical gutter

metal filler piece, usually forming part of th e

manufacturer' s system.Vent ilate d roofs do
not require thi s filler piece, w it h th e resulting
gap betw een t he fo lded ridge sheet and t he
profi led sheet being usually sufficient to pr o-
vide ventilat ion int o t he co nst ruct ion.
Valleys are also fo rmed in a similar w ay
t o t hat discussed in st anding seam roofs, w ith
a venti lat ion gap provided in th e gap
between t he gutter and t he under side of t he
roo fing sheet.

3-D cutaway view of profiled metal roof with vertical gutter

MC E 30 3
rletal Roofs 02
Profi led metal sheet

3-D cutaway view of profiled metal sheet roof with gutter 3-D view of profiled metal sheet roof construction

j-U exploded view ot pronleo metal sheet root with gutter

.. "

Exploded axonometric view of profiled metal sheet roof with gutter

3-D view of profiled metal sheet roof with gutter

MC E 304
 .--~ e
--=---

3·0 line drawing of ridge detail

3-D view of profiled metal sheetroof with gutter and r idge

Detail s
I, Outer proflled metal
sheet
2. Inner lining sheet
3. Fibre quit!: thermal
insulat ion
4, Vapour barrier
5. Purhn or structural beam
6. Profiled metal structural
deck
7. Folded metal glitter
8. Folded metal drip
9. Metal tasca panel
10. Extemal wall
II. Outer sheet fixing bracket
12. Curved eaves sheet
13. Structural frame
14. Ridge piece
IS. Metal flashing
16. Roofiight
3-D exploded view of pro filed metal
17. Pipe or duet peoetreton
18. Parapet flash ing sheet roof with gutte r and ridge
19. Vented filler piece

Exploded axooometnc view- of profiled metal sheetroof with gutter and r idge 3-D cutaway Vlew of profiled metal sheet roof with gutter and ridge

MC E 305
 f1etal Roofs 03
Composite panels
----- ----------
Vertical section I:25. Composite panel parapet condition
T here are t wo t ypes of composite panel
used for roofs: t win wa ll and single wa ll pan-
els.T he fir st is a developm ent of profiled
met al sheet. w here o ute r sheet. t hermal insu-
lat io n and inner sheet are combined into a
single panel.These are used in pitched roofs
and have an appearance very similar to th at
of profiled metal roofs.T heir main advant age
over pro filed metal roofs is t he speed of
erect ion o n site, but t hey are usually a littl e
more expensive th an an equivalent profi led
metal sheet roof.The seco nd com posite ro of
panel ty pe, single wa ll panels, consists of pro-
filed metal sheet bond ed t o a layer of foam
typ e t herm al insulati on.T he insulati on is laid
face up t o receive a separate wate rproo fing
layer.ty pically a single layer membrane.Th e
membr ane is t hen t ypically finished in rain-
screen panels or smoot h pebbles, depending
o n t he geomet ry and required appearance
of th e ro of.
A developm ent in composite roof panel
const r uction w hich has been slow t o appear
comme rcially is th e truly inter locking panel
w it h int egral gutter.w here t he pr inciples of
M C E 306
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D view showing parapet edgeand composite panel roof assembly
composite wall panels wo uld be applied t o
roof panels, making for use in (no minally) flat
roofs.T hese panels wo uld have t he smoot h
face and edges used in wa ll panels t o provide
a construct ion th at wo uld be both economic
and very elegant.T he joint s betw een panels
wo uld form gutters th at wo uld create a con-
nected grid of drainage channels t hat could
form a crisp jo int line between panels.T his
develop ment of composite panel design has
yet to be comme rcially available in a t echni-
cally reliable system.
Single wa ll composite panels
T his panel ty pe has a single sheet of profiled
met al o n t he low er loadbearing face of t he
panel w hich is bond ed t o a foam-based insu-
lati on t hat fills all t he voids in t he profiled
sheet. pro viding a smo ot h, flat upp er surface.
T he dept h of t he t hermal insulati on is deter-
mined by th e U-value required. and manu-
facturer s are often flexible in thi s regard Th e
upper face of t he panel is wate rproo fed w it h
an independent membran e, t ypically an elas-
t omer ic type t hat requires no upst ands o r
special joint s between sheets. Panels are usu-
ally set butted up to on e anot her.w it h th e
gap between panels filled w it h foam-based
t herma l insulati on .A separat ing layer is usual-
ly set between th e wate rproo f membrane
and t he insulat ed panel t o allow movement
t o occur freely in both t he membrane and
t he com posite panel substrate .T he sheets of
wate rproof membrane are bo nded or torch
we lded t oget her by lapping o ne sheet over
th e oth er. o r by using bondin g st rips in th e
same mater ial t hat form part of t he proprie-
t ar y syste m.T he membrane is ofte n protect-
ed w it h a lightw eight covering of smoot h
pebbles t hat can be wa lked upon for maint e-
nance access w it hout puncturing t he surface.
Met al rainscreen panels are also used t o
protect t he membrane from t he effects of
direct sunlight.
At ridges and fo lds in t he ro of geomet ry,
panels are joined in th e same way, w it h th e
gaps between panels filled ty pically w it h a
foam insulati on applied by injecti on on site .
Th e membrane sheets are usually joined at
t he fo ld in t he ro of, and a strip of t he same
 Vertical section I :5,Composite panel showing panel to panel junction

3·0 view of vertical section through parapet edge and folded metal gutter between panels

(i)

vertrcal section 1:25. Folded metal gutter between composite roof panels
(i) (i)

Vertical sections I :25, Compo site panel confIguration and parapet edge condition

Details
I. Metal ramscreen panel
2. Single layer membrane
3. Composite panel
4. Folded metal coping
5. Purlin or structural beam
6. Secondary purlin
7. Folded metal gutter
8. Folded metal drip
9. Metal fascia panel
10, External wall
II. O uter sheet fixing bracket
12, Panel I
13.Panel 2

3·0 vIew of panel connectron

MC E 307
f1etal Roofs 03
Composite panels

J, f

Isometric view showing composite panel roof system with metal fiashing

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Vert ical section I: I O. Composite panel roof system with metal fiashing 3-D view showing compo site panel roof system beneath metal rainscreen

mater ial is bond ed along th e jo int t o provide lightw eight, w ell insulated ro of can be provid-
a weat hertight seal. ed w it ho ut th e need for complex junction s
At parapet gutte rs, an upstand is formed th at wo uld be needed w it h twin wa ll panels.
Details
in th e same insulati o n mater ial as th at used in Th e use of a separate wate rproo f membrane
I. Metal rainscreen panel
2. Single layer th e composite panels, th e upstand being o n a subst rat e t hat is easy t o form int o a
membrane
3. Composite panel
bond ed t o th e composite panel beneath.Th e smoot h cont inuo us surface allows junction s
4. Folded metal coping o ute r edge of th e upstand is sealed and st iff- t o be formed easily, particularly around roof
5. Purlin or structural
beam
ened w it h a metal strip fixed t o th e under- penetration s such as duct o penings and pipe
6. Secondary purlin side of th e composite ro of panel o r th e sup- penetration s, w here wate rp roo f membranes
7. Folded metal gutter
8. Folded metal drip porting struct ure beneath.A n addit ional are we ll suite d due t o th e ease w it h w hich
9. Metal fascia panel length of membrane is th en bond ed t o th e th ey can be cut, formed and sealed o n sit e.
10. External wall
I I. Outer sheet fixing t op of th e upstand and is mechanically fixed Gutter s can be formed by using th e rapid
bracket o r bond ed t o th e t op of th e adjacent exte r- site assemb ly meth od of setting lengths of
12. Panel I
13. Panel 2 nal wall,typically formed in com posite w all composite panel t ogether,w hile a membrane
14. Ridge piece panels o r glazed curta in walling.T his parapet bond ed t o th e upper surface gives a wate r-
15. Structural frame
16. Pipe or duct flashing is th en protected by a fo lded met al ti ght finish. Co mposite panels forming a valley
penet rat ion coping set o nto it. gutter o r parapet gutter are fixed rigidly t o
Single faced composite roo f panels are reduce th e amo unt of structural movement
we ll adapted to complex ro of fo rms, w here a th at wo uld ot herw ise damage th e mem-

MC E 308
,;-: ~.: ;<-~.;.;.~.~.;.~.; ~·;·;K: :'~2i "f
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Vertical section I: I0, Composite panel roof system beneath metal rainscreen

brane, w hich is t ypically bond ed t o th e base rib of th e o ut er sheet projecting from th e

and edges of th e gutter in order to closely
fo llow it s shape.
Twin wall panels
This panel ty pe, w hich combines th e separat e
compo nents of profiled metal sheet, has two
jo int ty pes: a doub le seam w it h a cap o n t op
in th e manner of standing seam roo fing, o r a
single lap of profile in th e manner of profiled
metal decking.W it h th e fir st method , panels
have raised edges o n th eir lo ng sides runn ing
down th e slope.Th e raised edges are butted
t ogether and sealed w it h butyl t ape.A metal
capping is fixed over th is jo int t o provide a
weat hertight seal w hich sheds wate r o nto
th e panels eit her side of th e jo int.Th is meth-
od gives a dist inct visual appearance of w ider
joint s.Th e second meth od has an uninsulated
panel o n o ne long side, w hich laps over t he
adjacent panel.This gives a cont inuous ribbed
appearance t o th e roof th at is visually no dif-
ferent o n its o ut side face t o profiled metal
roo f cladding. Both meth od s have lapped
joints o n th eir shor t edges, w here an uninsu-
lat ed edge projects down t o form a lap jo int
ver y sim ilar to th at used in profiled metal
roofs.Th ese horizontal jo ints are also sealed
w it h butyl t ape t o avoid capillary action from
rainw ater o ut side, and t o prevent th e pas-
sage of w at er vapo ur int o th e jo int from
inside th e building.
Ridges
Ridges for twin w all composite panels are
form ed by fixing a met al flashing over th e 3-D view corner condition of composite panel roof
juncti on between th e panels.T he flashing is system beneath metal rainscreen

MC E 309
 fletal Roofs 03
Composite panels
3-D view of vergewith parapet upstand
3-D views showingcomposite panel roof assembly and parapetedge condition
profi led t o match t he profi le of t he panels
onto w hich it sits. Manufacturers often make
t hese profi les as part of t heir proprietary sys-
t em.A lternatively, a fiat ridge fiashing is used
w hich sits o n t op of t he pro filed upper sheet.
T he gaps are t hen closed w it h a profi led filler
piece as used in profiled met al ro of construe-
ti o n.The angle betw een t he meeting panels is
closed by adjust ing t he angle of t he fo ld of
t he ridge fiashing o n site , o r by fo lding a fiat
fiashing over t he joint t o give a smoot h curve
across t he ridge line.Th e ridge fiashing has
visible fixings w hich are difficult t o conceal, so
t hat precise positio ning is essent ial t o t he
overall visual appearance of t he ridge.Th e
gap between t he panels is filled w it h th erm al
insulati on o n site , w it h eit her mineral fibre
quilt o r,more frequent ly,w it h th e same
foam-based insulati on used t o manufacture
t he panels. Insulat io n is injected into th e gap
t o provide a U-value t o mat ch t hat of t he
adjacent panels.
The inner face of th e panels forming t he
ridge is sealed w it h a fo lded met al sheet, typi-
cally fixed to adjacent ro of pur lins and sealed
against t he inner face of t he composite panel
MC E 3 10
t o provide a cont inuo us vapo ur barri er.This
inner t rim is made eit her fiat o r pro filed t o
suit th e composite panels used.
Verges
Verges between composite panels and t he
adjacent w all const ruction are formed w it h a
fo lded metal c1 oser.Wh ere com posite panels
fo rm t he wall const ruction, a fo lded met al
st rip is sealed t o t he t op of t he last 'peak' o n
t he roof panel and is t hen sealed against t he
w all panel.A lte rnat ively, a Z-sect io n closer
piece is fixed and sealed to profi led sheet
and t he fiashing is fixed t o t he hip of t he clos-
er piece.W here glazed curtain wa lling is
used, t he metal fiashing is glazed into th e t op
transom of t he glazed wa ll.As w it h ridges, t he
gap between t he roof panel and t he wall
construct ion is filled w it h t hermal insulati on,
and a fold ed closer strip is applied t o th e
int ernal face of t he joint t o pro vide a vapo ur
barrier between t he insulati on and t he inside
of th e building.
If t he verge overhangs t he exte rnal wa ll
instead of meeting it directly,th en t he vo id
create d by t he overhang can be eit her vent i-
lat ed or sealed. If sealed, th en th e overhang-
ing verge fo llow s t he same detailing princi-
ples. If th e eaves vo id is vent ilate d, th en th e
edge of th e verge is sealed to th e edge of
t he ro of, w hile t he w all beneath is sealed t o
th e under side of t he composite metal roof in
o rder t o provide a cont inuous weat her seal
w it hout any break in th e t herma l insulation.
Verges t hat t erminate in a parapet use a
fiashing t hat is set behind t he vert ical panel.
o r o nto it t o avoid a t hermal bridge, and is
fo lded to be sealed o nt o t he co mposite roof
panel in t he same way as for t he eaves
detail.T he inner face of t he joint is sealed
w it h a folded metal closer st rip to pro vide a
vapo ur barrier.
Eaves
T hese are fo rmed in a similar way t o profiled
metal panels,by lapping th e edge roof panel
over a gutter.T he gutte r is closed against t he
under side of t he composite panel eit her by
folding it o utwa rds and sealing it, or by fo lding
t he t op edge inw ards, up t he under side of
t he panel.The gutter is suppo rte d by eit her a
bracket beneath t he gutter t hat is fixed back
 ,
[f r~l
;8~11
~--

R
'I 4:
~~" , :v~,,> ry. " :~J? ~.-.nk" ~(V~ -c;
~~,.J_'~~ ~~ ~, .
0
:>
--~

0 0 k-::::

~~.:
f<
= = --
Vert ical section I: I0, Composite panel conf,guratiorl and parapet edge condition
- ;;,;;;

3-D views showing composite panel roof assem bly and parapet edge ccootco

Det ails
I Metal rainscreen panel
2 Single layer mem brane
3 Composite panel
4 Folded metal coping
5 Purlin or struct ural beam
6 Secondary purlin
7 Folded metal gutter
8 Folded metal drip
9 Metal fascia panel
10. Externa l w all
II. Outer sheet ~x ir;g bracket
12. Panel I
11 Panel 2
14. Ridge piece
IS. Structura l frame
16. Pipe o r duet pe netration

MC E 3 11
rletal Roofs 03
Composite panels
Vertical sections I 10. Various gutter configurations in composite roof panels
3-D views showing various gutter configurations in composite roof panels
t o th e prim ary structure, or by a metal sup-
port arm set onto t he t op of t he composite
panels 'peaks' and cantilevering out to sup-
port th e top of th e gutter. A n essent ial
advantage of t he metal suppo rt arm on t he
roof is th at it does not require any penetra-
t ion t hrough t he wall const ruction t o t he
suppor t ing struct ure, but can be fixed
t hrough t o th e roof panels w hich do not usu-
ally require a fixing t o pass all th e way
t hrough t he wall panel, t hus reducing t he risk
of any rainw ater penetration t hrough t he
building envelope.
Parapets and valley gutte rs
Unlike eaves gutte rs, parapet gutters are
3-D view showing potential gutter configuration in
th erm ally insulated, since th ey form part of
composite panel roof assembly th e exte rnal envelope.The gutter is usually
prefabricated t o form part of t he overall
MC E 3 12
composite panel syste m. Since an advantage
of composite panel const ruction is t he
increased speed of construction on site over
oth er metal roofin g method s, thi s advantage
wo uld be lost if t he gutters t ook much longer
to fix t han t he panels t hemselves.The gutter
shape, in cross sect ion, is form ed t o pro vide
cont inuity in th e th ermal insulation from roof
panel through t o t he adjacent parapet wall.
Seals are provided to avoid any w ate r from
penetrating t he seals and passing int o t he
building, w hich might occur in t he event t hat
th e rainwat er outlets become blocked and
t he ent ire gutte r becomes filled w it h wate r
up to th e level of th e outer (to p) face of th e
composite roof panels.
Valley gutters are form ed in a similar way,
w it h th e seal between roof panel and prefab-
ricated gutter being crit ical t o avoid wate r
 3-D views showing gutter detai l within composite
panel arrangement. hidden by rainscreen above

D etails
I, Met al rainscreen panel
2. Single layer membrane
3. Composite panel
4. Folded metal coping
5, Purlin or structural beam
6. Secondar y purlin
7. Folded metal gutter
8, Folded metal drip
9. Met al fascia panel
10,External wall
I I . Outer sheet fixing bracket
12,Panel I
13.Panel 2
14, Ridge piece
15. Structural frame
16, Pipe or duct penetration

penetrati on in th e event of th e valley gutter

being filled t o capacity in th e event of a
blocked rainw ater o ut let.
Th e t op s of parapets are closed w it h a
pressed metal coping t hat is fo lded down
over th e face of th e exte rnal wall and th e
inside face of th e parapet t o provide a com-
plet e weat hertight seal.T he to p of th e cop ing
is usually inclined t ow ards th e inside face of
th e wa ll (into th e gutte r) t o avoid dust, th at
settles on horizontal surfaces,from being
washed down th e face of th e exte rnal wall
during rain.Th e coping is usually made from a
minimum O.7mm t hick stee l sheet o r 3mm
thi ck aluminium sheet.T he void immediately
beneath th e coping is faced w it h th erm al
insulati on t o avoid a th erm al bri dge occurring
th rough th e cop ing into th e air space behind.
3-D view showing gutter detail in centre of composite panel roof assembly

MC E 3 13
--~etar Roofs 03- - - - - - ..,
Com osite ~ an el s

Details
I. Met31 rainscreen paner
2. Single layer membrane
1 Composite panel
4. Folded metal coping
5. Purlinor structural beam
6. Secondary pur lin
7. Folded meUlI gutter
8. Folded metal drip
9. Metal fascia panel
10. External wall
I I. Outer sheet (,x ing bracket
Il. Panel I
3-D exploded view shovvingcomposite panel roof assembly beneath metal rainscreen 13. Panel 2
14. Ridgepiece
I S. Structural frame
16. Pipe or duct penetration

3-D view showing composite panel roof arrangement hidden by

rainscreen above

1
3-D view shO'Ninggutter detail within composit e panel arrangement. 3-D exploded v'ew showing gutter detail within composite panel arrangement, hidden
hidden by rainscreeo above by rainscreen above

Me E 3 14
 ---
3-D exploded view showing central gutter detail in composite panel roof 3-D exploded view showing end gutter detail in composite panel roof
assembly assembly

3-D exploded view showing gutter detail within composite 3-D exploded view showing parapet detail in composite panel roof assembly
panel arrangement, hidden by rainscreen above

MC E 3 15
fletal Roofs O:q.
Rainscreens
Vert ical section I: I0 through roof assembly
Vertical section I: IO. Connection between meta l sheets
Th e use of metal rainscreen panels is rela-
ti vely new in roof const r uct ion, and has
developed from its use in exte rnal wa lls. In
facades, rainscreen panels are used in a con-
figur ation th at allows most of th e w indblow n
rain th at reaches a met al panel facade t o
dr ain down its face.Jo ints betw een metal
panels are left open jointed, so t hat o nly a
small amo unt of rainw ater passes through it.
Rainw ater is drained away in th e cavity
behind, th e rear face of th e cavity being
sealed, typically w it h a single layer membrane
on an insulated, lightweight, backing wa ll.A
commo nly used alte rnat ive is of a bitum en-
based paint o n a reinforced concrete o r con-
crete block backing wa ll. Closed cell th erm al
insulati o n is usually set o n th e o utside face of
th e backing wa ll, w it h a cavity between th e
th erm al insulati o n and th e inner face of t he
metal rainscreen panel.
In cont rast, met al rainscreens for roofs
vary considerably from th e configurat io n
used in exte rnal wa lls. First ly, most of th e rain
falling o nto a metal rainscreen roof is not
usually drained away o n th e o uter layer of
panels, unless th e roof has a relatively stee p
MC E 3 16
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Vertica l section I: 10. Rainscreen
cladding typical construction
pit ch o r curved sect ion. Rainw ater is st ill
expecte d t o dr ain o nto th e wate rproo fing
layer beneath as if th e panels we re not in
place.T he main function of th e rainscreen
panels o n roofs is t o protect th e membrane
from th e effects of th e sun (heat and UV
radiation) as we ll as from th e wo rst effects
of w indblow n rain. Rainscreen panels pro vide
a lightweight covering th at forms part of th e
visual language of th e exte rnal wa lls.
A lt hough smooth pebbles are also used t o
protect wate rproo fing membranes o n roofs,
pebbles and gravel are o bviously not suite d
t o sloping o r curve d roofs.Th e use of metal
rainscreen panels is we ll suite d t o th ese ro ofs
w hich form a visible part of th e design.T hese
panels allow t radit ional roof elements, w hich
are usually visually do minant, such as gutters,
parapets and ridges, t o be accommo date d
w it hin a smoot h, cont inuo us finish, allowing
roofs t o t ake o n th e visual characte rist ics of
exte rnal wa lls and becom e a 'facade' in th eir
own right.
A lt hough metal sheet is used, metal and
plasti c composites are becomin g increasingly
popu lar.as th ey are less likely t o becom e
3-D view of metal rainscreen roof assembly
dented from foot traffic durin g maintenance
wo rk, w hich maintains th e flatness associate d
w it h composite metal materi als.Th e 'o il can-
ning' effect of depressed o r dented panels,
resulting from regular maintenance access is
usually avoided by using th ese com posite
sheet mater ials. In such mater ials a th in layer
of plastic is faced w it h t w o thin sheets of alu-
minium w hich are bond ed t o th e plastic
sheet core.Th e size of met al rainscreen pan-
els is restricted more by th e panel w idt h th at
can be walked upon for maintenance access
th an by th e sheet size available.Th e maxi-
mum size of metal sheet is usually in a w idt h
of 1200mm or I SOOmm metal coil. Co mpos-
ite sheets are ty pically I OOOmm t o 1200mm
w ide, in lengths from 2400mm t o 3000 mm,
depending upon th e manufacturer. In prac-
t ice, panels may o nly be aro und 600mm
w ide if th ey do not have add it ional suppo rt-
ing framing beneath t o st iffen th em. Framed
panels can reach t he maximum sizes already
menti oned, but care must be t aken t o avoid
th e patt ern staining o r dent ing th at can
reveal t he fr ame behind durin g t he lifecycle
of th e roof.
Details
I. Metal rainscreen panel
2. Single layer membrane
3. Closed cell thermal insulation
4. Structural deck
5. Purlin or structural beam
6. Secondary purlin
7. Folded metal gutter
8. Folded metal drip
9. Metal fascia panel
3-D exploded view of metal rainscreen roof assembly
10. External wall
I I. Outer sheet fixing bracket
12. Panel I
13. Panel2
14. Ridge piece
15. Structural frame
16. Pipe or duct penetration

3-D view of metal rainscreen roof fixing channel 3-D view of metal rainscreen roof support system

MC E 3 17
rvletal Roofs 04
Rainscreens
Vertical section I :I0 Fixing detail of 3-D view of metal rainscreen roof assembly with capping to seam
metal panels
Panel arrangement
Rainscreen roo f panels are ty pically arranged
eit her as panels laid in a fiat grid, o r as lapped
panels, w here t he bottom edge is lapped
over th e t op of th e panel beneath. Side jo int s
remain o pen jointed and are set in t he same
plane in th is configurat ion. Panels in a fiat grid
are set onto metal Z -sections,w hich are
eit her bond ed t o th e t op surface of th e
wate rproo f membrane t o avoid any risk of
wate r penetration th rou gh mechanical fixings,
o r are set above th e membrane o n suppo r t
pads.Th ese pads are usually covered w it h a
wate rproo fing membrane t o reduce th e
numb er of fixing penetration s th rough thi s
layer.Th e rainscreen panels are th en screw
fixed t o th e Z-sect ion w it h brackets th at
avoid th e screw fixings being seen at a dis-
t ance w here th is is a visual requirement.
Unlike rainscreen panels for wa lls, roo f panels
cannot be secured easily o n a hook-on ty pe
suppo rt syste m w hile being set near a hori-
zontal plane. Since panels must have th e abili-
t y t o be removed easily and regularly for
maintenance access, screw fixings in all panel
corne rs are most commo nly used. Con cealed
MC E 3 18
fixings are more difficult t o accommo date,
th ough such syste ms are likely t o appear over
th e next t en years as demand for thi s roof
system increases.
Panels are made usually by folding th e
edges down t o form a tray,th en o utwa rds to
form a rim around th e panel. Ho les are
drilled at th e corne rs t o allow access t o
screw fixings beneath. Short lengths of br ack-
et are bond ed o r riveted t o th e sides of th e
tray beneath th e proj ecting panel rim.The
panels are th en screw fixed at th e brackets
t o th e suppo rting rails o r Z-sections by pass-
ing th e screw th rou gh th e hole in th e rim.
This allows th e screw fixings t o be concealed
from view, w hile allow ing each roof panel t o
be removed w it ho ut affecting adjacent panels.
A n alte rnat ive fixing method for panels is
t o set screws in each corne r of th e face of
th e panel o nto a suppo rt rail syste m. Screw
heads are difficult t o coat in a co lour th at
matches th e panel, and even if thi s is
achieved, t hen scratc hing of th e panel is likely
as a result of removing panels for mainte-
nance access. Screws are usually left as a self-
finish, and have a particular appearance w hen
Vertical section I :I0 Metal panels
fixedto support rail system
viewed as a complete set of ro of panels.
Countersunk screws have th e least visually
obt rusive appearance.
Parapets
A n advantage of rainscreen panels for para-
pets is th at th e gutter and upstand can be
made w it ho ut eit her eleme nt being visible.
Con sequent ly, eaves, mon op itch ridges and
verges can have a sim ilar o utward appear-
ance of an uninterrupted panel layo ut
exte nding from ro of down t o th e exte rnal
wa ll. Parapet s are formed o nly by a gutter
th at also provides th e necessary upstand
height for th e parapet itself A coping is th en
formed by using th e same rainscreen panels
as elsewhere o n th e roof in o rder t o pro-
vide a cont inuity of appearance.Th e wate r-
proof membrane beneath is th en sealed
against th e wa ll const r uct ion o r against th e
side of th e sealed roof deck, w hich is closed
off w it h a fold ed metal st rip, in th e case of
profil ed met al sheet o r composite met al
panels being used.
Th e depth of th e ro of construction is
th en finished w it h anot her rainscreen panel,
 @

Details
I. Metal rainscreen panel
2. Single layer membrane
3. Closed cell thermal insulation
4. Structural deck
5. Purlin or structural beam
6. Secondary purlin 3-D exploded view of metal rainscreen roof
7. Folded metal gutter fixing channel with capping to seam
8. Folded metal drip
9. Metal fascia panel
10. Extemal wall
I I. O uter sheet fixing bracket
12. Panel I
13. Panel 2
14. Ridge piece
15. Structural frame
16. Pipe or duet penetration

3-D view of metal rainscreen roof fixing channel with cappingto seam 3-D view of metal rainscreen roof support system with cappingto seam

MC E 3 19
 fletal Roofs 04
Rainscreens

3-D view of metal rainscreen roof with concealed parapet gutter

@) ~~
Vertical section I:I O. Metal rainscreen roof with concealed parapet gutter
@- - - ---
3-D view of metal rainscreen roof with concealed parapet gutter

set ver t ically, w hich is fixed in front of th e t ems.Wate r runnin g down th e membrane is
parapet. Unlike parapets in profiled metal o r dr ained directly int o th e gutter.and wate r
composite panels,the vert ical fascia panel underneath the gutte r cover dr ains through
D et ails
I. Metal rainscreen panel can exte nd up t o th e t op of th e wall in o rder slots or perforation s.
2. Single layer membrane
t o conceal th e coping flashing. In ot her ty pes
3. Closed cell thermal insulation
4. Structural deck of metal roofin g,th e coping exte nds over th e Monopitch ridges and verges
5. Purlin or structural beam
t op of th e wall, resulting in a th in visual edge Th ese ridge types are form ed by sealing th e
6. Secondary purlin
7. Folded metal gutter t o th e t op of th e wall.This coping line can be wate rproo f membrane against th e side of
8. Folded metal drip
9. Metal fascia panel
concealed from view in rainscreen roof panel th e roof deck t o provide a wate rt ight enclo-
10. External wall construct ion.Th e exte rnal w all beneath is sure th at is cont inuous w it h th e exte rnal w all
I I. Outer sheet fixing bracket
12. Panel I t ypically sealed up t o th e under side of th e beneath.The rainscreen panel at th e edge of
13. Panel 2 roof deck. th e roof is linked directly t o a fascia panel.
14. Ridge piece
15. Structural frame Th e parapet gutter can be covered w it h W here a curve d panel is st r uct urally inde-
16. Pipe or duct penetration a perforated or slotte d metal cover in th e pendent of th e exte rnal w all beneath, th e
same material and finish as th e adjacent rain- roof deck is allowe d t o deflect and move
screen panels. Since rainw ater run s off each under normal structural loading w it ho ut
panel at its edges o nto th e membrane below, affect ing th e w all beneath. If w all and ro of
th ere is no need t o leave th e gutter uncov- we re rigidly fixed t ogether.th e w all w o uld
ered, as is th e case w it h ot her metal roof sys- deflect w it h th e roof. t o an exte nt th at wo uld

MC E 320

::::~=:::Dj~~~~Tnrf7r:X)~!Tii]1l~~
-------
Vertical section I: I a. Typical long section through metal rainscreen roof with cur ved panel
be t oo much for curtain wall syst ems, w hose
movements are very restricted.This is a com-
mon detail for roofs w here th e expecte d
structural movements are higher th an th e
mod est movements allowed w it h curtain
wall facades.
A seal between th e exte rnal wall and
th e under side of t he roo f is provided by
t wo layers of EPDM sheet w ith flex ible
insulation quilt set between th em. Fold ed
metal sheet can also be used, but is less
flexible in th e lo ngit udinal direction (along
th e length of th e roof) th an EP D M sheet.
Verges are similar t o mon op itch ridges,
but differ in th at th ey require an upstand at
th e roo f edge t o prevent rainw ater from
spilling off t he roo f.T he upstand can be low
if th e verge is fiat, and if relatively small
amo unts of rainw ater are fiow ing along th is
r----------- Vertical section I: Ia.Typical
''''':i~r·....... long section through metal
rainscreen roof
,.
edge of th e roo f. If large amo unt s of wate r
(i)
flow are expecte d th en th e ro of can be
angled upwards slight ly t o avoid an upstand
th at exte nds above th e line of th e rain-
screen roo f panels. A n alte rnat ive solut ion
is t o int rodu ce a gutter at th e edge of th e
verge t o give greate r height t o th e verge
upst and w it ho ut it becomin g visible, and
w it hout breaking th e cont inuo us line of
rainscreen panels.
Roof geometry
A n advantage of rainscreen panels is th eir
ability t o form complex geomet ries from fiat
panel compo nent s. Since th e panels are not
required t o be wate rproo fed,th ey do not
3-D view of metal rainscreen roof with concealed
require any joint s between panels t hat wo uld
parapet gutter
become difficult and expensive for roofs w it h
complex geomet ries. Flat panels can be fixed
MC E 321
 fletal Roofs 04
Rainscreens

Verti cal section I :25 typi cal section with rainscreen panels draining from
panel to panel

3-D detail of meta l rainscreen support system

3-D detail of metal rainscreen support system

3-D view o f metal rainscreen roof draining

from panel to panel

Detail of metal rainscreen support system
t o create a set of gent ly curve d panels th at
are turned in eit her o ne or two direction s.
Panels are increasingly being twiste d in two
directions in o rder t o create genuinely
curved roof finishes.A lte rnat ively, panels can
be set fiat but w it h each panel set at different
angles t o create a facetted ro of sect ion.
A lt ho ugh th e dr awn examples here show
lightweight roof configurat ions t o suit th e
lightweight natur e of th e metal rainscreen
panels, any compat ible roof subst rate can be
used, from reinforced concrete slabs t o t im-
ber shell st r uctures.
A lt ho ugh most rainscreens are set at
aro und IOOmm above th e membrane, some
can be up t o I OOOmm above th e roof deck
in order t o accommo date mechanical plant
equipment and duct o ut lets for mechanical
vent ilat ion w it hin t he building.Th is allows
rainscreen panels t o pro vide weat her pro -
t ection for equipme nt as we ll as a visual
screen to th ese items, w hich can have a con-
siderable visual impact o n a ro of Rainscreen
panels set I OOOmm above th e roof are fixed
t o a secondary suppo r t fr amew ork, typically
of cold formed stee l sect io ns o r alum inium
extr usio ns.Th e fr amew ork is fixed at its
base t o pads o r Z -sect io n profi les in t he
same way as th e rainscreens set clo se t o th e
roof membrane.
Roof soffits
Met al rainscreen roof panels can also be
used as soffit panels t o eit her an overhanging
eaves o r parapet, o r alte rnat ively t o form a
complete soffit t o th e underside of a ro of
W hen mixed w it h perforated o r slotted pan-
els and lo uvres, a ro of can becom e a single

MC E 322
 D etails
I. Metal rainscreen panel
2. Single layer membrane
3. Closed cell thermal insulation
4. Structural deck
5. Purlin or structural beam
6. Secondary purl in
7. Folded metal gutter
8. Folded metal drip
9. Metal fascia panel
10, External wall
I I, Outer sheet fixing bracket
12, Panel I
13, Panel 2
14, Ridge piece
15, Structural frame
16, Pipe or duct penetration

3-D view of concealed parapet

gutter with cantilevered edge

Vert ical section I: I0, Concealed parapet gutter with cantilevered edge

visual ent ity,set above its exte rnal walls as a

separate and distinct eleme nt.T his can be
achieved w it ho ut th e need for an expensive
struct ure, o r for an ex pensive wate rproo fing
layer, since th e membrane is co ncealed from
view and is chosen for its perform ance rather
3-D view of gutter detail
th an for it s visual qualities.Th e easy removal
of panels for maintenance access both o n th e
roof, and int o th e ceiling vo id from th e soffit
panels beneath, make it an eco nomic and
easy t o use system for ro ofs of co mplex
geomet ry.Th e range of co lours for com pos-
ite sheet and for coat ings to sheet metal
have increased co nsiderably in th e past t en
years, making thi s a ro ofing meth od set for
new developm ent s.

3-D view of cantilever detail

MC E 323
 fletal Roofs 04
Rai nscreens

Details
I. Metal rainscreen panel
2. Single layer membrane
3. Closed cell thermal insulation
4. Structural deck
5. Purlin or structural beam
6. Secondary purlin
7. Folded metal gutter
8. Folded metal drip
9. Met al fascia panel
10. External wall
I I. Outer sheet fixing bracket
12. Panel I
13. Panel 2
14. Ridge piece
15. Structural frame
3-D exploded detail of metal rainscreen support system 3-D detail of metal rainscreen support system 16. Pipe or duct penetration

3-D exploded view of metal rainscreen roof

draining from panel to panel

@
@
9
~

"'0
til
1:
G)

Exploded axonometric drawing of metal rainscreen roof Exploded 3-D view of metal rainscreen support system
draining from panel to panel

MC E 324
3-D exploded view of window connection

Exploded axonometric view of concealed

parapet gutter with cantilevered edge

3-D exploded view of concealed parapet gutter with cantilevered edge

3-D exploded view of concealed gutter detail 3-D exploded view of cantilevered edge detail

MCE 325
 f1etal Roofs 05
Metal canopies
3-D view of louvred metal canopy and support
3-D section through louvred canopy edge and support
3-D top view of louvred canopy
MC E 3 26
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Metal canopies use all th e t echniques availa-
ble t o metal: standing seam, profi led sheet,
composite panel and rainscreen panels w it h
a membrane beneath. How ever, th e pre-
ferred t echnique for metal cano pies is usually
none of th ese, but inst ead a meth od suite d
t o small-scale co nstruct ion of comp lex
geomet ry.T his meth od uses met al panels
w it h fo lded edges,somet imes called cas-
settes, th e joints between panels being
sealed w it h silicone sealant. Panels can be
individually fold ed t o different shapes t o
form a cano py of complex geo met ry.There
has been a gradual move t ow ards larger
metal panel sizes, even a co mplete form
made from metal co il, w hich imit at es th e
hom ogeneous form s found in GRP mem-
br anes and t ent st ruct ures, but w it h th e
more durable finishes associate d w it h metal
panels. In commo n w it h ot her cano py t ypes,
metal cano pies are expecte d t o be fully
wate rt ight.T he generic example here fo llow s
thi s prin ciple.
In generic exam ples, th e metal cano py
also serves as a sealed ro of t o part of a
glazed wa ll.A n inclined glazed wall meets a
met al cano py at mid -height w hich might
form part of an ent rance, o r may serve as
solar shading t o a facade.The sealed oute r
layer of th e cano py co mprises metal panels
w hich are fo lded to form an overall curve d
profi le, each panel being made from metal
sheet w hich is fo lded at it s edges t o form a
tray.The fold ed edges form th e surface t o
w hich th e silicone sealant adheres.A n alte r-
native meth od of joinin g met al panels
t ogether is by rivet ing th em t ogether, leaving
a hairline joint between th e sheets.Thi s is
D etail s
I. Extruded aluminium
louvre blade
2. Mild steel box section
3. Mild steel tube
4. Structural pin connection
5. Mild steel I-section
6. Bolt fixedmetal panel
7. Aluminium sheet
8. Mild steel or
aluminium support frame
9. Thermal insulation
10. Silicone seal
I I. Glazed wall

Ii

Horizontal and vertical sections I:50. Louvre roof

general arrangement
CD
don e eit her by butting fiat sheet t ogeth er minium sections are usually preferred for
and r ivet ing th e tw o sides t ogeth er, o r by th eir durability but m ild stee l is ofte n used for

folding th e sheets down and rivetin g th e its greate r rigidit y Mi ld steel is galvanised,
under side. In some sit uat io ns, th e sheet s are painted, o r both , w hile alum inium, w it h its
fixed w it h counte rsunk rivet s fix ing th e edges greate r durability can be natural, anodised o r

of each sheet in place.A co m pressible poly- cro mate d (sim ilar t o ano dising) dependin g on

mer sheet is set beneath t he sheets to pro - th e individual applicat ion. Met al panels o f

vide a weat hertight seal.A lte rnat ively, a sim i- large size, made from 1200mm x 2400 mm
lar sheet mater ial can set between th e rivet - sheet, can result in a gent le oil-canning effect

ed panels t o provide a seal. In pr actice, both aro und th eir edges.T his gives panels th eir
seals discussed are difficult t o achieve w here characte r ist ic soft edge, but th ey look

a high weat hertight performance is required. smoot h and co nsiste nt , and th is is usually

Instead, a silicone seal aro und I Omm w ide is accepte d visually as part of th eir appearance.
used between panels w hich are fixed w it h If mu ch th icker sheet is used, th ere is a disad-

br acket s back t o a suppo rt ing st r uct ure.Thi s vantage in increased cost as we ll as a greate r
provides a reliable seal th at maint ains it s difficulty in wo r king th e sheet t o form

weat her tightn ess in th e lon g t erm. smooth shaped pressed panels.A lum inium
Th e suppo rt ing st r uct ure is made from panels are ty pically eit her PVDF coate d or
eit her mild steel o r alum inium sect ions.A lu- polyester powd er coate d, w hile steel sheet is 3-D bottom view of louvred canopy

MC E 327
r1etal Roofs 05
Metal canop ies
Vertical sections I:IO. Louvre mechanism configuration
3-D Elevation. Louvre mechanism configuration
'~~"§"h''''''''''''~ 1 ,,,,,,~,,,,~,,.,r~""~1.'-(!)-"-
o !
Vertical section I :25. Louvre mechanism configuration
usually polyester pow der coate d only. Th e
use of anodised aluminium as a finish o n
sheet has increased in recent years as a
result of greate r reliability of th e finish, w hich
until recently has suffered from uneven col-
o ur consiste ncy. In many cases, th e silicone
used t o seal th e jo ints can be applied in a
variety of monotone tints, ranging from
w hite, t o greys,t o black. Som e silver-grey col-
o urs match we ll w it h silver coloured panels
t o give an overall appearance of a single col-
o ur for th e complete cano py, particularly
w hen recessed joints are used between pan-
els. Flush joints in silicone t end t o give th e
canopy surface an hom ogenou s appearance,
giving it more th e appearance of concrete
th an of metal.This can detract from th e
crisply fitt ed assembly of panels w hich is
characteristic of metal and also one of th e
advantages of th e material.
Metal panels can br ing t ogether th e full
set of assembly t echniques available t o th e
mater ial w it hin a single assembly. W it h folded
panels, th e edges are we lded and gro und
smoot h, and th e complete panel is coate d t o
a single consistent colour.Th e use of coun-
MC E 3 28
®
t ersunk screws, painted o n site in a colour
matching t hat of th e panels, enhances th e
overall appearance.
In generic examples, th e glazed wa ll
above th e cano py is sealed t o it by exte nd-
ing t he metal sheet forming t he exte rnal gut-
t er up int o th e bottom transom (ho rizontal
glazing bar) of th e glazing system t o form a
cont inuo us seal w it h th e glazed wa ll above.
Th e th erm al insulation w it hin th e cano py is
cont inued in o rder t o meet th e th erm ally
brok en transom w here it fo rms a cont inuity
w it h th e doub le glazed units above .Th e
metal sheet form ing th e t op of th e cano py
o n th e intern al side of th e wa ll is lapped up
th e int ernal face of th e glazed wa ll fr aming
w here it is fo lded under th e bottom t ran-
som.Th e met al sheet forming th e t op of th e
cano py becom es a vapo ur barrier o n th e
intern al side of th e wa ll, rather th an th e full
weat her barr ier used o n th e exte rnal face of
th e canopy
T he glazed wall o n th e underside of th e
metal coping is joined in a way th at disturb s
th e line of th e canopy as little as possible as it
passes it from o utside t o inside.Th e metal
1
0
sheet o n th e exte rior face of th e wa ll is
glazed int o th e t op transom of th e wall
below.A ny excess rainw ater th at is blown
int o th e jo int drips off th e t op of th e transom
pressure plate and capping. Small amo unts of
rainw ater t hat find th eir way into th e t ran-
som are t aken away through th e vent ilate d
intern al drainage syste m of th e glazed wa ll
fr aming.The metal sheet form ing th e under-
side of th e cano py o n its intern al face is t aken
as close t o th e glass as possible before being
folded back t o align w it h th e transom .
Metal cano pies are increasingly using a
single seal between panels t o form a weat h-
ertight joint.This meth od uses th e applicat ion
meth od of bo lt fixed glazing,w here a reliable
silicone seal between doub le glazed units is
th e norm . How ever,w here a foam-based
backing ro d is used t o suppo rt th e silicone
applied from th e outside, wo rkmanship o n
site must be of th e highest quality t o ensure
a durable weat hert ight seal. If thi s is difficult
to achieve, as w here t he edge of th e panel
has a small edge return , o r w here panels are
not very rigid due t o th eir geomet ry o r man-
ufacturing meth od, a second line of defence
= @-A

3-D detail of louvred canopy edgeand support

"
: J i=__________
= = = = = =~-
fF @ ------.:l

Details
I. Extruded aluminium louvre blade
2. Mild steel box section
3. Mild steeltube
4.Structural pin connection
5. Mild steel l-section
6. Bolt fixed metal panel
7.Aluminium sheet
8.Mild steel or aluminium support frame
9.Thermal insulation
10. Silicone seal
I I. Glazed wall

Vertical sections I: IO. Louvre mechanism

configuration
MC E 329
l'1etal Roofs 05
Metal canopies

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rr ",r

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Horizontal section I :20. Genericmetal canopy )-D section view showinggeneric metal canopy serving assealed roof to part of a glazed wall
serving assealed roof to part of a glazed wall

for weat her t ightness is provided by an elas-
t om eri c o r th erm opl astic wate rproo f mem-
brane.The ends of th e wate rproofing sheet
at th eir t op and bottom ends are fixed into
th e glazing syste m above and below w here
small amo unt s of wate r th at penetrate th e
o ute r silicone seal are allowe d t o drain t o
th e out side.
Bo lt fixed panels
Metal panels can be bo lt fixed o nto th e can-
o py edges. Flat panels, such as m inimum 3mm
thi ck aluminium sheet and metal ! composite
sheet, can be bo lt fixed using proprietary sys-
t ems destined for use in point fixed glazing.
Th e use of oversized ho les or slotted ho les
in th e metal panel ensures th at th e metal
panels can move w it h th erm al expansion
w it hout bow ing o r bending.
Gutter s and rainw ater out lets can be
form ed in sheet metal.The rainw ater o ut let
can be finished t o match th e adjacent metal
finishes so as not t o detract from th e overall
visual form of th e canopy.
Th e cano py can form part of a glazed
wall, and is so th erm ally insulat ed.T he insula-
ti on usually follow s th e form of th e outside
of th e cano py t o keep th e vo ids w it hin th e
structure at a similar t emperatur e t o th e
int ernal t emp erature of th e building.A n alte r-
native is t o form th e insulati on w it h th e
sho rte st distance betw een th e glazed w alls
above and below, so th at th e st ructure and
void are at th e exte rnal t emperature.Th e
warm roof solut ion is usually preferred.
Fixed metal louvre canopies
A rrangeme nts of metal lo uvres are used as

MC E 330

3-D section view showing generic metal canopyserving
assealed roof to par t of a glazed wall
cano pies to provide so lar shading w hile st ill
allow ing daylight t o pass t hro ugh t he canopy.
Louvre blades are set typically at 45 0 t o t he
vert ical in o rder to block th e passage of
direct sunlight but allow t he light to be
reflected off it s surfaces down to t he space
beneath t he canopy. Lo uvre sect ions are cre-
ate d from fo lded st rips of aluminium or mild
steel sheet. but t hese have limit ed st iffness
and stability, requirin g restraint along th eir
length to hold th eir straightness.Greater st iff-
ness is provided by ext ruded aluminium sec-
tions,w here th e ellipt ical sect ion is most
commo nly used, mainly fo r it s ability t o
reflect daylight in a way th at reveals its
3-dimensional form, enhancing it s appear-
ance. Sections are eit her a half ellipse o r a full
ellipse. Flat lo uvre arrangement s pro vide
much less visual vibrancy w hen viewed from
Vertical sections I:20. Generic metal canopy serv-
ing assealed roof to part of a glazed wall
.. "
,.
11I/
t-=~~~~
Vertical section I :20. Moveable louvre detail
below. Extruded alum inium sect io ns require
end caps, usually fo r visual reason s, and
th ese are eit her fixed w it h counte rsunk
screw s int o th e wa ll of th e sect io n, o r are
we lded and gro und smo ot h.Where end D etails
I, Extruded aluminium
caps are screw ed t o th e ends,th e alum inium louvre blade
profile has screw ports t hat form part of t he 2, Mild steel box section
3. Mild steeltube
extr usion, int o w hich th e screws are fixed. 4. Structural pin connection
A luminium ext rusio ns can be made in 5, Mild steel I-section
6, Bolt fixed metal panel
lengths up t o around 6000mm, and are sup- 7,Aluminium sheet
ported at cent res t o suit th eir st r uct ural 8, Mild steel or aluminium
support frame
dept h.A n ellipt ical sect ion w ill span typically 9.Thermal insulation
1500mm for a 75mm t o I OOmm deep sec- 10, Silicone seal
I I, Glazed wall
t ion w hile a 250mm deep section w ill span
2500mm, depending upon design w ind
speed and relati ve loads.W hen fixed at th eir
ends, a fixed lo uvre assem bly can be made
w it ho ut visible fixings.
MC E 33 1
rletal Roofs 05
Metal canopies
Vertical sections I :20. Louvre mechanism
details
3-D view of electrically operated louvre mechanism details
In some cases, th e suppo rt ing st r uct ure
comprises a mild steel frame fabricated from
box sections, suppo rte d by tub e sectio ns th at
spring from po ints below th e ro of The box
sect ions are show n bo lted t ogether t o form
a fiat fram e structure, into w hich are set lou-
vre panels, prefabr icated and finished in a fac-
tory,th en fixed to th e suppo rt ing mild steel
frame o n site .The stee l tub es are fixed t o th e
fiat frame w it h pin connect ions.Two fiat
plates are we lded t o th e ends of th e tub es,
and a single plate forming a cleat is fixed to
the underside of th e fiat frame and the base
suppo rt below th e ro ofThe fork ends of th e
tubular suppo r ts and th e suppo rt cleats to
w hich it connects are fixed t ogether w it h
face-mounted or counte rsunk bo lts t o form
a visually crisp connection.Th e tub es have
tapered ends w hich is typ ical of th is typ e of
steel construction.Th e aluminium louvre pan-
els are fixed t o th e suppo rt ing fiat frame w it h
brackets th at are we lded to th e sides of th e
bottom fiange of th e stee l I-secti o n.Th e alu-
minium louvre panel is suppo rte d o n th ese
brackets,w it h a nylon spacer between th em
t o allow for th erm al movement.The louvre
MCE 332
panel is fixed to th e cleat bracket w it h a
counte rsunk bo lt.
Electr ically operated lo uvres
Louvr e cano pies are also used for horizontal
and inclined glazed roofs,excluding up to
90% of solar heat gain w hen set at a 45°
angle. Louvre blades are 75mm- 1OOmm in
t ypical proprietary syste ms but blades up t o
300mm w ide can be made as a single extru-
sion. N ylon sleeves and washers are used at
th e connection of moving parts,rather th an
metal, to avoid th e need for regular lubrica-
t ion. Louvres can be solid o r perforated t o
different percentages of solid t o void, from
aro und 10% vo id t o a maximum of 50%,
th ough th e latter is difficult t o fabricate.
Louvres are fixed by steel pins into a slid-
ing aluminium section at each end of th e
profil e.Th e lo uvres are also fixed at th eir cen-
tre in sect ion.As th e sliding aluminium rod
mo ves,th e aluminium lo uvres move to gether,
o pening and closing t ogether.The sliding rod s
are connecte d at each end of th e lo uvres
th at are fixed to a suppo rting fram e of alu-
m inium I-secti o ns.The single tub e is pow ered
by an electric motor, and as it turns,th e slid-
ing arms move through th e arrangement of
gears.
Louvr es are ty pically a maximum of
around 6000mm lo ng for th ose 75mm t o
100mm deep, requirin g suppo rt at 1000mm
t o 1500mm. Sliding arms typ ically suppo rt up
to a 6000mm length of louvr e blades,giving
an overall square shape (in plan) t o each set
of cont ro lled louvres of 6000mm x 6000mm
size w hich are fixed int o th e suppo r t ing l-sec-
tion fr ame.A 100mm deep I-section w ill span
typ ically 1000mm - 1500mm between sup-
ports depending o n th e design of th e glazed
roof below.The distance between th e move-
able louvre panels and th e glazed roof below
is made sufficient t o allow for access for
cleaning th e glass below and th e lo uvre
assemb ly it self
3-0 . " "
, of " ,
\n open -'"
and clos ",_d
ed posit\o loU',e "
ns " ,e \

oI et ai\S
. £flrude
d alumin
IOU'lre b ium
1. M\l lad
d steel be
] . M\l O)( secti
ds on
4 . Str teel tube
uctUral
co pin
S. MilnnectiOn
6. Bod steel I_sectiOn
lt f()(ed m
7 . Nu etal pan
rO el
8 . Mil lolum sheet
d steel o
r alurOln
su ium
9. \\"pport frame
Iermal in
10. SiliC sulation
one seal
II. G
lazedwa
ll
....- - Metal Roofs 05- - - - - - ..
Metal cano ies

,
•

..........

De tails
I. Extruded all.nmium

2.
1
"""'-
Mild steer box secnoo
steer
Mild tube
4. Structural pin

4
con nection
5. Mild steeu-secto-
6. Bolt fixed metal panel
7.
8.
AlumInium sheet
Mild steel 0<"alumin ium

"""""
I
9, Thermal frarre
insulation
I0, Seco-e seal
II. ~wall

J.D e>q>loded _ shoWng Iouvred metal canopf ¥'odsupport 3-D >new showing ConnectIOn for Iouvred metal C¥IOp'f and support
MC E_ 114
 Cl c

3-D exploded view showing metal louvres in front of glazed wall 3-D exploded view showing electrically operated louvre panel mechanism

3-D exploded view showing metal canopy assembly

3-D exploded view showing generic metal canopy

serving as sealed roof to part of a glazed wall

3-D exploded view showing generic

metal canopy serving as sealed roofto
part of a glazed wall 3-D exploded view showing canopy fixing method

MC E 335
GLASS ROOFS
(I) Greenhouse glazing and capped systems
Greenhouse glazing
Modem roof glazing
Capped systems
(2) Silicone-sealed glazing and rooflights
Silicone-sealed systems
Junctions
Use of capped profiles
Roofiights
(3) Bolt fixed glazing: small scale rooflights
Generic structural support met hods
Supporting brackets
Bolt fixings
Arrangeme nt o f bo lt fixings
Glazed units
(4) Bolt fixed glazing: large scale roofJights
Base of glazed roof
External and internal folds
Small glazed roofl ights
Larger rooflights
(5) Bonded glass rooflights
Generic conical roollight
Generic recta ngular rooflight
Generic monopitch rooflight
Glass roof decks

MC E JJ 7
- - -Glass Roofs 01- - - - - - - - - - - - - .....,
Greenhouse glazing and capped systems
Vertical section I:25. Typical section through greenhouseglazing
~
Vertical sections I:25. Greenhouseglazing.
Typical crosssection.
CD
CD
~
II
CD
Isometric view of roof assembly
Greenhouse glazing
C urtain wa lling principles used in exte rnal
walls have been ado pte d, over t he last 20
years, as a reliable meth od of co nstruct ing
glazed ro ofs t o replace earlier syst ems devel-
o ped from greenho use glazing.Traditional
greenhouse glazing used t hin steel o r cast
iron sect io ns t o suppo rt glass sheets o n t heir
vert ical edges t o form a pitched roof. Since
rainw ater needs t o run dow n t he slope w it h-
o ut being impeded by glazing bars,a method
of lapping glass sheets over one anot her was
used.Traditi on ally,t he glass is lapped w it h no
seal, w it h glazing bars set at aro und 600 mm
3-D view of green house glazing ridge detail (2ft) cent res in ord er to keep t he glass as
t hin as possible, w it h glass t hicknesses from
4mm t o 6mm t hicknesses being used t ypical-
ly.Th e lapped glass results in w at er being
draw n up between t he sheets by capillary
MC E 338
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Vertical section I :25. Greenhouseglazing.
Typical ridge section.
Vertical section I :25. Greenhouseglazing.
Abut ment.
(j)
attract ion, w hich can cause w at er leaks and
staining. However. complete weat her t ight-
ness is a seco ndary issue in greenho uses,t his
design being a very neat and eco nomic so lu-
t ion for it s purp ose.
T he glazing can be used in a pitched roof
as we ll as a vert ical wa ll t o fo rm t he t radi-
t ional greenho use enclosure. For large green-
houses an addit ional aluminium o r steel
fr ame is used t o support t he glazing.A ty pical
struct ure is of lightweight met al t r usses, used
t o suppo rt t he glazed ro of, w hich are set o n
steel or aluminium box sect io n co lumns th at
also suppo rt t he glazed wa ll.Tr usses are set
ty pically at 3000mm cent res w it h pur lins run -
ning between t hem t o suppo rt t he glazing
bars at 600mm cent res.
Thi s glazing system is still used in green-
houses fo r agricult ural act ivit ies, but has poo r
 CD
Vertical section I:IO. Valley detail
3-D view of greenhouse glazed roof
~,
U®
Vertical sections I: IO. Eaves detail
th erm al insulation, since its purpose is t o
abso rb th e heat from th e sun rath er th an
exclud ing it.The use of single glazing, w it h no
th erm al breaks and high air infiltration rates
(by curta in wa lling st andards) , m ake it ideal
for agr icult ural use, but ver y po or for th e use
in general bu ilding co nstr uct io n. H ow ever, th e
co nce pt o f gree nho use glazing has been
develop ed int o th e highly insulat ed, air sealed
and wate rt ight glass roof system s used in
co nte m po rary bu ildings.
A n essent ial co m po nent of gree nho use
glazing th at has been ret ained in m od ern
glazed roofs is th e glazing bar,w hich co r re-
spo nds t o a mulli on in glazed wa lls.Th e
gree nho use glazing bar has a co nde nsat io n
channel beneath th e glass t o drain away
wate r th at passes through th e o ute r seal dur-
ing rain.Th e co nde nsat io n channel also
Vertical section I: IO. Ridge detail
3-D view of greenhouse glazed roof
Greenh ou se d etails
I. Extruded aluminium
glazing bar
2. Extruded aluminium
sections
3. Single glazed sheet
4. Double glazed unit
5. Aluminium clip-on capping
6. Polycarbonate sheet
7. Aluminium gutter
Horizontal section 1:5.
Polycarbonate to glass iunction
8. Concrete base
serve s as a drain fo r m oi sture inside th e
bu ilding th at has co nde nsed w it hin th e fr am-
ing. C ondensation channels are eit her o pen
at th e edges, o r are enclo sed. M od ern gree n-
Horizontal sect ion 1:5.
hou se glazing is m ade from extr ude d alum ini- Polycarbonate to glass junction
um sect io ns w it h no th erm al break. since high
th erm al insulati o n is not requ ired , but
includes th e co nde nsat io n channels t o avoid
wate r from dripp ing below.
T he hori zontal joint bet w een lapp ed
glass sheet s is sealed w it h eit her a clear co l-
o ured seal, ty pically silico ne sealant, o r w it h -lonzontal section I :::>
co nt inuo us alum inium clip s. Some gree n- Glass to glass j~un-"ct
:.:.i:.:.o-"n ---,
hou se syste ms still have lapped glass w it h no
seal bet w een th e glass sheets, m aking it ve ry
eco no m ic, but not very airtight w hich suit s
certa in agr icult ural applicat io ns.
Vent ilat io n in gree nho use glazing is pro-
vided at t he eaves and at th e r idge, w hile
MC E 339
Glass Roofs a I
Greenhouse glazing and capped systems

-:

3-D view of capped glazingconstruction Isomet ric view of roof assembly

~1

Vert ical sections I :5. Capped glazing.Typical profiles

o pening light s are used for more closely co n- trol bar,allowing it greate r freedom t o
tro lled vent ilat ion. Single glazed sheets are exte nd both inside and outside t he face of
held in place o n t heir sides by suppo rt ing t he glass.T he rubber seals are deep eno ugh
Capped glazing details th em on th e glazing bars and securing th em and soft eno ugh to allow th e bottom of th e
I. Extruded aluminium
in place w it h co nt inuous aluminium clips t hat glass sheet t o lap over t he t op of t he sheet
glazing bar
2. Transom snap o nt o th e glazing bar.Th e aluminium sec- below o n t he ho rizont al joi nt s. Greenhou se
3. Single glazed unit
t io ns are separate d from t he glass by ext r ud- glazing can accommo date do uble glazing
4. Double glazed unit
5. Ridge bar ed rubb er-based seals w hich are held in place units.The main reason for thi s is usually t o
6. Pressure plate and
o n t he aluminium glazing bars and w hich provide greate r cont ro l of t he int ern al t em-
capping
7. Insulated gutte r press against th e glass t o pro vide both a perature for agricult ural buildings.Th erm al
8. Insulated fiashing
cushion fo r t he glass as we ll as a wate r and breaks are still not required, but t here is a
9. Roofiight
10. Therm al insulation air seal.T he st rength and st iffness of t he glaz- larger pr ovisio n for slot vent ilat ion at t he
I I. Pressed metal fiashing
ing bar is pro vided by th e cent ral flat bar th at ridge and eaves locat io ns t o enco urage natu-
12. Concrete base
I 3. Pressed metal t rim exte nds beyo nd t he glazing line eit her inside ral cross vent ilat ion.T he increased we ight of
o r o utside th e glazing. Un like curta in walling doub le glazed unit s over single glazed sheets
based systems, w here t he st ruct ural mullio n result s in bigger glazing bar s t o suppo rt t hem,
exte nds o n th e inside face of t he glass, w it h a but th e system remains essent ially th e same .
pressure plate o n th e outside, greenho use Th e snap-o n glazing clips o r screw -o n ty pes
glazing has o nly clips eit her side of t he co n- in use usually have a ste pped pr ofile t o

MC E 340
3-D view of capped glazing junction with parapet upstand
3-D view of capped glazing eaves detail
accomm odate th e increased glass depth,
w hile short length alum inium clips are used
along th e horizontal joints to ho ld the lapped
units in place.Th ese hori zont al joints are usu-
ally sealed w it h silicone t o provide an air seal.
Greenhou se syste ms can also accommo date
both flat polycarbonat e sheet and th e multi-
w all type. A twin w all sheet has thi cknesses
w hich are similar t o th ose of doub le glazed
units, ranging from aro und 24mm to 32mm,
allowing th e same aluminium profi les t o be
used for both doub le glazing and po lycar-
bon ate sheets.
Ridges are formed by special extruded
alum inium sect io ns th at hold th e glassw it h
th e same clips used for th e glazing bar s w hich
meet at th e ridge. Since each ridge ext rusion
can suit o nly on e ro of pitch, manufacturer s
offer ridge profi les t o suit a limit ed range of
Vertical section I:5. Capped glazing.parapet upstand detail
3-D cutaway view of capped glazing eaves detail
roof pitches,ty pically 22° , 30° and 45°. A
co ndensat ion channel set int o th e glazing
section is drained either into th e glazing bars
th at inter sect w it h it w hich drains down th e
slope of th e ro of t o th e eaves, o r is dr ained
at its gable ends if th e ridge can be set level
t o allow th e wate r t o drain freely.
Gutters are formed by fixing gutter pro -
files t o a box sect ion used at jun ctions
@
beneath it.Th e glass simply ove rhangs th e
Fi. ~I
edge of th e roof t o dra in rainw ater int o th e I ~ F-'\
\.Y
~
I. .
gutter.At gro und level, th e glass ofte n over-
laps th e concrete gro und slab, w here a fin-
ished floor is provided.W here th e green-
Vertical section 1:5. Capped glazing.
house glazing has no flo or, as is th e case in Eaves with glass to glass fold
many agricultural applications, a br ickw ork o r
co ncrete blockw ork edge is pro vided t o t er-
min ate th e glass above gro und level, w here it
co uld ot herwise be suscept ible t o damage.
MCE 341
Glass Roofs 0 I
Greenhouse glazing and capped systems

3-D view of capped glazing junction with valley gutter

3-D view of capped glazing junction with valley gutter

(j)
o

Vertical section I:5. Capped glazing. Eaves with profiles at fold

Vert ical section 1:5. Capped glazingwith valley gutter

Valley gutters, w hich occur ty pically sons: to under stand how glazed roofs have
w here glassho use roofs are set next t o o ne evo lved from a simple mass produ ced sys-
anot her,are also form ed from ext r uded alu- t em , as we ll as for applicat ions w here a glaz-
minium sect ions,w it h th e glass being secured ing syste m is required t hat is minim al in both
Capped glazing details in t he same way as t he glazing bars.A n addi- it s compo nents and it s overall assembly as
I. Ext ruded aluminium glazing bar
2. Transom ti onal upstand is ofte n added t o th e alumini- we ll as w here an uninsulated glass struct ure
3. Singleglazed unit um sect ion for increased rigidity. Gutter s in might be requ ired, w it ho ut th e need to use
4. Double glazed unit
5. Ridge bar other roo f systems are usually insulat ed, t hermally bro ken glazing systems w hich are
6. Pressure plate and capping w here t he dept hs of insulati o n, together w it h designed for much larger glass unit s.
7. Insulated gutter
8. Insulated flashing th e inner lining, provide a rigid gutter.Wit h
9. Roofiight greenhouse glazing, w it h no th erm al insula- Mod ern roo f glazing
10. Thermal insulation
I I. Pressed metal fiashing t ion prov ided, an upstand o r down stand Systems for glass roofs use t he pr inciples of
12. Concrete base fo rmed w it hin th e gutter extrusion perform s greenho use glazing, but incorporat e th e prin-
13. Pressed metal trim
t he same function of pr oviding sufficient st iff- ciples of glazed curta in wa lling. Drained and
ness t o bear th e we ight of a gutter filled venti lated systems are used, with t hermal
w it h rainw at er. breaks and do uble glazed unit s. Pressure
A lt ho ugh not useful fo r mo st applications plates rath er t han clips are used to hold large
in general building co nst ruct ion, greenho use glass unit s in place in capped systems, and
glazing is useful for t he reader for two rea- togg le-type plates are used t o prov ide flush

MC E 34 2
 Vertical section 1:5. Capped glazing. Ridge
3-D cutawayview of capped glazing ridge detail
joints in silico ne based syste ms.Thi s latter
typ e is discussed in t he next sect ion of th is
book, w hile t his section focuses on pressure
plate based, or 'capped' syste ms.
Capped systems
The capped syste m comprises glazing bars
w hich are assembled on site in a grid of
memb ers t hat resemb le th e mullion s and
tran soms of stick glazed curt ain w alling.Th e
base of t he curta in wa ll, at th e bottom of t he
extruded profi le, may have an addit ional co n-
densation channel.Thi s pro vision can also be
made by setting th e co ndensat ion channels
imm ediately beneath th e glass.Th e glass is set
onto rubb er-based air seals fixed t o th e glaz-
ing bar and is secured w it h a co nt inuo us
pressure plate of extruded aluminium. A strip
of ext ruded EPDM is set between t he pr es-
3-D view of capped glazing ridge detail
Vertical section 1:5. Capped glazing.Junctionwith roofiight
sure plate and th e glass to pro vide a weat h-
ert ight seal.As w it h glazed curt ain walling,t he
glazing bars are dr ained and vent ilat ed, or Vertical section 1:5. Capped glazing.
Junction with roofiight
pressure equalised, intern ally.Wate r th at is
able t o find it s way through th e o ute r seal
drip s into an int ernal channel w here it is
drained away safely t o th e bottom of th e
roof. ty pically at th e eaves. In smaller ro ofs
w it hout eaves, w here th e roof angle changes ,
V
from pitched to vert ical wall, rainw ater is
allowe d t o run on down th e w all t o t he base
of t he roof At th e 'fo ld' po int of t he roof th e
internal drain in th e glazing bar is co nt inuo us
w it h th e vert ical w all, and th e system is
drained at th e base of th e wall, w hich co uld Vertical section I:5. Capped glazing.
Eaves gutter
be a reinforced concrete slab at roof level.
W hile glazing bars runnin g down th e
roof proj ect above th e surface of th e glass,
th ose runn ing along th e roof. ho lding in place
MCE 343
 Glass Roofs 0 I
Greenhouse glazing and capped systems

Vert ical section I :5. Capped glazing.Typical

profiles

Vertical section 1:5. Capped glazing. Parapet upstand

Vert ical sect ion 1:5. Capped glazing.Abutment

Vert ical section I :5. Capped glazing. Parapet upstand Vertical section 1:5 . Capped glazing. Ridge

t he top and bottom edges of t he glass, bar is usually made deep er to take t he highe r
Capped glazing deta ils req uire a met hod of allowing t he wate r to struct ural loads of t he ridge . Glazing bars t hat
I. Extruded aluminium
glazing bar run ove r the junction . Some syste ms use a intersect wit h th e ridge profile are notched
2. Transom
ste p at th is point, wit ho ut a pressure plate o n at th e top to allow t he drained and vent ilate d
3. Single glazed unit
4. Double glazed unit t op t hat wo uld ot herwise impede t he pas- inne r chambe r to drain wate r intern ally down
5. Ridge bar
sage of wate r down th e roof. O t he r syste ms th e glazing bars t hat follow th e slo pe down
6. Pressure plate and
capping use a pressure plate and cove r capping w it h t he roo f.A specially made V-shaped co nt inu-
7. Insulated gutter
chamfered edges t hat allow rainwater to pass o us pressure plate is used to sec ure t he glass
8. Insulated flashing
9. Roofiight ove r it eas ily A small amo unt of wate r is left at th e ridge , wit h a similar shaped cove r cap
10. Thermal insulation
trapp ed o n t he top edge of t his horizont ally- set o n top. W hile cove r caps are not an
I I. Pressed metal flashing
I 2. Concrete base set glazing bar, but this is soo n blown away by esse nt ial part of glazed roofs , as is th e case
I 3. Pressed metal trim
t he wind o r else evapo rates.Any wate r t hat wit h curta in wa lling, t he ir functio n is to co n-
pen etrates th e o ute r seal is drained away cea l th e drainage slots and screw fi xings in
th rough t he intern al drain in t he glazing bar. o rde r to provide a co nsistent visual fini sh to
Ridges, like glazing bars, fo llow t he main t he glazing bars.
principles of gree nho use glazing.The box sec- Gutte rs, at both valleys and eaves, are
t io n' o r chose n profi le of t he ty pical glazing very diffe re nt to gree nho use glazing. Inst ead

MC E 344
3-D view of capped glazing ridge detail
Vert ical section 1:5. Capped glazing. Ridge
of lapping th e glass into th e gutter, th e gutter
profile (o r downstand fl ashing) is clamp ed
into o ne side of th e horizontally-set glazing
bar at th e base of the pitched roof An insu-
lated gutter is used to maintain th e re latively
high level of th erm al insulation and to avoid a
th erm al bridge across th e syste m. If a down-
stand fl ashing is used to se parate th e roof
from th e gutte r, t o make it eas ier to install
th e gutte r, th en two laye rs of flexible mem -
brane seal are used between th e downstand
insulated fl ashing and th e insulated gutter. This
sea l is required to be fully wat e rt ight if the
gutter becom es blocked and wat e r in th e
gutter fi lls t o the top of th e gutte r dur ing a
sto rm, for example.
Regular downstand fl ashings are insulated
3-D exploded view of capped glazing ridge detail
Vertical section 1:5. Capped glazing.
Junction with roofiight
in o rde r to provide a co nt inuity w it h th e
th erm al insulatio n of t he adjacent co nst ruc-
(
tion at th e base of th e roof in o rde r to avoid
a th erm al bridge. Glazing bars th at termin ate
o
I
at fl ashings and gutters allow th e inte rnal
drain t o release wate r at th ese points. Drop s
of wate r th at find the ir way int o th e drainage
chambe r are drained o ut o nto th e o ute r
(to p) surface of th e downstand flashing,
I
J
--J
Vertical and horizontal sections I 100. Capped glazing.
General principle
MC E 345
 " " O "-
f~_
3-0
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346
MC E_
 Capped glazing details
7. """'"
Insulated gutter

.""" ...
I. Extruded alu:mrnum
8. Insulated flashing
2. Transom 9. RooIl'l:ht
1 SIngle glazed untT. 10, ThermaJ insulabOO
4, Double glazed un" I I . Pressed metal flashing
S. RIdge bar 12 Concrete base
6. Pressc-e plate and 13. Pressed metal trTn

]-0 exploded VteW of capped ~allng conrtruet>on

<D

3-D line <hwIng of upped gI.mI'Ig ridge deta~

<D

MCC347
Glass Roofs 02
Silicone-sealed glazing and rooflights
-- -- - - -- ---
r CD
o o
- 0) 3-D view of connection detail with gutter
Vertical section I :I 0 through rooflight showing typical details
Silicone-sealed systems
Wh ile capped syst ems, descr ibed in th e previ-
ou s sect ion, suit pitch ed roofs,they cannot
reliably be used on (nom inally) fiat ro ofs,
w here th e roof pit ch is usually 3° to 5° .T his is
mainly because th e rainw ater runn ing down
th e roof cannot pass th e horizontal glazing
bars w hich proj ect above th e surface of th e
glass.Th e smoot h, co nt inuous finish required
for fiat glazed ro ofs is achieved w it h a silico ne
seal betw een glass panels th at is set flush w it h
th e surface of th e glass.Th e glass is clamp ed in
place w it h short lengths of pressure plate th at
are recessed below th e oute r seal.Th e
recessed plates are secured to an alum inium
channel w hich forms an int egral part of th e
doub le glazed unit and w hich is co nt inuo us
around its perimet er.Th e extr uded aluminium
channel is recessed int o th e gap at th e edge of
MC E 348
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
-(~:r =
th e unit usually used to bond th e unit togeth -
er and t o seal th e edges behind th e spacer.
Th e adjacent spacer in th e double glazed unit
both keeps th e glass at a fixed distance apart
as we ll as having desiccant w it hin it t o absorb
any residual moi sture w it hin th e sealed cavity
betw een th e glasssheets.Th e recessed alu-
minium channel is bonded t o each glass sheet
and also provides th e edge seal t o th e co m-
plet ed unit, as in a regular doub le glazed unit.
Th e sho rt lengths of pressure plate are th en
set int o th e gap formed by th e recessed
channels of abutting glazed units,and are
clamp ed t o th e glazing bar w it h self tapp ing
screws , t ypically at 300mm cent res.Th e gap
betw een th e glazed unit is sealed w it h sili-
co ne, t ypically 15mm t o 20mm w ide, and
w it h a backing st r ip or 'backing rod' behind it
t o form a back edge t o th e silico ne seal.
In some cases, th e glazing bar has its
str uct ural box or fin removed in o rde r t o fix
it directly to a steel support fram e. Square
hollow sections are shown here.A lte rnat ively,
an all-alum inium glazing bar can be used. As
w it h capped systems, small amounts of rain-
w ate r that pass through th e o ute r silicone
seal are drained away in th e co nde nsat ion
channels set below th e glass, w it hin th e glaz-
ing bar. In practi ce, silico ne seals are very reli-
able but are dependent upon goo d wor k-
manship o n site, so th e co ndensat io n channel
is ofte n not used in pr actice but serves as a
secondary cham ber t o suppo rt th e inner air
seals. Silico ne-sealed glazing bars can be used
in all direct ion s across a ro of. unlike capped
systems, since th e glazing bars present no
barri er to th e passage of wate r.
Vertical section I:25.Typical assembly

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I

IU

3-D view of silicone sealed glazed

rooflight assembly Horizontal section I : IO. Panel
to panel corner junction
Details
i. Extruded aluminium glazing
profile
2. Pressureplate and capping
3. Mild steel suppor t frame 0 - - .-.;I1"'1-
4. Doubl e glazed unit w ith
recessed edge
5. Thermal insulation
6. Silicone seal
7. Concrete base
B. Gutter
3-D view of connection detail with gutter 9. internal finish

CD
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Long section I 10. Horizontal section panel to panel junction

(
t
t
t
/
(
/

"

,,
,

3-D view showing hori zontal panel to panel junction

MC E 349
Glass Roofs 02
Silicone-sealed glazing and rooflights
Vertica l section I :5. Panel to panel junct ion
without capping
Details
I. Extruded aluminium glazing profile
2. Pressure plate and capping
3. Mild steel support frame
4. Double glazed unit with recessed edge
5.Thermal insulation
6. Silicone seal
7. Concrete base
8. Gutter
9. Internal finish
Junct ions
o Since the advantage of silicone-sealed sys-
tem s is of co nt inuo us glazed surfaces unint er-
rupt ed by visible glazing bars, ridges and val-
leys are treated as simple folds in th e surface
of t he glazing, since rainwater ru ns across t he
complete sealed surface of th e glass rather
o t han being directe d into gutters across its
surface.The sho rt lengths of pressure plate
can be fo lded in the factory t o the required
angle. w hile t he glazing bar forming t he ridge
is th e same as th at used elsewhere o n th e
roof. w it h some modifications t o th e angle of
th e clips t hat ho ld th e inner EPDM seal in
_ ....._ .......~.u;....~;ep-... o place.T he edges of roofs are also treated as
fo lds, wit h rainwater usually allowed to run
off the edge into a gutter, eithe r just below
t he roof. or down to the base of the glazed
3-D exploded view show ing panel to panel junctio n w all below the glazed roof An advant age of
MCE 350
Vertical sections I:5. A lternative panel to
panel junctions
thi s system is th e ability of th e roof t o be
cont inuous w it h a glazed w all in the same
system w it h a simple 'fold ', w it hout reducing
it s w eat her t ightn ess.Typically th e w all is not
ver y high, forming part of a larger glazed roo f
D ust t hat is carr ied down off t he ro of dur ing
rain is washed down th e vert ical glazing, rath -
er than being carried away in a gutter, but in
pract ice glazed ro oflights require regular
cleaning t o maint ain their crisp appearance.
Th e folded co rne r is formed w it h either
a single specially formed glazing bar,o r w it h
two glazing bar s meet ing. Th e recessed
lengths of pressure plate are fo lded t o form
t he requ ired angle, and t he silicone is cham-
fered t o form a flat surface between t he two
meet ing glass panels. Silicone is rarely used to
make a sharp angle between th e two do uble
glazed units as it is very difficult to achieve a

Vertical section I:5. Corner detail
straight line w it hout th e assista nce of an addi-
ti on al metal angle bedd ed int o t he silicone.
T he alte rnat ive method of forming a roof
edge requires th e edge of th e doub le glazed
unit t o be coate d o r 'op acified' t o avoid t he
fr ame behind being visible th rou gh th e glass.
T his is ofte n achieved by ste pping t he glazed
unit, w it h th e o ute r glass exte nding t o meet
th e co rne r,w hile th e inner glass stops at th e
glazing bar t o allow th e recessed aluminium
angle t o be bonded in it s usual positio n adja-
cent t o t he glazing bar. T he glass unit is
secured in th e same way,w it h a recessed
length of pressure plate, w hile th e o ute r glass
is cant ilevered t o meet th e adjacent glazed
unit at t he corne r.T hermal insulati on is bond -
ed t o th e oute r glass along th e cant ilevered
edge t o form a co nt inuity of th erm al insula-
ti on , and avoiding a t herm al bridge t hat w ill
3-D view showing typical corner junction
result in condensat ion occurring in t emp er-
ate climates.T he inner face of t he t herm al
insulation is lined w it h a vapo ur barrier, ty pi-
cally a 3mm thi ck fo lded aluminium sheet.
Th e o pacifying of t he glass is don e by screen
printing o n th e intern al face of th e glass.
W hile black is ofte n t he pr eferred colour, in
o rder t o match w it h th e silicone seals, ot her
co lours and pattern s are increasingly being
introduced in glass manufacture.
W here a gutter is required, an insulat ed
gutter is fitted t o t he glazing bar. Prefabricat-
ed gutters are used w here th ey are seen
from t he under side, inside t he building.They
can be glazed into th e syste m fo llowin g th e
line of t he int ern al face of t he double glazed
units.W here th e gutter is required t o be sep-
arated from th e glazing st r uctures, typically
3-D view showing window-wall junction
for st ruct ural reasons, a separate flashing can
MC E 35 1
Glass Roofs 02
Silicone-sealed glazing and rooflights

0,===========~~=

Long section I : I O. Edge of rooflight

._---=--=~~- - .',-~
..,-~'
.f - . 0 __
- ---- -----
-----
I
=----=========:L--=
b

Cross section I : I O. Edge of rooflight,

Cross section I : I O.Junction of 2 roofiights with opaque roof

be used, fixed t o th e glazing bar but inde-
pendent of t he gutter.T he gutter is st ill sealed
to th e glazing bar w it h a flexible EPDM gas-
ket t o pro vide a co nt inuous seal.
T he base of t he glazed roof t hat t ermi-
nates in a glazed wa ll can meet an adjacent
co ncrete ro of slab w it h eit her a metal glazing
channel, or in an upstand and flashing.W here
a glazing channel is used, t he do uble glazed
unit sits in a profi le formed from ext r uded
aluminium, stainless steel o r painted mild
stee l.T he glass is levelled on met al shims
(sho rt lengths of metal strip) th en sealed
w it h silicone.T he advantage of th e glazing
channel is th at it can be set flush w it h th e fin-
ished int ern al level t o pr ovide a junctio n w it h
no visible hori zontal glazing bar.A lte rnat ively,
th e glazing can t ermin ate in a hori zontal glaz-
ing bar.t o w hich an aluminium flashing can be
fixed. A down stand flashing is more easily
fixed t o a hori zont al glazing bar t han a glaz-
ing channel.The vert ical glazing bars (fo rm-
ing th e mullion s) are fixed to br ackets th at
are secured t o t he upstand.A co ncrete
upstand can be used w it h exte rnal insulati o n
and a single layer membrane.T he metal
flashing exte nds down th e face of th e
upstand t o pr otect t he joint. As w it h gutters,
an EPD M membrane exte nds down from
t he hori zont al glazing bar w here it is bo nded
t o t he membrane.Th e roofing membrane
and th e EPD M are always checked for co m-
patibility, but in pract ice t his rarely pr esent s
any difficulty
Use of capp ed profiles
A n advantage of silicone sealed glazing over
fully bond ed glazing (discussed in t he next

MC E 352

Vertical section 1:5. Edge of ro ofiight
3-D view showing edge of roofiight
sect io n) is its ability to be mix ed w it h capped
glazing. Since both syste ms are drained and
vent ilate d (pressure equalised) , th e same
glazing bar can be used in a mixed ro of sys-
t em of fiush silicone joints and capped pro -
files.A lt hough t his mix is done ofte n fo r visual
reasons, it does allow for easily formed junc-
t io ns w it h adjacent areas of ro of in different
materials,and for a mix of actual panels and
glazed panels in a single ro of using a reliable
dr ained and vent ilate d syste m.
Th e m ost commo n applicat io n of thi s
meth od is w here capped pr ofiles are used
for t he vert ically-set glazing bars runnin g
dow n t he slope of a roof. w hile silico ne-
sealed glazing is used o n ho rizont al joints t o
allow rainw ater t o pass down it unimp eded
by any proj ecting glazing bars.Junct io ns in sil-
icon e sealed glazing, such as edges of roofs
o
------
and rid ges,are form ed in t he same w ay,
w hile t he capped syste m fo llow s t he folds
w it h co nt inuo us pr essure plates th at are
mit red and sealed at t he fo lds. Butyl t ape is
used as an extra seal at fo lds, set betw een
t he pressure plate and t he o ute r EPD M gas-
kets. Cove r caps are also mitred t o give a
crisp appearance.
Th e intern al drainage of t he mixed glaz-
ing syste m wo rks in t he same way,w it h any
wate r t hat penetrates t he silico ne sealed
glazing being drained along th e intern al co n-
densatio n channels befo re draining int o t he
profi les of th e capped syste m and onwa rds
dow n t o t he base of t he ro of T he co ndensa-
t ion channel and inner air seal can also be Vertical sectio n 1:5. Ho rizontal panel to panel junc-
form ed in a single EPD M extrusion w it ho ut tio n w it h capping
t he use of any aluminium ext rusion, but w it h
a suppo rt ing struct ure behind. In t his case,
M C E 353
Glass Roofs 02
Silicone-sealed glazing and roofl ights
3-D view of panel to panel junction detail with capping
t he short lengths of pressure plate holdin g
t he glass in place are secured by self t apping
screws t hat are secured t o a suppo rt ing
struct ure behind.A holl ow box section can
also be used.T he EPD M gasket. combined
w it h a stee l suppo rt ing st ruct ure, is used as
an alte rnat ive t o t he ext ruded aluminium
glazing bar.usually for larger glass panels
w here t he suppo rt ing fin o r box pro file t o
th e aluminium ext r usion wo uld be visually
t oo deep o r t oo w ide .
Roofiights
A useful applicat ion of co mbining capped and
silicone sealed glazing is in sealed roofli ghts,
w here strips or bands of glazing are com-
bined w it h a ro of in a different mat erial.Tra-
diti on ally,individual roo flights are form ed in
upst ands t hat sit high above t he level of t he
adjacent ro of Large numb er s of t hese tradi-
ti onal individual ro oflight s lack t he visual ele-
gance of co nt inuo usly glazed roofs. In recent
years t his has changed w it h t he increased use
of t he combinat ion of single layer mem-
br anes and rainscreen panels w it h capped
and silicone sealed glazing t o provide individ-
MC E 354
3-D view of corner detail showing insulated corner
covered by opaque glazing
ual roofli ghts th at are visually integrated into same level to ensure th at any wate r th at
adjacent areas of opaque roof A single layer passes t hrough t he o ute r seal is drained
membrane ro of can be sealed into th e edge t hrou gh a set of linked channels t o th e bot-
of a capped glazed rooflight by clamp ing t he t o m edge of t he ro oflight w here it is released
membrane int o t he glazing syste m. A met al above t he roof level of t he adjacent mem-
rainscreen can also be incorporated. sitting br ane. Openable roo flights,as shown in th e
complete ly independent of t he rooflight, but previo us sect ion o n capped glazing systems,
set onto th e membrane t o both protect it can be incorporated easily, w it h th e use of an
and give a visual co nt inuity t o t he rooflights additio nal sub frame, int o w hich t he o penable
across th e ro of light is set.
T he edge of t he ro oflight is fo rmed w it h
a capped glazing profi le, w hile th e jo ints w it h-
in th e rooflight, running across it (at 90 °), use
a silicone-sealed profile t o allow w ate r t o run
down t o th e bottom edge of th e roofli ght.
T his lowest edge of t he rooflight has a sili-
Details
co ne sealed edge w it h a drip flashing glazed I. Extruded aluminium
glazing profile
into th e edge of th e profi le to drain wate r off
2. Pressure plate and
t he edge.T he single layer mem brane is capping
3. Mild steel support frame
tu cked under t his flashing and is clamped
4. Double glazed unit with
dow n w it h t he pressure plate t hat exte nds recessed edge
5. Thermal insulation
th e full w idt h of th e roofli ght.Th e t op edge
6. Silicone seal
of t he rooflight (running parallel w it h t he 7. Concrete base
8. Gutter
roof slope) has a capped pro file t o allow
9. Internal finish
wate r to dr ain aro und its sides.The co nden-
sat ion channels in all pro files are set at t he
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Typical cross section I :25, Capped glazingTypical profiles

3-D view showing typical cross section with capped glazing

M C E 355
- - -Glass Roofs 02- - - - - - - - - - .....,
Silicone-sealed glazin and roofl i hts

3·0 exploded view showingtypical rooAight assembly

3-D view showIng typical roo fiight assembly

3-0 exploded view showing typical silicone

sealed glazed wall and roof comer junction

Deta ils
I. Extrudedaluminium
glazIng profile
2. Pressure plate and
capp,ng
3.Mild steel support frame
4, Double glazed umt with
recessed edge
5.Thermal insuatrcn
6. Silicone seal
7. Concrete base
8. Gutter
9. Internal finish

)- 0 exploded view showing typical rooflight connection to roof construction

Me E 356
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Glass Roofs 03
Bolt fixed glazing: small scale rooflights

Cross section. I: IO. Horizontal panel to paneljunction

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D etails This method of glazing for roo fs has been pat ch fittin gs at all.This fur th er enhances th e
I. Mild steel connector
adapte d from th e tec hnique used for glazed essent ial concept of fr ameless glazing w hich
2. Mild steel support frame
3. Double glazed unit walls, w here glass is fixed at points w it h spe- is t o pro vide greate r visual transparency th an
4. Silicone seal
cially designed bolts rather th an w it h a frame an equivalent fr amed system.
5. Bolt fixing
6. Support bracket suppo r t ing th e per imeter of th e glass. Bolt Th e pat ch plate meth od of fr ameless
7. Concrete base
fixed glazing for facade const ruct ion devel- glazing is not used ver y o fte n in roofs,
8. Stainless steel cable
9. Mild steel tension rod o ped from patch plate glazing in th e I 960s, since th e glass fins becom e glass beams in
10. Mild steel plate
I I. Adjacent external wall w here single glazed sheet s of glass are bolt ed such applicat io ns.W hile glass beams have
t ogether w it h mild steel br acket s. In th e con- been used in mod est rooflight applicat io ns,
t empoary version, glass fins are used t o st iff- th er e is uncertaint y surro und ing th e diffi-
en th e glazed wa lls t o replace th e alum inium culty of rep lacing cracked o r damaged
mullion s.The L-shaped patch fitt ings bo lt th e beams o nce t he ro of is co m plete d.Th is has
fins and glass t ogether, as we ll as boltin g th e limited th e use of glass beams t o mo dest
glass t o th e suppor t ing struct ure at th e t op applicat io ns in glass ro ofs. In co nt rast t o
and bottom of th e wall.W hile thi s glazing thi s, bolt fixed glazing has becom e incr eas-
method has been develop ed and is still in ingly popu lar for glazed ro ofs in mainly
use, th e idea of frameless glazing has evolved co mme rcial and pub lic buildings.
further int o do uble glazed units being bo lted During t he early 1990s do ubts w ere
3-D exploded view of bolt fixed
glazing w ith two point fixing directly t o a suppo rt ing struct ure w it ho ut raised over th e reliability of th e wate rproo f

MC E 358
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011

Vertical section I:SOTypical assembly
Horizontal section I:sO.Typical assembly
silicone seals betw een glazed unit s, but t hese
we re soo n overco me w it h a mixture of labo-
ratory t esting and a better underst anding of
th e w or kmanship required w it h silicone joint-
ing.W hile manufact ures offer propriet ary sys-
t em s for w alls, w hich can include a support-
ing str uct ural system such as cable t r usses,
roof glazing systems are usually designed for
individual applicat ions.
Generic str uct ural suppo rt
methods
W hereas glazed w alls are usually str uct urally
suppo rte d by eit her t op hung o r bottom
suppo rted meth ods,th e sup po rt of glazed
roofs is by t ru sses, steel sections o r pur lins
t hat span across th e roo f o pening. For (no m i-
nally) flat roofs , th ere are t w o com mo n
ar rangeme nts of suppo rt ing beams.A sup-
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Horizontal section. I 10. Bolt fixing
porting beam can be set under each glass
joint , so t hat bo lt s are suppo rted o n each
side o f t he beam by a sho rt br acket. A lte rna-
ti vely, by setting th e beam in th e mi dd le of
alte rnate glass panels,o nly half t he num ber of
beams are requ ired t o suppor t t he same
t hree panels of glass. Brackets are cant ilev-
ered from th e beam t o suppo rt th e edge of
t he panel above as we ll as o ne side of t he
panel next t o it.Thi s meth od provides greate r "'~Iiii;;;;;;;;;;;~
visual t ransparency t han t he first o pt ion, but
requires larger bracket s, w hich in pract ice
det ract littl e from th e increased effect of
transparency.
T he single tube sect ion shown in th e dia-
grams wo uld suit only a sho rt span, as in a
roo flight, but large span roo fs require deeper
beams, usually fo rmed as o pen trusses in
o rder t o maint ain t he sense of t ransparency 3-D view of bolt fixed glazing with two point fixing
M C E 359
 I
Glass Roofs 03
Bolt fixed glazing: small scale rooflights

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at ob lique viewing angles,Triangulated trusses struct ure and t he glass pane ls is ta ke n o ut in

provide both struct ure and suppo rt for t he th e po sition at th e co nnect ion betw een th e
glass, but tend to be visually heavy, Cab le bo lt and t he bracket. A slotted o r oversized
tru sses are often preferred, but they require hole is cut into t he suppo rt ing bracket and
Details
a ring beam aro und t he edge of t he glazed t he bo lt suppo rt ing th e glass is fixed to it.The
I, Mild steel connector
2, Mild steel support frame roof to form a tensile suppo rt ing stru cture bo lt may be off-ce nt re from t he bracket, and
3. Double glazed unit
li ke a t e nnis racq uet.T he cable t russes, always each bo lt may be in a different position in
4, Silicone seal
5, Bolt fixing in tension, require an equivalent surro unding relation to its neighbo ur. This can prod uce an
6, Support bracket
7, Concrete base
st ruct ure in co mpression to transfe r t he awkward appea rance whe n see n from below
8, Stainless steel cable loads to the main building st ruct ure, t he roof, but t his is ce rtainly o ne of t he most
9, Mild steel tension rod
Ia, Mild steel plate
eco no mic so lut ions,W he re a channel-shaped
I I , A djacent external wall Supporting bracket s bracket is we lde d to t he top of t he bea m, a
All t hese suppo rt ing str uctures req uire single bracket, typ ically mild st eel plate , is
bracket s to which th e bo lt fi xings are bo lted to th e channel bracket. An oversize
attac hed, In t he case of a sho rt bracket hole in t he bracket is used to make t he
atta ched to a beam, a mild stee l bracket can adjustme nt for to lerance .The bo lts suppo rt-
be we lde d to eac h side of t he t ube , Because ing t he glass are set at eac h e nd of t he brack-
th e bracket is we lde d, th e adjustm ent for to l- et.The fi at bracket can be rep laced by a cast-
e rance between fi xing of th e suppo rt ing ing, usually in e it he r mild steel or aluminium,

MC E 360
3-D view of bolt fixed glazing w ith spider clamp
3-D view of bolt fixed glazing with spider clamp
The cast ing fo r thi s applicat ion wo uld be
made fro m a steel mou ld whic h is ex pensive
to manufacture, so a large quant ity of cast
brackets are needed t o make thi s met hod
eco nom ic.A djustment is made in th e same
w ay as the channel bracket example .The
beam can become a cable t russ,w here a
suppo rting bracket in eit her mild steel plate
or a casting is clamped t o th e cable. Here t he
adjustment for t olerance is made in two
places; at th e junction of th e bracket and t he
bolt fixing, as w ell as at t he junction of t he
bracket and th e cable clamp .There are, of
co ur se, many variat io ns o n th ese t ypes, but
th ese are th e most commo nly used bracket
suppo rt method s.
3-D exploded view of bolt fixed
glazing with spider clamp
Bolt fixin gs
T he essent ial component in this glazing
method, t he bo lt fixing, is made ty pically in
stainless steel. and consists of several compo-
nents that fo rm th e comp lete assembly.Th e
part t hat passes through the glass has eit her
a disc o n each side of th e glass t o clamp th e
glassor do uble glazed unit together; or alter-
natively is angled to fo rm a co untersun k
device w ithin the depth of t he do uble glazed
unit.The co unters unk fitt ing is set flush wit h
th e o ut er face of the glass, and th e face fixed
disc t ype is set forward of the face of t he
glass.A po lished st ainless steel finish is mostly
used o n th e o utside in order to make it easy
t o clean and maint ain. In th e face fixed type,
w hich is current ly t he most co mmo nly used
fixing, th e inner disc screws over th e t hread-
3-D view of bo lt fixed glazing wit h spider clamp
ed shank t hat fo rms part of the outer disc
MC E 36 1
Glass Roofs 03
Bolt fixed glazing: small scale rooflights
8 I
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3-D explod ed view of bolt-fi xing on
small glazed roofiight
until it is tight up to th e inner face of th e
glass.The threaded shank projecting into the
building and is able to rotate abo ut a ball
bearing whe re it meets th e inner face of th e
<, doub le glazed unit.This allows th e doub le
glazed unit t o rotate up to aro und 12° under
wind load and assoc iate d st ruct ural deflec-
tions.This swivel joint is esse nt ial in avoiding
th e ove r st ressing of th e glass under full wind
load th at wo uld ot herwise result in breakage
of th e glass unit.Th e threaded shank is th en
used to clamp th e co mplete bo lt fixing t o a
suppo rt bracket w it h eit he r t hreaded discs
o r nuts.The visible thread in th e shank can be
eit he r left ex posed. o r be cove red w it h
threaded sleeves and sto p e nds.Th is bo lt
3-D view of mild steel support frame for bolt
fixed roofiight type is used regardless of th e o rientat ion of
th e roof, whet he r fl at o r pitched.
MC E 36 2
I
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Arrangemen t of bolt fixings
The arrangeme nt of brackets for bolt fi xed
roofs is dep end ent upon th e position of th e
fixing bo lts. Rectangular shaped double glazed
units can be arranged wit h suppo rt ing beams
set in th e direct ion of th e lon g side of t he
panel. Bolts are position ed in a way that
reduces th e span of th e glass by pushing
th em away from t he edge .The redu ced glass
span allows t he glass th ickness to be th inner.
making it more eco no mic, parti cularly give n
th at th e material cost of glass increases dra-
matically wit h th e increase of thickness (t he
relation ship betw een glass th ickness and cost
is not linear). Flat plates can be used. subject
to struct ural requirem ents.
W he re t he glass fixing bo lts are eq uidis-
tant from th e edges of th e glass,a cro ss-
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shaped br acket allows four glass co nnect ions doub le glazed unit being brok en, th e inner
t o be made w it h a single bo lt connect ion laminat ed sheet remains int act, w hile th e br o-
between t his suppo rt br acket and th e beam ken pieces of th e heat strengthened o r fully D etails
I. Mild steel connector
beneat h.The cross-shaped br acket is carrying t oughened o ute r sheet come t o rest o n t op 2. Mild steel support frame
a high load of glass to a single point on th e of th e damaged, but int act, inner sheet.T he 3. Double glazed unit
4. Silicone seal
beam. St iffening fins are usually needed o n doub le glazed units are fir st fixed and adjust - 5. Bolt fixing
t he under side of t he cro ss-shaped br acket. ed t o form even joi nt w idt hs between all t he 6. Support bracket
7. Concrete base
These can be individually we lded and gro und, unit s.Jo int s oflO-28mm are used, th ough 8. Stainless steel cable
but it is ofte n eco nomic t o make t hem as aro und 20mm is t he most commo n joi nt 9. Mild steel tension rod
10. Mild steel plate
castings, w hich have a more reliably refined w idt h (in elevat ion) th at allows for bot h I I. Adjacent external wall
appearance. Mild stee l br ackets requ ire paint - st ruct ural movement and t he slight variations
ing; st ainless stee l br ackets can be buffed o r in t he size of t he glass panels. Un like capped
polished t o th e preferred visual finish. roof glazing systems, th e entire dou ble glazed
unit is visible from both o utside and inside,
Glazed units th e edges are not set behind pressure plate s
In commo n w it h other glass roo f ty pes, th e th at co nceal any variat ions in glass panel size.
inner glass of a do uble glazed unit is usually Joint w idt hs up t o aro und 28mm, w hich is
made from laminat ed glass. In th e event of a deemed close t o th e maximum pr actical joint

MC E 36 3
Glass Roofs 03
Bolt fixed glazing: small scale rooflights
r
Vertical section I 50,Typical assembly
3-D view of small roofiight roof assembly
Vertical section I : I0, Vertical panel to panel junction
w idt h for th e adhesion of silicone sealant in a
regular doub le glazed unit, are used w here
br ackets penetrate t he o ute r seal from inside
th e roof to outside, If required. th ese brack-
ets are used to suppor t exte rn al sun shading
and maintenance equipme nt.T hese br ackets
are usually in th e form of fiat plates th at are
we lded to th e internal suppo rting st ruct ure,
and pr oject t hrou gh t he joint. A lt hough an
additional lip around th e proj ectin g plate may
provide addit ional protection t o wate r pene-
tration between th e silicone and th e br acket,
in pract ice it has been fo und t hat t his detail
perfo rm s we ll if t he seal is applied t o a goo d
level of wo rkmanship,
3-D detail view of typical roof assembly
Seals between do uble glazed unit s are
made as an outer silico ne seal w it h an inner
backing rod of ext ruded EPDM,The gasket
MCE 364
has proj ecting fiaps o n each side t o form a 'fir
t ree' sect ion w hich prevents any w ate r th at
penetrates th e exte rnal seal from reaching
th e inner face of th e seal.Thi s EPD M gasket
also serves as an inner air seal, and pro vides a
crisp appearance of sharp lines in t he int erior
face of th e glazed roof.
In th e manufacturin g of double glazed
unit s, t he but yl seal between t he spacer and
t he glass creates a slight ly wavy line, visible to
t he eye w hen it spreads beyo nd t he face of
th e spacer.Thi s slight ly uneven appearance of
t he edge of t he glazed unit can be co ncealed
by t he use of edge 'fr itt ing', o r a baked-o n
screen printed edge in black, w hich ensures
t hat t he edge of t he unit has a crisp black
edge,Thi s is mainly w here th e roofii ght glass
can be seen at close prox im ity.
Vertical sectionsVarying glass fixings

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T he holes in dou ble glazed units,t o

w hich t he bo lt fixings are attac hed, are made
by cutting holes in t he glass aro und I Omm
larger t han t he metal circular sleeve t hat fits
between it. The circular sleeve bond ed to t he
glass is sealed aro und it t o maint ain t he
sealed cavity of th e doub le glazed unit.T his is
parti cularly imp ortant in th e case of argo n D et ails
I. Mild steel connector
filled cavit ies, w here t he gas improves t hermal
2. Mild steel support frame
insulatio n. 3. Double glazed unit
4. Silicone seal
T he drilling of t he glass it self is now we ll
5. Bolt fixing
established in glass manufacturin g, w it h both 6. Support bracket
7. Concrete base
float glass and laminat ed glass being drilled
8. Stainless steel cable
befo re any heat t reatment t o make t hem 9. Mild steel tension rod
10. Mild steel plate
eit her heat st rengthened or fully t oughened.
I I. Adjacent external wall
W here coat ed glasses are used, such as solar
3-D detail view of typical roof assembly
control coat ings o r low emissivity (lowe)
coat ings, t his is do ne after heat t reatment.

M C E 365
Glass Roofs 03
Bolt fixed glazing: small scale roofi ights

3-D exploded detail view of bolt fixed

3-D view of small roofiight roof assembly glazingjunction

3-D line drawing of bolt fixing

3-D exploded view of small

roofiight roo f assembly

-----
3-D exploded detail view of bolt fixed
glazingjunction

MC E 366
 3-D exploded view of bolt fixed
glazing roofiight wall assembly

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I. Mild steel connector
2. Mild steel support frame
3. Double glazed unit
4. Silicone seal
5. Bolt fixing
6. Support bracket
7. Concrete base
8. Stainless steel cable
9. Mild steel tension rod
10. Mild steel plate
I I. Adjacent external wall

3-D exploded view of small roofiight roof assembly

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3-D exploded view of bolt fixed glazing roofiight wall assembly

M C E 36 7
Glass Roofs O~
Bolt fixed glazing: large scale rooflights

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Horizontal section I : I a. Panel to

Vertical section I : Ia.Typical assembly
panel junction

3-D view showing internal fold of glazed pitched
roof assembly
The ge ne ric suppo rt struct ures described in
th e previou s section suit a range of roofs in a
single plane, w het he r pitched or (no minally)
flat. Suppo rt ing struct ures w hich are facetted
o r curve d to form co mplex geo met ries
require a slight ly different ap proac h.These
suppo rt ing struct ures are dictated more by
th e dem and s of th e form th at is being creat-
ed rath er th an by o pt imising the position of
suppo rt ing members to maximise visual
transparen cy t hrough th e st ruct ure. Stru c-
tures for arches o r curve d surfaces are usual-
ly made w it h as little struct ural depth as pos-
sible, w it h th e visually successful types using a
single 'plane' of struct ure formed in 'ladde r'
forms. C ircular ho llow sections and box sec-
tion s are preferred for th eir visual co nsisten-
cy regard less of w he re th e glazed roof is
viewe d be low th e roof. The ladde r pr inciple
is act uallytwo viere ndee l trusses linke d
togeth er, wit h th e sho rt cross members
we lde d to the lo ng members. If addit ional
stiffness is required in part o r all of th e st ruc-
ture' t hen cross bracing is typically adde d.
Addit ional st ruct ural sta bility is provided by
fo lding, curving o r ribbing th e surface of t he
struct ure .This avoids th e need t o deep en th e
struct ure wit h trusses th at significant ly redu ce
th e visual transparen cy offe red by bo lt fi xed
roof glazing.
The 'ladd ers' are bo lted o r we lde d
togeth er to form th e co mplete st ruct ure . If
we lde d, th en an inne r sleeve is inse rte d
betw een the sect io ns being jointed and th e
edges of joints are we lde d together and
painted. An alte rnat ive fixing meth od is to
bo lt th e sect ions togeth er.This meth od
avoids th e bo lts be ing visible, leaving o nly a

MC E 368
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011

3-D detail viewshowing
bolt fixed pitched roof comprisingdouble
glazed unitssupported by metal structural frame
3-Dview showingglazed pitch roof general assembly
hairline joint visible at the junction.giving the
joint a minimal appearance and avoiding
welds which form a visible ring around the
joint This joint method also allows a faster
installation than if welding were used,w ith
the additional benefit that steelwork can be
installed with a fully painted finish from the
factory if required.In this method. a mild
steel plate is welded to eachend of t he tube
being jointed.A rectangular hole is cut into a
wall of one of t he hollow steel sections. big
enough to pass a hand through.Accessing the
inside of the hollow section from the rectan-
gular hole. bolts are fixed through the end
plates to fix the two steel sections together.
The rectangular hole is then covered w ith a
thin metal plate which is either bonded to
the sUlTOunding metal or is screwed into the
surrounding wall of the hollow section.
Details
I.Mild steel connector
2.Mild steel support frame
3. Double glazed unit
4. Siliconeseal
5. Bolt fixing
6.Support bracket
7.Concrete base
S. Stainless steel cable
9. Mild steel tension rod
10. Mild steel plate
I I.Adjacent external wall
12.Singleglazed solar shading
glass
The structural form of the 'ladder' usually
corresponds to the layout of the glass panels.
Horizontal section 1:10. Junction witM adjacent wall
since the comers of panels are fixed back to
t he supporting structure. which is preferably
as close to the glassJoints (in elevatio n) as
possible. In other examples the structure is
~
set in line with the joints in the glass. In some
cases the bolt fixings for the gass are fixed to ~®
a tubular supporting structure with mild steel
-
brackets fixed to the main tube (asdescribed Q)
in the previous section).The positions of the
bolt fixingsin relation to the edge of the glass
are optimised to reduce the glass to an eco-
'\
nomic th ickness. Bolt fixings can be set mid .J
distancebetween two horizontal ladders.This
might correspond to a joint between two
Q)
double glazed unit s or an additional bolt fix-
ing to secure a large double glazed unit.A
Vertical section I 10Base upstand
v-shaped mild steel bracket is set at 90 0 to
MC E 369
Glass Roofs O~
Bolt fixed glazing: large scale rooflights

Elevation I:IO. Internal fold

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Mild steel connector
Mild steel support
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4. Silicone seal
- ----
5. Bolt fixing
6. Support bracket --~= C'rl -----

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7. Concrete base II
8. Stainless steel cable

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9. Mild steel tension
rod

~ 10. Mild steel plate

II . Adjacent external
wall
'=-'" (D

Horizontal section I:IO. Penetration

of platethrough glass joint

Verticalsection I:Ia. Base upstand Verticalsections I: Ia. lntemal fold

3-D view showing underside of bolt fixed glazed
roof system
th e bracket s.T he st ainless st eel bo lt s are
aligned in elevat io n w it h adjacent br acket s.
Base of glazed roof
Bo lt fixed glazed ro ofs are o fte n fixed t o a
surro unding reinforced co ncrete slab.A n
essent ial feature of jun ction s in bo lt fixed
glazed ro ofs at th eir perimet er is t hat t here is
no mechanical co nnectio n betw een t he dou -
ble glazed unit and th e adjacent roof deck, o r
parapet. since th e glass is bolted some dis-
t ance away from th e co rne r, and th e edge o f
th e glass is cant ilevered from th e bo lt fixin g.
Th e adjacent roof o r exte rna l wa ll (in a dif-
ferent materi al) meet s it w it h two set s of sili-
co ne seals o nly, or alte rnat ively w it h EPD M
seals w hich are bon ded t o th e edge of th e
glass unit. In some cases, a low pitched ro of
m eet s a reinforced co ncrete upstand form ing
part of a co ncrete roof deck.T he suppo rt ing
steel str uct ure is fixed t o th e edge of th e
co ncrete slab, w hich t ypically forms a co nt in-
uou s ring beam aro und th e opening t o carry
t he lo ad of th e glazed roofThe base of th e
glazing has a cant ilevered edge of th e dou ble
glazed unit w hich is sealed t o an alum inium
fiashing.An addit io nal flashing w hich is co n-
t inuou s w it h th e wate rproofing membrane, is
set o n th e inside face o f th e glass.Thi s folded
alum inium str ip is bond ed w it h silico ne t o
th e bottom of th e double glazed unit. It can
be eit her co ncealed by th e int eri or finishes o r
be coate d, usually in a PVDF o r po lyester
pow der coate d finish.Thi s alum inium strip is
bond ed t o th e edge of th e wate r proofing
mem brane th at extends up th e face of t he
upst and across th e to p.Thi s co m binat io n
provides an inner,second line o f defence t o

MC E 370
 3-D view of bolt fixed glazed roof system
3-D view of of externa l fold
th e flashing above .The o ute r flashing is set
o n t he oute r face of the glass. and has a fold-
ed edge in order t o bo nd it wit h a silicone
seal. typ ically 20mm w ide t o match visually
with the other seals between the glass units.
An y rainwater wh ich penetrates the outer
seal is drained away on the inner metal flash-
ing o nto th e w aterpro of membrane.T he
void between t he two flashings is filled w it h
closed cell t herm al insulat io n, someti mes as
injected foam to fill th e cavity comp letely. In
some instances. an all-metal upst and flashing
can be used, w hile in ot her s t he upstand is
concealed by an accessible t imber deck.
External and inte rnal fo lds
Changes of direction in bo lt fixed roo fs t hat
fo rm ridges and valleys are formed as exte r-
nal fo lds and int ernal folds respectively.W hile
3-D view of internal fold
th e jo int is formed in t he same way as ot her
jo ints. w ith an o uter silicone seal and an
inner ext rude d EPDM baffle, or air seal.t he
double glazed units are stepped o n th eir
edges to ensure t hat the joint is not w ider
than adjacent joints .With an external fold
t he outer glass is stepped beyond t he edge
of the unit t o maintain a constant w idt h
th rough the dept h of t he joi nt. The inte rnal
fold. o n th e ot her hand, can have the inner
3-D view of bolt fixed system
laminated glass exten ding beyond the o uter
glass t o perform t he same function.T he jo int
w idt h both exte rnally and int ernally is made
to match th e w idt h of adjacent joints in
o rder t o allow th e same ext ruded EPD M
gasket t o be used as an inner seal.
Junct io ns of th e edge of the roo f w it h
exte rnal w alls in ot her materials are similar
t o flashings at th e base of t he roofs, wit h Horizontal section I:25.Typical clamp assembly
MC E 371
Glass Roofs 02f
Bolt fixed glazing: large scale rooflights

.'g, -"', • 11 t
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Details
I. Mild steel connector
2. Mild steel support frame
3. Double glazed unit
4. Silicone seal
5. Bolt fixing
6. Support bracket
7. Concrete base
R Stainless steel cable
9. Mild st eel tension rod
10. Mild st eel plate
I I . Adjacent external wall
12. Singleglazedsolar shading glass

Vert ical section I:80.Typicalassemblyof twin wall roof

w ith double glazed units

'- --- - -
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Ho rizontal section I :80.Typical assembly of tw in wall roo f

with double glazed units

MC E 372

3-D view showing twi n wall roof
with do uble glazed units. steel t russ
support system and glazed solar shading
w hich th ese joints can be cont inuo us as th e
roof per imeter t urn s from roof t o exte rnal
wall. In some cases, an insulated aluminium
closer is bond ed to th e edge of th e double
glazed unit and is sealed against t he adjacent
wall co nstruct ion.Th e bo lt fixed roof co uld
meet. for exam ple. a metal rainscreen w all, o r
an exte rnal w all clad in a range of panels.
Support br ackets for exte rnal shading
and for rop e fixing points for abseil-based
cleaning are somet imes designed t o pene-
trate through th e joints betw een th e glass
jo ints.Th is met hod is descr ibed in th e pr evi-
ous section.W here t hese brackets occur at
exte rn al and internal fo lds.th e br ackets are
usually designed so as to avoid penetrating
t he joint at t he co rne r it selfThis is done t o
avoid a complicate d junction of th e bracket
t oget her w it h t he fo ur co rne rs of a joint
meeting at th e same place.Thi s is both diffi-
cult t o seal and difficult t o give a smoot h.
cont inuo us appearance as seen fro m inside
th e building.
@
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Small glazed roofl ight s
A n essent ial aspect of small roofiights is t he
greate r number of int erfaces w it h surro und-
ing co nstruct ion and oth er materials th an is
usually t he case w it h large glazed ro ofs.
W here small roofii ghts have a bo lt fixed glaz-
ing assemb ly mixed w it h gutter eleme nts in a
t ypical single rooflight, t he glazing is sealed
against th e adjacent co nstruct io n. In some
inst ances, an o ute r seal is form ed against an
exte rnal roof panel in a different panel.A
second inner seal is made w it h an inner
metal panel. Glazing channels can also be
used (as described in t he previou s section) in
o rder t o seal t he gap but t he glazing channel
must be co nnecte d t o a flexib le seal such as
an EPDM st rip t o allow t he bo lt fixed glazing
t o m ove independent ly of th e ot her materi-
als making t he junction . In t his case it is
assumed th at th ese stru ctural mo vement s
are small.
In small ro ofiights t he suppo rt ing st ruc-
ture is made visually lightweight in o rder to
maximise t he effect of t he bolt fixed glazing.
Stainless stee l cables are ofte n used to
increase transparency. In generic examples.a
3-D view showing twin w all roof syst em detail
small roofii ght of 3500mm x 3500mm in plan
is made from a mild steel t ube suppo rt ing
stru cture.The t op of th e roofii ght requires
four glass panels in ord er to span from side
t o side .T he bo lt fixings in t he cent re of t he
top of th e ro ofiight are suppo rte d by two
cable trusses spanning diago nally fro m t he
corne rs, inter secting in th e cent re.T he four
bo lt fixings are secured t o a cross-shaped
bracket w hich is in turn bolted t o two halves
of a clamp bo lted t o t he suppo rt ing cables.A
vert ical mild steel rod forms th e cent ral vert i-
cal eleme nt in th e truss.T he absence of steel
tub es spanning across t he cent re of t he t op
of th e roo fiight increases its visual transparen-
cy.Junct io ns at th e corne r and at th e base of
t his typical small roofiight do not rquire bo lt
fixings. increasing th e sense of transparency In
plan. exte rnal co rne rs can be formed by
stepping th e edges of th e double glazed unit
in o rder t o maint ain a co nsta nt joint w idt h
for all ro ofiight joint s.T he visible area of sili-
cone behind th e glass can be concealed w it h
silk screen pr inting, o r 'frittin g', usually in a
black co lo ur.A lt ho ugh exte rn al and internal
corne rs of meeti ng do uble glazed unit s in
M C E 373
Glass Roofs 04
Bolt fixed glazing: large scale rooflights
3-D view showing fixing method of twin wall roof with double
glazed units, steel truss support system and glazed solar shading
bolt fixed ro ofs have a w ide sight line, th e
cont inuity of th e glass and it s reflection s
obscure th e effect of th e fritting and silicone
seals behind
Larger rooflights
For bigger roofl ights up t o aro und 5.0 metres
high and 8.0 metres w ide, lightweight hollow
mild steel sect io ns,t ogeth er w it h st ainless
steel cables are commo nly used Th is rooflight
size suit s glass sizes w hich are aro und
2000 mm x 2000mm for hori zontally-set unit s
and aro und 2000 mm x 2500mm high for
vert ically-set units.A mod est rectangular st eel
fr ame forming th e edges of th e generic roof-
light can support stainless st eel cables span-
ning both vert ically and horizontally t o w hich
bolt fixings and cross-shaped brackets can be
fixed Th e cro ss-shaped br acket is fixed t o a
clamp w hich is bolted t o th e cable. For glass
jo ints set direct ly in front of th e tubu lar st eel
struct ure, th e bolt fixings are secured directly
t o a channel-shaped bracket w elded t o th e
main support ing steel tub e. A ll bo lt fixings in
th ese mod est sized roo flights have th eir
MC E 374
- @
3-D view showing overview of twin wall roof with double glazed
units. steel truss support system and glazed solar shading
adjustment for fixing t olerance made at th e
junction of th e bo lt fixing and th e suppo rt
br acket.Th e glass units set hori zontally can
be suppo rt ed at th eir corne r fixings by eit her
a grid of st eel tub es immediat ely below th e
joint, o r w it h a cable tru ss,w hich pro vides
greate r visual transparency th an th e all-t ube
solut ion.The main st ainless steel cables of th e
tru ss span across th e diagonal co rne rs, meet-
ing at a cent ral vert ical tubu lar post, as
descr ibed in th e previous paragraph for small
rooflights.The increased span is assiste d by a
set of secondar y ste el cable tru sses set at
45° t o th e diagon al geomet ry (o rthogo nal
w it h th e glass).T he seco ndary trusses bot h
st iffen th e main tru sses and pro vide a fixing
point for all bolt fixings.The pr inciple of th is
medium size generic ro oflight can be adapt ed
t o suit a range of individual designs of similar
overall dim ensions.
3-D detail view showing fixing method of twin wall
roof with double glazed units
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Elevatioo 1:25.Typicai assembly of tw in wall roof with doubleglazed uots and

solar shading

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I. Mild steel connector
2. Mild stee l support frame
3. Double glazed Ur'lrt
4 Silicone seal
S. Bolt ~x i ng
6. Support bracket
7. Co-crete base
8. Stainless steel cable
® 9. Mild steel tension rod
10. Mild stee l plate
II. Adjacentexternal wall
12. Single glazed solar shadingglass

Verticalsection I 25.Typical assembly of tw in wall roof with doubleglazed uruts and solar shading

MC E 375
- - -Glass Roo s OLl
Bolt fixed glazing: large scale roofl ights

/
3-D view of underside of typical glazed pitched roof assembly 3-D exploded detail views of bolt fixed glazing

3-D exploded view of bolt fixed

glazed roof

MC E 376
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Mild -;teel
M'IId steel
c(lfll'..ectl$
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doUble
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,aze:! vnM.steel tfI)<;~ ~ wall roof w.m
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()oo.ble glaZJPPO'""- frame
ed ur ..t ~ <,OsupPOrt system an
4. S olic(lf'e seal
lar shaOO
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S. Boltfoon&
6. ~ l)ra
ck.e
7_ Conc.rete ca t u
8 S~S\eelc se
9_ Mild <, able
teel t~
10. Mild st rod
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Glass Roofs 05
Bonded glass rooflights
I
/ 3-D view of typ ical con ical roofiight assembly
Vertical section I :25. Generic conical rooflight,t ypical assembly
Th e meth od of silicone bondin g glass t o alu-
m inium fr aming is we ll develop ed for use in
glazed curta in wa lling to pro vide visually
smoot h glass facades w it h no visible cappings.
Ver t ical section I :5.Junction with adjacent material Th e use of silicone sealed roofl ights,dis-
cussed in an earlier sect io n, can be t aken a
ste p further t o becom e a full bond w it hout
th e need for th e mechanical restraint of pr es-
sure plates. In silicone bond ed rooflights, th e
glass is glued t o a support ing fr ame.The glue
is also th e exte rnal seal.T his t echnique is use-
ful for small roofl ights, w here cappings wo uld
be very difficult t o fabricate, and in ro oflights
w hich are walked upon , w here th e ro ofl ight
is an exte rnal glass floor.
Four examples are discussed in t his sec-
ti on. Th e generic co nical ro oflight has curve d
j doub le glazed unit s bond ed t o an aluminium
Ver t ical section I :5.Junction with upstand fr ame. Silicon e bond ing avoids cover caps
MC E 378
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
w hich w o uld have t o be curve d both verti-
cally and horizontally, and w hich wo uld be
ext remely difficult to fabricate.Th e generic
rectangular ro oflight can be bond ed t ogeth er
w it hout a suppo rting st ruct ure, w it h t he glass
pro viding its ow n support. A flat mono pitch
roofl ight can be bond ed t o a fr ame t o pro -
vide a small ro oflight from o ne doub le glazed
unit.Th e use of laminat ed glass sheet s can
make a glass deck st ro ng eno ugh t o wa lk o n.
Similar t o a glass floor used inside a building,
it must also t ake heavier traffic loadings and
be w eat her t ight.
Generic conical rooflight
In a generic conical roofl ight, a lightweight
steel fram e is used t o suppo rt doub le glazed
units th at form a ro oflight.Th e st ruct ural
fr ame comprises box sections set vert ically,
3-D view from below of typical conical roofiight assembly
Vert ical sect ion I 10. Junction with adjacent material

Details
I. Silicone bond
2. Mild steel support
frame
3. Singleglazed
laminated glass panel
4. Silicone seal
3-D detail view of glass to glass junction In conical roofiight
5. Concrete base
6. Insulated metal panel
7. Folded metal fiashing
8. Reinforced concrete
support frame

Vertical section I: IO. Base upstand

held in place by thin tub e sectio ns runnin g
horizontally t o form a circle.T he glass panels
are supported on ste el flat sections w hich
are we lded to th e hori zontally set tub e sec-
t ion.Th e glass is levelled on blocks set onto
th e hori zont al flat sectio n, and th e silicone is
applied t o th e joint. At th e base, t he ho rizo n-
t al metal sectio n proj ects out to form a flash-
ing over th e upstand in w hich th e ro oflight is
set.An additi onal inner metal upstand can be
provided w it h anot her silicone seal if th ere is
risk of future flood ing from blocked rainw ater
outlets,for exam ple.Th e wate rpro of mem-
brane for th e roof slab is co nt inued up th e
upstand and is bond ed to th e base of th e
horizonta l section th at suppo r ts th e glass.
This provides a complete seal from th e glass
to th e roof membran e, w it h th e metal flash-
ing providing both a protection t o t his seal
and a means of concealing th e closed cell
th erma l insulati o n set o n t op of t he wate r-
proof membrane.
At th e top of th e roofli ght, a metal panel
is used t o seal t he po int ed form. Th e glass
can be co nt inued almo st to th e top, w it h
o nly a small po inted metal cover, but th is
example aims t o show how th e glass is
sealed t o anoth er mater ial set above it. Th e
metal cover is fo lded inw ards at its junction
w it h t he doub le glazed unit.Th e fo ld form s
an edge t o make a silicone seal.T he glass is
bond ed to anot her stee l flat set below th e
metal cover.Th is provides lat eral suppo rt t o
th e glass unit as w ell as making an addit ional
inner seal.T he metal cover is typ ically Key plan
formed from a single piece of aluminium o r
stainless stee l th at is we lded and gro und
smoot h, and is insulat ed w it h inject ed foam

MCE 379
 Glass Roofs 0
Bonded glass rooflights
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Plan, section, elevation 1:25. Rooflight with glass supports, typ ical assembly Horizontal section 1:5. Ho rizontal section I:5.Typical assembly
Typical assembly

o r mineral fibre quilt to provide a cont inuity sides of th e panel fo rm ing t he corne r in
of t hermal insulati on. o rder t o receive t he clip.A n alte rnat ive
T he use of silicone bondin g in thi s roof- meth od is t o fix th e metal clip to th e o ut side
light avoids th e need t o use visually obtrusive of th e glass at th e corne r.This avo ids th e
bolt fixings, allow ing t he form of t he rooflight need fo r specially made corner pieces but it
D etails
I. Silicone bond t o be seen more clearly In some count ries, does form a visible fixing.T he mod est size of
2. Mild steel support frame
addit ional restraining clips are required o n t his rooflight allow s t he horizont ally-set glass
3. Single glazed laminated
glass panel t he o utside of th e glass, at th e co rners, but to span from side t o side w it h no addit io nal
4. Silicone seal
th is additio nal safety featur e is dependent suppo rt.T he corne rs of t he rooflight are stiff-
5. Concrete base
6. Insulated metal panel upon th e individual rooflight design and t he ened by sho rt lengths of pressure plat e
7. Folded metal flashing
local building codes. w hich ho ld t he glass in place.Th e glass has a
8. Reinforced concrete
support frame specially shaped groove in th e depth of t he
Generic rectangular roofiight do uble glazed unit. t o w hich th e pressure
Th e generic rectangular ro oflight can be con- plat es are fixed. Co rner jo int s have an o ute r
st ructed w it ho ut a suppo rt ing fr ame. co rner piece of fo lded aluminium w hich is sil-
Mechanical restraint is provided at t he cor- icone bond ed eit her t o t he face of th e adja-
ners in th e fo rm of pressure plate clips.Th e cent glass units, o r is folded at 90° to bo nd it
double glazed units at t he corne rs are fabri- to th e side of th e unit. Glass-to -glass joint s
cate d w it h a recessed groove o n th e two between horizontally-set units have a silicone

MC E 380
3-D view of rooflightwith glass supports and central steel supportbeam
3-D detail of connection between glass beam and concrete wall
seal w it h an aluminium angle set on th e
insid e face t o provide a second seal.
At the base of the roofii ght the glass
unit s are seate d on aluminium or mild stee l
sect ions w hich are in turn suppo rte d o n
br ackets to th e required height of th e fiash-
ing.These metal brackets are fixed t o th e
adjacent roof deck.The wate rproo f mem-
brane for th e adjacent roof exte nds up th e
concrete upstand and up th e face of a fold -
ed aluminium sheet th at forms a complete
weat her t ight seal. Closed cell th erm al insula-
tion is applied t o th e outside of thi s mem-
brane, and an o ute r pressed aluminium
fiashing is fixed to protect both th e mem-
brane and th e th erm al insulati on.T he insula-
ti on forms a cont inuous layer from th e junc-
ti on w it h th e roof insulation up to th e sili-
cone seal in order t o avoid any th erma l
3-D viewof junction at edge of glass beam and steel support
brid ges th at w ould cause conde nsat ion t o
form o n th e inside face of th e fram ing in
temperate climates. A lt hough th erm al insula- -
ti on can be difficult t o install in such sit ua-
t ions, th e cont inuity of insulati on is essent ial
to avoid th e effects of th erm al brid ging.
Th e inside face of th e doub le glazed unit t
at its base is bond ed t o an inner metal
angle.The outside face of th e glass is sealed
t o th e metal fiashing below w it h silicone.
A ny wate r th at passes through th e oute r
seal is drained t o th e exte rnal face of th e
roof membrane beneath. 3-D detail of connection between glass beam and concrete wall
Small ro ofi ights can have upstands as
fiashings w hich can appear t o be large in
relation t o th e area of glass. In highly visible
or accessible ro ofs thi s can be avoided
eit her by setting th e ro ofiight on th e oute r
edge of th e upstand t o create a fiat appear
MCE 38 1
 Glass Roo s 05
Bonded glass rooflights
3-D view of glass to glass junction
3-D exploded view of glass to glass Junction
3-D view of glass to glass junction
3-D exploded view of glass to glass junction
ance t o th e flashing, o r by adding a layer of
- 0' - 0-_ =-- decking t o co nceal th e upstand, D ecking is
11 ':" , II
usually in th e form of op en jointed co ncrete
~;m
-='1 slabs o r timber boards,
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=--~ , ---";::::=::::::j Generic monopitch roofiight
Th e mon op itch roofl ight provides a visually
simple method of closing a ro of o pening
form ed in a different mater ial.The circular
ro oflight is form ed by a circular ring of alu-
m inium fixed on Z -shaped br ackets w hich
are fixed t o th e co ncrete upstand beneath,A
vert ical metal flat sect ion is screwed t o th e
Z -sections and th e junct ion w it h th e flat ring
is sealed w it h silicone,Th e circular doubl e
glazed unit is set int o th is ring fr ame in a bed
Horizontal section s I :5, Glass to glass junction of silicone w it h spacer blocks t o locat e it
evenly o n th e ring,Th e joint between glass
and frame is th en sealed w it h silicone using a
MC E 38 2
polymer backing rod.The surro unding w at er-
proof membrane is lapped up th e edge of
th e vert ical ring to pro vide a continuou s seal
aro und th e ro oflight. A metal panel forms th e
edge of th e silico ne seal aro und th e glass.T he
co nt inuity of th erm al insulation is pro vided by
closed cell insulati o n set o nto th e roof mem-
br ane th at exte nds up t o th e silicone seal.
Glass roof decks
Roofl ights form ed as (nominally) flat, accessi-
ble roof decks have been in use ove r th e past
t en years, Previously used o nly inside build-
ings for wa lkways and st airs, th ey are now
being used as fully wate rproo fed exte rnal
decks, manufactured as proprietary systems,
Single glazing is used. since doubl e glazed
units are difficult t o use as a result of solar
gain aro und th e edge of th e unit, w here th e
 ,.- ----
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Silicone bond
Mild stee l support frame
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glass panel
4. Silicone seal
CD / 5. Concrete base

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8.
Folded metal flashing
Reinforced concrete
support frame

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Key plan 1:25. Monopitch rooflight,

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Vertical section 1:5. Monopit ch rooflight , typical assembly
f Vertical section I:25.Typical assembly

glass is ex posed to th e outside, but is sup- t o catc h any w at er th at penetrates th e sili-

ported o n it s under side, allowing heat t o
enter but not to escape.Where black co l-
oured edge 'fritting' is used, th e sit uat ion is
made difficult. How ever, doub le glazed roof
decking is in developm ent and w ill no doubt
becom e much more commo n over t he next
t en years.
Th e glass used is lami nat ed, in commo n
w it h ot her ro oflights, both t o avo id th e pos-
sibility of any falling o bjects from penetrating
th e glass o n im pact, as we ll as pr event ing
damaged glass from falling imm ediately into
th e space below.Th e glass is set int o a series
of extruded aluminium angles t o w hich it is
bond ed o n it s under side.A gap betw een th e
fr ame and th e t op of th e glass is sealed w it h
silico ne of a different t ype. A n addit io nal
co ndensat ion channel is set below th e glass
co ne seal, or any wate r t hat passes through a
damaged joint.
Th e details here show alte rnat ives for
both st eel beam and glass beam suppo rt s t o
th e glass panels.Th e suppo rt ing struct ure has
a glass beam set in th e cent re, spanning th e
full length of 6000mm. Its depth is approxi-
mately 600mm, but th e beam depth w ill vary 3-D detail view of glass to glass junction
depending upon th e individual design.Th e
glass beams here comprise three layers of
glass, each 19mm t hick, w hich are lami nat ed
t ogether. In th e event of o ne glass being bro -
ken, th e remaining two glasses w ill t ake th e
full load, avoiding col lapse of th e beam.The
overall th ickness of th e beam, of approxi-
mately 60mm, also pro vides sufficient bearing
for th e tw o glass sheets th at meet on t op.
3-D detail view of glass to glass junction
Each glass has 20-25 mm bearing, w it h a

MCE 383
I I
Glass Roofs 05
Bonded glass rooflights

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Vertical sections I : IO. Typical assembly Key Plan. Laminated glass roof wh ich can be walked on , typ ical assembly

I S-20mm joint w idt h betwee n th e glass dete rminants in th e overall rigidity of th e

decking sheet s,t o suit t he individual design. glass deck and it s associate d vert ical deflec-
W here stee l plate is used to pro vide a beam t ions.Typical vert ical deflections for th e glass

D etails for glass deck instead of laminat ed glass, a steel flat is w eld-
I. Silicone bond ed t o t he t op of t he beam t o fo rm aT-sec-
2. Structural glass beam
3. Singleglazed laminated t ion th at gives eno ugh bearing for th e glass
glass panel deck.T he ends of t he glass beams are sup-
4. Silicone seal
5. Concrete base ported by a met al shoe suppo rt, made from
6. Insulated metal panel eit her mild steel or aluminium. St ainless stee l
7. Folded metal flashing
8. Mild steel plate beam as is used w here co rrosion is an essent ial co n-
alternative support
siderat ion of t he design.T he metal shoe is
9. Folded aluminium
decorative cover bolted back t o t he suppo rt ing st r ucture or
10. Steel aluminium support
'shoe'
reinforced co ncrete floor slab.Th e gap
between th e edge of t he glass deck and t he
adjacent roo f finish material is made w it h a
silicone seal.
Typical glass deck panel sizes range from
I OOOmm x I OOOmm to I SOOmm x I SOOmm.
Both panel size and overall glass t hickness are
build-ups,given below, range from O.2mm t o
2.0mm, th ough th e acceptab le amo unt of
vert ical deflection under full design load is
dependent upon t he specific design applica-
t ion.Typical laminated glass build-ups for th e
range of panel sizes just ment ioned are as
follow s.The t hicknesses of inter layer s have
been ignored for clarity:
I Smm + 12mm+ 12mm = 36mm t hick
I Smm+ I Smm+ 12mm = 42mm thi ck
I Smm + I Smm+ I Smm = 4Smm t hick
At t he juncti on of glass beams, t he sec-
o ndary glass beam is fixed t o th e primary
beam by eit her a mild steel shoe , in th e man-
ner of t imb er floo r co nstruct ion, or mild st eel

MC E 384
 ...... - B
p .. I"
- ~

® CD
11 I~

Vertical and horizontal sections I:25. Typical assembly

CD

3-D detail of steel support beam

cleats in th e manner of stee l fram ed fioor

const r uct ion. Both meth od s requ ire at least
one of th e glass beams to be dri lled in order
to bolt th e metal compo nent t o th e beam.
W hen bo lting a glass beam t o a stee l beam,
th e same prin ciples apply of using a metal
shoe .Th e drilling of glass is a we ll esta blished
t echniqu e develop ed mainly for bo lt fixed
glazing.
Glass decks usually have an additi onal
layer applied t o th e t op surface of th e glass
t o increase it s fr iction w hich reduces th e pos-
sibility of a building user from slipping w hile
walking o n th e glass. Carb orundum is some-
tim es added to th e t op surface of th e glass
for t his reason .A n alte rnat ive method is t o
'frit' o r screen print th e t op surface of th e
3-D detail of steel support beam
glass, w hich has th e added benefit of reducing
visibility through th e glass from below.

MCE 385
- - -GIa'??'Roofs 05- - - - - - - - - - ......
Bonded glass roofli hts
Details
I . Saccoe bond
2. Mild stee l support frame
3. Single glared laminated
glass panel
4. saccoe seal
5. Concrete base
6. Insulated metal panel
7. Fokled metal flash ing
8. Renforxed concrete
support frame

3-D detail view of point at top of conical mofiight assembly

3-D exploded view of typical

conical roofiight assembly

/
CD

Exploded axonometric view of typical conical roofiight assembly 3-D detai l exploded view of glass to glass jorction in a coo ical roofiight

Me E 386
 3-D exploded view of glass beam with central steel support beam

3-D view of glass beam wrth central steel support beam

Details for glass deck

I, Silicone bond
2, Structural glassbeam
3. Single glazed laminated
glass panel
4, Silicone seal
5, Concrete base
6, Insulated metal panel
7, Folded metal flashing
8. Mild steel plate beam as
alternat ive support
9, Folded aluminium
decorative cover
10. Steel aluminium support 'shoe'

3-D exploded view of glass beam w ith central steel support beam

-~
-
-- ----- - ---
-- --
--
3-D exploded vie;v of connection between concret e wall and glass beam suppo rts 3-D exploded view of junction at edge of glass beam arc
steel support
M C E 38 7
CONCRETE ROOFS
(I) Concealed membrane
Materials
Structural JOints
Parapet upstands
Balustrades and plinths
Rainwater outlets
Penetrationsfor pipes and doers
(2) Expo sed membrane
Polymer-based membranes
PVC membranes
FPO (TPO) membranes
Me<hanically fixed method
Bonded fixing method
Parapets and upstands
Ballusted roofs
(3) Plant ed
System design
Planted roof components
Soil depth
Overflows
Roof junctions
Rainwater outlets
Balcony planters

MCE 369
Concrete Roofs 0
Concealed memb rane
Details
I.W aterproof membrane
2.Thermal insulation
3. Concrete deck
4. Paving slabs
S. Smooth pebbles
6. Parapet coping
7. Rainwater outlet
8.Slot drain
9. Opening for overflow
Materials
Bitum en has traditionally been used as a
wate rproo f layer.applied w hile hot in liquid
form onto a concrete roof slab.As it cool s it
hardens, forming an impervious membrane,
but w ill softe n again if heated by th e effects
of solar radiation. For th is reason, in o rder t o
keep th e materi al coo l, bitum en membranes
are concealed by smoot h pebbles,paving
slabs, usually w it h th erm al insulati o n set
between th e bitum en and th e pebbles/paving.
Tradition al bitum en roofs are usually laid in
two layers, w it h an overall thi ckness of
aro und 25mm . On e of th e limiti ng factors
w it h bitum en is fo lding th e mater ial through
an angle.W hen th e materi al turn s through a
right angle from th e horizontal roof t o a ver-
ti cal parapet wall, it can pass th rou gh a maxi-
mum of 45° in a single fo ld. For th is reason
45°angle fillets are used t o make a 90° turn
from roof to wall.
Mod ern bitum en-based membranes th at
are co ncealed beneath ro of finishes are typi-
cally a combinat ion of bitumen-based sheet
mixed w it h synt het ic rubber t o give fiexibili -
t y combined w it h a reinforcement t o give
MC E 390
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D overview of a concrete roof with a concealed membrane
dim ension al stability and t ensile strength.
Th is reinforcement ofte n allows th e mater ial
t o be fold ed through 90°, making its use
considerably easier.w here angle fillet s are
not requ ired.
W it h th e developm ent of much thinn er
membranes in th erm op lastics and elastom-
ers, t ogether w it h th eir compet it ive costs,
th ere have been considerable effor ts made
by manufacturer s over th e past 20 years t o
make th e bitum en layer s th inner.t o reduce
th e material required w hile enhancing its
properti es of strength and fiexibi lity This has
been achieved by replacing th e th ick two -lay-
er method w it h a mixture of thin layer s,still
applied in hot liquid form on site , but rein-
forced w it h an elasto me ric sheet, usually bed-
ded between th e layer s.This is t ypically two
layers, each 3mm th ick w it h reinforcing layer s
bedded into th e materi al.This allows th e
bitum en t o accommo date both small
amo unts of movement at th ese junction s,as
we ll as th e sharp fold in th e material,w hich
creates a weakness in th e membrane w hich
might ot herwise be damaged durin g th e life
of th e building.A n o ute r protective layer is
added for vulnerable locations such as at gut-
t er s and at upstands.
Concealed membrane roofs are increas-
ingly being laid fiat w it h no fall, unlike
exposed membranes, w here a slight fall is
always required.This is partl y because bitu-
men bond s more reliably t o a concrete slab
th an t o a thin screed, and partl y because th e
slopes required t o create falls in large areas
of fiat ro ofs create difficulties in level changes
across th e roof w hich can be difficult t o dr ain.
Th e more traditional meth od s of screeds laid
t o falls and thi ck layers of bitum en is used
w here th e roof finish is sealed, such as paving
w it h sealed joints.
Typically upst ands are formed before th e
main areas of ro of are wate rproo fed in o rder
t o allow exte rnal wa lls t o be complete d.
W hen an area is complete d, th e roof deck is
wate rproo fed and finished, w it h areas of fiat
roof being bond ed cont inuously t o th e
already complete d upstands.This avoids th e
need t o protect th e membrane, w hich has
atte ndant risks of being damaged before th e
building is finished.
Vertical section I 10,Rainwater outl et
CD

3-D view of rainwater out let

3-D view of parapet and rainwater out let

Vertica l section I :I0, Parapet and rainwater outl et

MC E 39\
I.W aterp ro of membrane
2.Thermal insulatio n
3. Concret e deck 3-D view showing expansion joint in conc rete slab

4. Paving slabs
5. Smooth pebbles
6. Parapet copi ng
7. Rainwat er out let
8. Slot drain
9. O pening fo r overflow

Vertical section I: I0. Expansion joint in concrete

slab

Vertical section I: I0, Base of balustrade
Vertical section I : I0, Parapet detail
Co ncealed membrane ro ofs are typically
in 'inverted' ro of co nfigurat ion w it h eit her
o pen joints o r sealed joints in th e t op layer
th at covers th e th erm al insulation, usually
paving. In th e o pen joint version, th e mem-
brane. bond ed t o th e concrete slab. is cov-
ered by a protection layer.w it h closed cell,
rigid th erm al insulation set o n t op.A po lyes-
t er filter sheet is set o n t op, w it h paving o r
smo ot h pebble ballast o n t op t o ho ld th e
insulation in place as w ell as t o wa lk o n. Peb-
bles are 20mm-40mm diameter. w hile paving
slabs are around 600 x 600mm in size, 30
mm -40mm deep. In th e sealed jo int configu-
ration, th e bitum en membrane w it h its pro -
t ection layer has a drainage layer o n t op,
o nto w hich is laid a minimum 6Smm sandi
cement screed. usually reinforced or made
sufficient ly t hick t o avoid cracking both in t he
screed and th e sealed paving above. Paving
slabs o r blocks are bond ed t o t he screed
w it h mortar and gro ut ed.
Struct ural joints
The main advantage of concealed mem-
branes is th eir ability t o span movement
joints and expansion joints in reinforced con-
crete slabs w it h simple, reliable details th at
require no upstands t o form th e junction.
Expansion joints between concrete slabs of
w idt hs between aro und I Omm t o SOmm are
formed by stopping th e material each side of
th e joint and setting a rubb er-based st rip t hat
dips into th e gap between th e slabs, linking
t he membranes int o a cont inuo us seal.As t he
gap betw een t he slabs varies w it h struct ural
movement s, th e rubb er-based strip is allowe d
t o move w it hout being st retc hed significant ly.

MC E 392
3-D detail of roof parapet
Ve rt ical section I 10.Concrete upstand
The joint is protected and reinforced w it h an
addit ional layer,eit her flat and bond ed o n
one side only, o r form ed as a fo lded,
S-shaped cover th at folds back over itself.
held in place by an addit ional protecti on
sheet o n t op. T he gap between th e mem-
brane, dipped int o th e jo int, and th e rein-
forcement cover is filled w it h a foam backing
rod o r tub e, as used in t he glass jo ints of bolt
fixed glazing.Th e material used for th e rein-
forcement is eit her th e same bitum en based
mater ial, o r increasingly, a rubb er-based st rip.
The t op of th e joint is finished as level as
possible w it h th e adjacent areas of roof t o
allow w at er t o drain freely from th e roo f
The reinforcing membrane is somet imes
fo lded down int o t he gap, separate d from th e
membrane below w it h a foam backing rod. It
can be difficult t o dr ain wate r from th is
3-D view of concrete upstand
3-D view of concrete upstand
groove at th e edge of th e slab unless wate r
at th is lower level can discharge int o a rain-
wate r o ut let.
Juncti on s between concrete ro of slabs
and w alls are t reated in a similar way, w it h
th e membrane dipping down int o th e gap
between wa ll and roo f and th e membrane
cont inuing up th e wall. Reinforcement is simi-
larly applied, w it h a rubb er-based st rip fo lded
th rou gh th e 90° corne r rather th an th e maxi-
mum 45° fold s th at are usually allowed in tra-
dition al bitum en-based membranes.
Pro pri etary met al-based expansion joints
are used t o form part of th e visible finishes,
t ypically w it h sealed roo f finishes. In thi s case
th e seal is form ed by bond ing a st rip of
membrane t o t he metal assembly. Th e metal
expansion joint assembly is fixed o n t op of
th e membrane, w hich still dips down int o th e 3-D view showing concrete upstand
MC E 393
 oncrete Roofs a
Concealed membrane
I
Vert ical section I 10,Junction of external wall and roof slab
Vert ical section I: I0, Door sill
joint. A foam backing rod is set o n t op of th e
dipped membrane and is covered w it h a bed
of compat ible sealant t o ensure t hat any
wate r t hat penetrates t he movement joint is
drained t o t he sides of t he movement joint.
The wate rproo f membrane is t hen form ed
up out t he base of t he movement joint
assembly t o provide a complete seal across
t he joint.
Joint s between concrete panels,such as
precast concrete slabs, w here o nly negligible
struct ural movement is expecte d. are also
formed w it h rubb er-based st rips.T he mem-
brane fo rms a cont inuous lapped joint across
t he rubb er-based strip, w it h a foam backing
rod being provided w here t here is a risk of
damage during const ruct ion,
Parapet upstands
In formi ng parapet upst ands, an essent ial
requirement is t o keep t he wate rproo f mem-
brane as we ll protected from th e effects of
t he sun as elsewhere o n t he roof. Fo r t his
reason, t hermal insulati on is applied t o t he
inside face of th e parapet even if thi s has no
direct benefit t o t he passage of heat t hro ugh
MC E 394
t he building,The membrane is turned through
a full 90° as show n in t he draw ings, but an
angle fillet is required by some manufacturers
t o limit t he angle of any fo ld t o 45°,A rein-
fo rcing st rip is usually added w here a 90° fo ld
is made,
In generic examples, a low parapet wa ll is
t ermin ated by a concrete or stone coping,
T he wate rproo f membr ane exte nds up t he
height of th e upstand, w hich run s hori zontally
t o fo rm a full damp proof course undern eath
th e coping,This ensures th at th e membrane
provides a cont inuous w ate rpro of layer at th e
juncti on w it h t he exte rnal wa ll.A n addit ional
metal flashing t o cover th e t op of th e metal
faced insulati on t o protect t he juncti on
between t he t op of t he met al facing t o t he
insulation, and th e insulation itself. In thi s case,
an o pen joint ed arrangeme nt of paving slabs
is ado pte d, w it h rainw ater drain ing at th e
level of t he membrane,To assist w it h t he
drainage of th e rainw ater from th e parapet
coping, a strip of pebbles is shown,T his avoids
staining of t he roof level paving w here it
meets th e parapet upstand by allow ing rain-
wate r runnin g off t he inside face of t he para-
-c ,
--~
- .......
....- ..
--"-- ..
3-D view showing roof and door cill junction
pet coping t o drain through th e pebbles t o
t he membrane beneath, In ot her inst ances
t he paving is cont inued up th e parapet
upst and, In an example w here t he cill t o t he
exte rnal doo r covers t he o pening, and is sup-
ported from th e base of th e o pening, th e
wate rproo fing stops at t he edge of t he
op ening.The t ermin ation of th e membrane
varies w it h each sit uat io n,
Balustrades and plinths
Balustrade posts can be fixed t o a base plate
w hich is set o nto th e finished w ate rpro of
membrane,T he balustrade base plate is bo lt-
ed through th e membrane t o th e concrete
slab below, If t he memb rane has an addit ional
protection layer,t hen t his is usually omitted
aro und th e base plate t o give a more reliable
seal.A n addit ional membrane is t hen laid o n
t op of th e base plate w it h th e protection
layer.A lte rnat ively, a ru bber-based seal is
bond ed t o th e t op of th e base plate t o pro -
vide a secondary seal t o t he penetrations in
t he membrane fo rmed by t he bo lts securing
th e base plate,Th e po lyester filter sheet, set
loose laid o n t op of t he insulati on in t he
Vertical section I: I0, Expansoin joint in concrete slab Vertical section I: I0, Expansoin joint in concrete slab

3-D view showing closed expansion joint in concrete slab 3-D view showing open expansion joint in concrete slab

D etails
I. Waterproof membrane
2. Thermal insulat ion
3. Co ncrete deck
4. Paving slabs Vertical section I :I0. Junction of extemal
5. Smooth pebbles wall and roof with overflow
6. Parapet coping
7. Rainwater out let
8. Slot drain
9. O pening for overflow
I 0. Reinforcement at fold
if required
:0
J

I I. Proprietary movement Qj
joint
12. Balustrade
I 3. Pipe or duct
I 4. FiIter sheet

3-D section view showing junction of external wall

and roof with overflow

MCE 395
Concrete Roofs 0 J
Concealed membrane

Vert ical section I: I O. Junction of external wall and roof slab

1 Vert ical sect ion I: I O. Base of balustrade

Vertical section I: I O. Pipe penetrations

Vertical section l: I O. Base of
balustrade

detail. is w rapped around t he balustrade post level of the sealed paving and th e level of t he
below the level of th e paving. wate rproo fing layer.The base of the rainw a-
Plinths w hich are form ed as short col- t er out let can alte rnat ively be fixed to th e
umns for th e support of roof-mo unted concrete slab.The wate rproof membrane is
Details mechanical equipment are wate rproofed in a dressed down int o th e t op of the rainw at er
I. W at erproof membrane
2. Thermal insulation similar w ay t o a parapet upstand.The mem- out let and the upper part of th e rainw ater
3. Concrete deck brane is folded up th rough 90° from the roof out let is bolted down onto t he part already
4. Paving slabs
5. Smooth pebbles level and is formed t o cover th e complete fixed and sealed.The geotextile sheet is
6. Parapet coping plinth. Some configurat ions incorporat e a rail w rapped around th e outlet t o avoid dirt and
7. Rainwater outlet
8. Slot drain suppor t ing an I-section th at w ould support debris being w ashed into th e rainw ater
9. Opening for overfow an air handling unit or a rail for a cleaning dr ainage system.The rainw at er outlet could
10. Reinforcement at fold
if required cradle trolley.The therm al insulat ion exte nds be fixed in th e same way, but in t his case t he
I I. Proprietary movement across th e comp lete plinth t o prevent a th er- cover w ould be much low er,since rainwate r
joint
I 2. Balustrade mal br idge t hro ugh th e roo f co nst r uct ion. is drained only at t he edges of th e cover,and
I 3. Pipe or duct not th rough its full height.The filter sheet
14. Filter sheet
Rainwater outlets could also be tu cked down int o t he edges of
Some rainw at er outlets are set at th e level of t he rainw ater outlet. Because of it s concealed
th e w at erpro of membrane, w hereas ot her position, t he rainw ater outlet requires regular
roof configurat ions are drained at both th e visual inspections by lifti ng up t he paving slab

MC E 396
 ertical sSection I: I0. Pipe penetration
ertical section I: I0, Pipe penetration
immediately above to remove any debri s
th at m ight collect in th e gap between th e
rainwat er outlet and th e therm al insulation
adjacent t o it.
In ot her examples, th e rainw ater could
be used increasingly to drain ro of t erraces
int o exte rnal rainw ater pipes fixed t o th e
facade, o r t o a vo id imm ediately behind th e
facade, w it hout th e need for a visible o pening
in th e parapet wall th at is visually unappealing.
The tw o-w ay o ut let is fixed in two parts,A
25mm gap is show n between th e parapet
wall and th e edge of th e paving slab t o allow
rainw ater t o drain int o th e o ut let.
Pen etration s fo r pipes and ducts
Penetration s are sealed by eit her forming an
upstand aro und th e opening, o r by forming a
metal collar aro und th e pipe o r duct, sim ilar
Vertica l section I :I 0. Pipe penetration
3-D section view showing pipe penetration
in concrete roof with concealed membrane
t o th e balustrade detail mention ed earlier.
W here a concrete upstand is formed, a metal
flashing is we lded or mechanically fixed and
sealed t o th e penetrating pipe or duct. In
some siutat ions, a metal sleeve is bo lted
through th e membrane and a reinforcing
rubb er-based disc is bond ed t o th e t op of
th e base plate.Th e pipe is set into thi s sleeve
and is sealed w it h a t ension clip at th e t op of
th e sleeve.Th e pipe flashing detail can allow
th e pipe t o be both th erm ally insulat ed and
independent of th e enclosing sealed sleeve.
3-D section view showing pipe penetration
in concrete roof with concealed membrane
MC E 39 7
- - -Concrete Roofs 0 ,.-- - - - -.
Concealed membrane

3-D exploded view showing generic roof with co-cealed membrane

Details
I. Waterpro of membrane
2. Thermal insulat ioo
3. Co ncrete deck
4. Paving slabs
5. Smoo th peb bles
6. Parapet (Op ing
7. Rainwate r outlet
8. Slot drain
9. Operung for overflow
10, Reinforcement at fold
if req uired
I I, Prop rietary moveme nt
joint
12. Balustrade
I 3. Pipe or duct
14, Filter sheet

,,

3·0 view showing parapet condition on conc rete roof with 3-D exploded view showing parapet condition on concrete roof with concealed
concealed membrane me mb rane

Me E 398
3-D exploded view showing pipe penetration in concrete roof with concealed 3-D exploded view showing door cill junction on concrete roof
membrane with concealed membrane

3-D exploded view showing upstand condition on concrete 3-D exploded view showing expansion joint in
roof with concealed membrane concrete roof with concealed membrane

MC E 399
Concrete Roofs 02
Exposed membrane
3-D exploded overview of concrete
roof with an exposedmembrane
Vertical section I: IO. Bonded method. Pipe
penetration
I LD
CD
I
r. U\ fA{ "I 'et2} \fAI r \\ Vi
I
'1 .
0)
Vertical sections I: IO. Bonded method.Junctions of external wall and roof slab
Exposed membranes have been used for fiat
roo fs w hich are not visible from below, but
thi s has changed in recent years as mem-
branes are produ ced in increasingly smoo t h
and regular finishes. Because of th eir light -
we ight natur e, th ey are often used in con-
junction w it h lightweight roofs such as pro -
filed metal deck and timber. This section con-
siders th eir use in concrete const ruction,
th ough th e same prin ciples of wate rpro ofing
can be applied t o th ese ot her mater ials.
It was st ill commo nly th e case 30 years
ago for exposed membranes o n concrete
ro ofs t o be made from bitum en o r bitum en-
based sheet materials.This materi al was
expecte d t o last aro und I 0- 15 years, afte r
w hich tim e th e ro of covering sho uld have
3-D view of junction of external wall and roof slab
been replaced. In practice th ese ro ofs we re
patched up w here leaks occurred since it
MC E 400
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
II
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was considered t o be a major undertaking t o
install a complete ly new ro of covering. Dam-
age t o th e bitum en-based roof materials was
ty pically a result of a lack of fiexibi lity of th e
membrane th at could not easily accommo-
date th erm al and structural movements as
we ll as deflections in th e building structure.
A lt ho ugh concrete roofs slabs are less sus-
cept ible t o th erm al movement th an some
ot her materi als,interfaces between wa ll and
roof. or roof and roofiights, for example,
wo uld often result in damage to th e roof
membrane w here th e ro ofing sheet cont in-
ued across th e jo int at th e junction of th e
two materials.The st r uctural movement
between th e roof deck and th e adjo ining ele-
ment s wo uld somet imes result in th e ro ofing
sheet splitting o r t earing, allow ing rainw ater
to penetrate th e roof const r uction.Th e
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I. W aterproof
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9. Balustrade
10. Pipe or duct
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12. Roofiight

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junction with rooflight junction of external wall and roof slab

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3-D view of junction between external wall and roof slab

we akness of th ese mater ials was partially
overcome by int ro ducing added sacrificial lay-
ers.A lt ho ugh thi s had th e advantage of
reducing th e risk of th e membrane being
punctured by foot traffic during maintenance,
th is meth od did not add any substant ial
strength t o th e membrane and damage
wo uld occur as before.
The int ro ducti on of po lymer-based mem-
branes provided economic wate rproo fing
mater ials th at we re more flexible than th eir
bitum en-based predecessors. First introduced
in th e 1960s and I 970s,th ey became much
more w idely used in th e I 980s and I990s.
The increased flexibility of th e new sheet
mater ials allowe d for greate r amounts of
movement between adjo ining compo nents
and assemblies, allow ing th e detailing of junc-
tions to be relatively straightforward in form -
ing reliable weat hert ight ro of membrane.As
a result of th ese developm ent s,po lymer
modifications we re also made in th e o lder-
generat ion bitum en-based materi als to make
th em more flexible, in o rder t o compete w it h
th e po lymer-based sheet mater ials.As a
result th ere is now a w ide range of exposed
membrane materials available t o suit different
budgets and individual roof designs.
Polym er-based m em branes
Th e main advantage of th e polymer-based
sheet mater ials is th eir ability t o be cut and
form ed t o complex shapes, allow ing th em t o
t ake up shapes precisely,somet imes pre-
form ed in th e factory before being delivered
3-D detail view of junction between external wall and
t o site . Single layer membranes are very
roof slab
practical on roofs w it h a large number of
penetration s,t ypically in comme rcial buildings

MCE 40 I
- - -Concrete Roofs 02- - - - - ....
Ex osed membrane

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Vert ical sect ion I: 10. Mechanical fast ening meth od. Roof ove rflow Vert ical sect ion I: 10. Mechan ical fasterllng method .Junct io ns of exte rnal wall
and roof slab

Me E 402
 D etails
I, W at erproof membrane 7, Rainwater out let
2, Thermal insulation 8, O pening for overfow
3, Concrete deck 9, Balustrade
4, Paving slabs 10, Pipe or duct
5, Smooth pebbles I I, Ext ernal wall
6, Parapet coping 12, Roofiight

Low parapet.

------ o

3-D view of bonded method, Low parapet. Vert ical section I: I0, Bonded method, Low parapet

w here mechanical vent ilat ion equipme nt is
regularly being modifi ed o r replaced during
th e lifeti me of a building,
Single layer membranes are made from
eit her elastome ric materi als, t ypically EPD M,
o r from th erm op lastic mater ials, typically
plasticised PVC (PVC- P), Elastome ric m ateri -
als are very popu lar in th e US w hile th erm o-
plastics are pr eferred in Euro pe, EPD M (et h-
ylene pr opylene diene mon om er) is a flexi-
ble and elastic materi al t hat has th e appear-
ance of a synt het ic rubb er. EPDM is manu-
factured in th e lim it ed co lours of black, grey
and w hite ,
Both elastome rs and th erm op lastics can
be mechanically fixed, bon ded o r secured
w it h ballast t o th e co ncrete deck beneath,
D evelopm ents in th ese mater ials have led t o
th em being used o n timber decks and pro -
filed metal decks in addit ion t o th e co ncrete
decks discussed here, Both th erm opl astic and
EPD M membranes can be we lded toge t her
t o fo rm a co nt inuous wate rproof sheet.
W hile both materi al ty pes we re glued, th ere
is an increasing use of hot air we lding meth -
ods, w hich avoid th e need for flame t ech-
niques o r adhesive bond ing meth od s th at can
be both slow and can damage adjacent wo rk
during th eir applicat ion, In hot air we lding, a
jet of heated air is used t o softe n th e mater i-
als and we ld t ogeth er, applied from a range
of t oo ls th at are eit her hand held o r fully
automate d, depending o n th e application,
PVC membranes
pv c (po lyvinyl chloride) ro of membranes
have been in use since th e 1960s as a very
lightweight and relatively eco no mic roofing
materi al, and have becom e w idely used in
recent years, Mem br anes in thi s material
we re fir st develop ed in Euro pe in th e lat e
1960s and we re used in th e US from th e
I 970s o nwards, PVC sheet materi al is usually
reinforced w it h glass fibre t o give it increased
rigidity th at is easier t o bo nd t o th e subst rat e,
Th e PVC used in membranes is plasti-
cised (PVC-P), unlike th e unplasticised PVC
(PVC-U, o r upv q used t o make w indow
fr ames and rainw ater dr ainage compo nents,
PVC-P is rigid at norm al external t emp era-
tures, but softe ns w hen heated, making it
flexible and allowing st rips o r sheet s t o be
we lded t ogeth er t o form a co nt inuous mem-
brane w itho ut t he need for standing seams
o r visible jo ints, Plasticiser s and filler mater ial
in PVC-P is added t o give th e mater ial great -
er flexibilityThe materi al has very low levels
of shrinkage, and is dimensionally sta ble and
doe s not creep visibly w it h age,The material
experiences o nly very small amo unts of
movement under full w ind load.
Membranes are reinforced w it h glass
fibr e sheet o r polyester fabric.Th ese layer s
are bond ed int o th e mater ial.The glass fibre
provides dim ension al stability, making it more
stable for bon ding t o th e substrate ,Th e
wove n polyester fabric, used in t ent mem-
brane st r uct ures, has high t ensile strength t o
resist w ind loads resulting in mechanical fixing
meth od s being used. A typical build-up for a
single layer membr ane is a co ncrete deck
w it h a vapo ur barr ier set o n t op , w it h th er-
mal insulation above th at, sealed o n t op w it h
a single layer membrane, PVC-P membranes
are t ypically l .5mm - J Omm th ick, w hile
EPD M membranes are ty pically I.Omrn -
I .Srnrn th ick,
MC E 403
Concrete Roo s 02
Exposed membrane

D etails
I. W aterproof
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membrane
2. Thermal insulat ion

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5. Smooth pebbles
6. Parapetcoping
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9. Balustrade
10. Pipe or duct
I I. Ext ernal wall Vert i"cal secti'on I:rO. Bonded met nod: Roo( (old
0) 12. Roofiight
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3-D view of bonded method. Pipe penetration

FPO (T PO) membranes from expanded po lystyre ne board .T he

A recent developm ent in themn opl astic
membrane ty pes are po lypro pylene- and po l-
yet hylene-based mat er ials.They have greater
flexibilit y th an PVC-P membranes. but sti ll
require reinforcement in glass fibre sheet for
increased dimensional stabilit y and po lyest er
fabric to give great er t ensile st rength. Fire
retard ant is added t o pro vide fire resistance,
unless it is PVC-P w hich is self-extin guishing
w hen flame is applied.
Mechanically fixed method
T his fixing met hod is suit ed t o applicat ions
w it h high w ind uplift fo rces. as bond ed sys-
tem s t end t o be limited by t he bo nding
st rength of th e vapo ur barrier t o w hich t he
3-D view of bonded method. Pipe penetrat ion
membrane is itself bonded t hrough t he ther-
mal insulation layer.w hich is ty pically made
vapo ur barrier is loose laid o n the concret e
deck and th er mal insulatio n is then mechani-
cally fixed thro ugh t his barrier t o th e deck
beneat h.T he spacing of th e fasteners varies
w it h t he design w ind loads.A separat ing layer
of glass fibre sheet is usually laid o nto th e
insulat io n w it h an o ut er single layer mem-
brane.T he membrane is mec hanically fixed
w it h pressure plate bars,similar t o th ose
used in glazed cur tain w alling systems t o hold
th e glass in place. Bars fo rm strip s of pressure
plat e to hold t he ro of build- up in place.The
pressure plat es are fixed by bolts at cent res
along t heir length t o t he subst rate below.
Membran es can also be secured by po int
fixings rathe r than by pressure plat es.
SO-7Smm diameter rigid plastic discs are
used t o hold the build-up in place.The se are

MCE 404
 ®
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(1)
Vertical section I : I 0, Bonded method,
Upstand for balustrade
CD
Vertical section I: I0, Mechanical fastening method, Rainwater outlet
set at cent res to suit th e design w ind loads,
The closed cell rigid insulat io n is typically
made in panel sizes of 1200mm x 2400mm
in thi cknesses from 25mm to IOOmm
Bonded fixing method
The build-up of mater ials is th e same as that
for th e mechanically fixed system,The mem-
brane can eit her be bond ed directly t o th e
concrete deck to form a co ncealed mem-
brane, o r be in th e exposed configurat ion
discussed here,W hen bond ed directly t o th e
concrete deck. a felt backing layer is usually
used t o overcome any roughness in th e sub-
strate th at w o uld puncture th e material In
th e exposed membran e configurat ion th e
vapo ur barri er is usually bitum en-based and
is bond ed t o th e deck Joints between th e
vapo ur barrier sheet s are lapped t o avoid any
3-D view of bonded method, Upstand for balustrade
Vertical sect io n I: I 0, Mechanical fastening method, Pipe penetration
risk of vapo ur passing through th e roof st ruc-
ture from inside th e building.The th erm al
insulation is then bond ed to th e vapo ur bar-
rier. Insulat io n can also be mechanically fixed
w it h pressure plates t o th e concrete deck
beneath,Th e membran e is th en bond ed to
th e insulati o n w it h a cont inuo us layer of
bondin g adhesive on its underside, Some sys-
t ems still bond th e membran e at po ints o nly
rather th an acrossth e ent ire surface of th e
membrane, but th is is dependent upon th e
w ind load and th e proprietary system used
Bonded membranes have a visually
smoot h appearance, making it suit able w here
th e roof surface is seen from points aro und
th e building, It can be more difficult t o
achieve th e bondin g required for high w ind
uplift condit io ns, but thi s is a matter of indi- 3-D view of bonded method, Upstand for balustrade
vidual design,Th is fixing method st ill requires
MCE 405
Concrete Roo s 02
Exposed membrane D etails
I. W aterproof membrane 7. Rainwater outlet
2. Thermal insulation 8. Opening for overfow
3. Co ncrete deck 9. Balustrade
4. Paving slabs 10. Pipe or duct
5. Smooth pebbles I I. External wall
6. Parapet coping 12. Roofiight

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Vertical section I: 10. Mechanical fastening Vertical section I:I O. Mechanical
method. Low parapet fastening method .Junction with
roofiight
2
3-D view of low parapet on exposed membrane concrete roof with ballast

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Vertical section I: I0, Mechanical fastening meth- Vertical sections I : I O. Mechanical fastening method, Junctions of external wall and roof slab
od. Pipe penetration

mechanical fixing at t he edges, and around Ballast ed roofs

o penings such as roofiights.
Para pets and upstands
Membranes can be bond ed o r mechanically
fixed t o parapet upstands.The fixing method
th at is used o n th e main area of roo f is usual-
ly cont inued on th ese vert ical areas.W it h
mechanical fixing th e pressure plate can be
fixed eit her t o th e upstand o r t o th e fiat roo f
area.Th e pressure plate form s a junction
between th e membrane sheet forming th e
upstand and th e membrane sheet of th e
roof Int ermediat e pressure plates are applied
hori zont ally o n th e upstand w hen its height
exceeds aro und SOOmm, depend ing on th e
Vertical sections I :I O. Mechanical fastening
method , Roof fold specific materi al used.
Concealed membranes w hich are ballasted
use a t op layer t o we igh down th e mem-
brane and insulati o n rather th an use mechan-
ical fixing o r bon ding method s.A ty pical
build-up consist s of a single layer membrane
we lded t ogether t o form a cont inuous sealed
sheet. w hich is loose laid o nto a concrete
deck.A backing felt is used w here th e con-
crete is considered t o be t oo roughly finished
for th e membrane t o be laid directly on t op.
Th erm al insulati o n is loose laid o nto th e
membrane w it h a filter layer set onto th e
insulati on. Smooth pebbles are spread o n t op,
t o a depth dependent upon both th e we ight
required t o avoid w ind uplift as w ell as t o
sat isfy visual requirement s.

MC E 406
 _ _\,;01_~~,"

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Vertical section 1-10 Ballasted method. Eaves

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Vert ical section 1-10 Balkrsted method Low perepet
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Vert ical section I :10 Balkrsted method. PiPE PEne- Vert ical sections I 10. Ballusted method.Junctionsof external wall and roof slab
trat ion

3·0 view of exposed membrane concrete roof with ballast

3-D view of expo sed membrane concrete roof with ballast
MC E 407
Concrete Roo s 02
Exposed membrane

3-D exploded overvi ew of concrete roof w ith an exposed membrane

Exploded axonometric view of junction between

roof slab and externa l wall

3-D exploded view of junction between roo f slab and ext ernal wall

Exploded axonometric view of low parapet

3-D exploded view of low parapet

MCE 408
(j)

3-D overview of concrete roof with an exposed memo -aoe

3-D exploded view of rainwater outlet within exposed membrane roof

(j)

3-D exploded view of pipe penee-atco

D etails
I. Waterproof membrane 7, Rainwater outlet
2. Thermal insulatio n 8. Opening for overflow
J. Concrete deck 9. Balustrade
4. Pavingslabs I0, Pipe or duct
5. Smooth pebbles I I , External wall
6. Parapet cop ing I 2. RoOftlgtlt
3-D exploded '/lew of upstand with railings

MC E 40 9
Concrete Roofs 03
Planted
3-D overview of concrete roof with light (sedum) planting
System design
Con crete decks used for planted areas can
be w ate rproo fed w it h eit her a concealed
membran e or an exposed membran e as dis-
cussed in t he previous sections. Planted
roofs are of t wo ty pes: light planted and
heavy planted. U nlike ot her concrete roof
typ es, planted roofs are not always insulat ed
as th ey oft en form th e roof of underground
structures such as car parks, providing a
planted roof at gro und level.
Light planted roofs have resilient plants
th at require littl e or no irrigat io n, and th at
w ill grow in a thin layer of soil or organic
growing medium.They are not usually used
o n a roof accessible to building users,but are
seen from vant age po ints aro und th e build-
ing. Light planted roofs have plants and flow -
ers t hat require littl e maintenance and do
not usually have an irrigati o n system t o sup-
ply w ate r at cont rolled tim es,relying on rain-
wate r and mod est amo unts of wate ring dur-
ing maintenance at specific tim es of th e year.
Th ese lightweight planted ro ofs suit a light -
we ight deck, such as a thin concrete shell,
althou gh profi led metal decks are commo nly
MCE 4 10
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Vertical section 1:5. Parapet condition in lightly planted roof
used as substrates. Maintenance access is
provided by t he pebble st rips at th e roof
edges or by individual paving slabs that avoid
th e need t o wa lk across t he planting.
Heavy planted roofs permit a w ide vari-
ety of plants, shrubs and trees t o grow o n a
concrete roof deck. Du e t o t he size and
intensity of th e planting th ey require an
auto mate d irrigati o n system, usually from
pipes set into th e so il th at provide a tri ckle
w ate r feed to th e soil at specific tim es w hich
may vary during th e course of th e year.
Heavy planted roofs require regular mainte-
nance, provided by paved paths o r by areas
of grass.
Both light planted and heavy planted
roofs have dr ainage layers beneath th e
growing medium th at hold wate r and release
it back t o th e plants w hen required.This
allows th e soil depth t o be much less th an
th at w hich wo uld be required for o lder land-
scaping meth od s,w here th e soil was expect -
ed t o ho ld all th e w ate r.Th e reduced depth
of so il allows planting t o be considered for
concrete roof struct ures t hat would require
no significant strengthening t o receive th e
added we ight of soil. In t erm s of dr ainage it
is estimate d by manufacturers of proprietary
systems th at 50% t o 90% of rainfall is
retained in planted roofs, but t his varies con-
siderably w it h local climate condit io ns and
rainw ater dr ainage provision.
Plant ed roof components
Both light planted and heavy planted ro ofs
have a similar build-up, comprising ty pically a
t op layer of planting,w it h a growing medium
o r soil beneath.A filter layer is set under-
neath, and below thi s, a drainage layer and
moisture mat. Beneath thi s lowest layer is set
th erm al insulati o n if required.A lt ho ugh
planted ro ofs provide a limit ed amount of
th erm al insulation from th e soil, in practice
th is is reduced due t o t he vary ing amo unts
of wate r held w it hin th e soil.A root barri er
is set beneath th e insulati o n t o protect t he
wate rproof membrane, w hich form s th e
bottom layer.w hich is bond ed to th e con-
crete roof deck.T he root barr ier is some-
tim es bond ed t o th e wate rpro ofing layer,
usually w hen th e complete build-up is a sin-
gle proprietary syste m.
3-D view' stlov.ing lightly planted (sedom) roof assembly

3-D view' shov.il1gparapet jUl1ctiol1 il1 heavi ~ planted roof

Details
I, Light vegetation
2, Heavy vegetation
3. $o il 1 grow ing medium
4, Filter sheet
5, Drainage layer
6, Wate rproofing layer
7, Therm al il1sulation
8, vapoo- barrier
9,
10.
Concrete deck
Smooth gravel <0) I
II.
12.
Coping
Pipe 1 duct !~\-Y-)(i),-A/? rn-n-,p
13.
14.
Supp~ pipe
Raowater out let
'y X
15. Wa ll claddll1g

Vert ical section I 10. Ligl1t plantil1g Parapet

jmcnon

MC E 411
Concrete Roo s 03
Planted
Vert ical section I : IO. Light planting. Rainwater outlet
Vertica l section I: IO. Junction between light ly
planted roof and door cill
The esse nt ial requirem ents for stabilising
and maintaining plant growt h in planted roofs
are th e pro vision of nutrients in t he grow ing
medium , wate r retention , so il ae rat ion and
drainage. So ils used are aimed to be re latively
low in we ight but are balanced to suit th e
nutr ients, so il porosity, vapo ur perm eab ility
(from th e drainage laye r below) and pH val-
ues req uired by th e plant s chosen. Both th e
so il mix and th e so il depth determin e th e
amo unt of plant growt h th at can be expect-
ed o n a planted roof
To prevent th e passage of o rganic matt er
and fin e particles into th e water drainage sys-
t em, a filte r sheet is set undern eath th e plant -
ing.This shee t is lapped up th e sides of th e
planting, whe re it meet s an upstand, to th e
level of th e planting.
3-D detail showing rainwater outlet in planted roof
MC E 4 12
3-D detail of rainwate r outlet in
light ly planted roof
3-D detail of cill junction in heavily planted roof
The drainage laye r ben eath th e filte r
shee t retains wate r th at dr ains throu gh th e
planting.Wate r is retained in profiled troughs
in a typically polystyren e egg-crate shaped
tray t hat re leases water back to t he plant ing.
This meth od also performs sat isfacto rily o n
sloping co ncrete roofs. Excess water is
drained away through gaps between th e
drainage trays.The egg-crate form allows ae r-
at ion, permittin g th e so il t o abso rb th e wate r
sto red here . In dr ier months, water diffuses
up t hrou gh th e so il to the plant roots.A
moisture mat is ofte n set under this laye r to
catc h wate r that runs off th e dr ainage laye r.
The mat is made from a dur able fibre th at
retains moisture and nutr ients as we ll as
se rving as prot ection t o th e root barrier
ben eath. It is not used in inverted roof co n-
figuration s. In inve rted roofs, a root barr ier is
3-D overview of concrete roof with heavy planting

1°1 '
II f II
l -

X I r , I

3-D detail of parapet junction in heavily planted roof Vertical section I : I O. Heavy planting. Low parapet.

set immediat ely below t he insulatio n t o pro-
tect th e w at erpro of memb rane formi ng th e
lowest layer.T his layer prevents plant ing roo ts
fro m damaging the w at erproo fing. In w arm
roof constr uction, the w at erpro of membrane
is set o n t op of th e thermal insulation, posi-
ti oning the insulation w it hin the building
in mild, te mpe rate climat es. Light planted
ro ofs can be grow n o n both no minally flat
roofs and o n sloping roo fs w it h a pit ch up to Details
I. Light vegetation
25° to 30°. Heavy plant ed roofs have a
2. H eavy vegetation
deeper drainage layer t o provide great er
3. Soil/growing med ium
w at er storage.The soil depth, in excess of 4. Filter sheet
150mm, requires an automat ic irri gation sys- 5. Drainage layer

envelop e.A vapo ur barrier is set between t em to provide a reliable w at er supply cover- 6.Wat erproofing layer
7.The rmal insulation
the t herm al insulat ion and the co ncrete deck. age of th e complet e roof.
SVa po ur barr ier
In th is configurat ion a moisture mat is set In inverted roof configuratio ns, th e
9. Co ncret e deck
between th e w at erpro of memb rane and t he w eight of soil and vegetati on is made suffi- IO. Smo ot h gravel
drainage layer above. cient t o avoid wi nd uplift and the possibility I I . Coping

of th e insulation floating o n t he wate r durin g 12. Pipe/ duct

Soil depth
Th e soil dept h in light planted roofs
ranges from 50mm t o around 150mm,
weighing a minimum of aro und 70kg/m 2 of
ro of area.Water is stored in the grow ing
medium and drainage layer, making it efficient
13. Supply pipe
rainfall.A lt ho ugh t he pond ing is ofte n consid-
14. Rainwater outlet
ered by pro prietary wate rproofing manufac-
15.W all cladding
tu rer s not t o affect th e wate rproo fing layer,it
can cause lightweight planted roofs t o 'float '
during rainstorms if th is layer is not properly
secured.

MC E 413
 oncrete Roo s 03
Planted
Overflows
Irrigat ed heavy planted roofs are usually pro-
vided w it h overfow o ut lets so th at, in th e
event of th e rainw ater outl ets being blocked.
a high rainfall o r failure of th e irrigati o n con-
trol equipment do es not cause th e roof t o
flood w it h wate r.O verfow s are set ty pically
at a height between SOmm and ISOmm
above th e planting level t o avoid flood dam-
age t o both th e planting and t o th e interior
of th e building.W hen th e roof is laid t o falls,
some overfow s are set at th e level of th e
highest finished ro of level in ord er to avoid
planting being damaged sho uld flood ing
result in landscaping being t emp orarily sub-
merged in w ate r.
Roof junctions
At upstands and eaves th e same pr inciples
apply to planted roofs as discussed in th e
previou s sect io ns o n co ncealed membran es
and exposed membranes.The wate rproo fing
exte nds a minimum of ISOmm above th e
level of th e planting, pro viding a cont inuity
from th e roof membrane t o th e flashing at
th e t op of th e upstand o r t o th e adjacent
MCE 4 14
Vertical section I :5. Light planting to rooflight junct ion
w all const r uction. Up stands for parapets and
door sills,high wa lls and roofl ights are formed
by exte nding th e wate rproof filter sheet and
root barri er up to a minimum of I SOmm
above th e level of th e soil o r growing medi-
um.The visible membranes and sheets are
concealed w it h th erm al insulati o n, and typi-
cally eit her paving turned on edge (t he same
paving used for adjacent access paving) o r a
metal sheet t o match th at of th e parapet
coping w here a metal coping is used.
Eaves can be formed by metal edge
trims,usually from a minimum 3mm thi ck
fo lded aluminium sheet o r stainless stee l
angle.Th e filter sheet is folded up th e inside
face of th e angle t o avoid o rganic matt er and
fine particl es from being w ashed down int o
th e drainage layer.Th e wate rproo f mem-
brane is bond ed t o th e base of th e metal
angle w here th e edge is t ermin ated by a pav-
ing slab. Smooth pebbles can be used, provid-
ed th ere is no risk of th em being pushed
over th e edge, parti cularly durin g mainte-
nance wo rk. Many planted roofs have low
parapet o r eaves edges so th at th e roof can
be experienced visually from th e o utside of
th e building.A fall arrest syste m is provided.
such as harnesses wo rn by maintenance per-
so nnel, w hich is attac hed by a safety line to
an ancho r point or a latch way cable. Balus-
trades are provided for building user s in con-
ditions w it h low parapets.
Veget at ion barriers are provided at roof
perim eter s,upstands,duct penetration s and
rainw ater o ut let po ints t o avoid damage t o
th e adjacent construct ion th at wo uld be
caused by plants. Pebbled strips w it h a mini-
mum w idt h of 300mm are used, w it h river
washed pebbles of 16mm t o 32mm diameter.
Rainwater o utlets
Th e filter layer is dressed up around th e ver-
t ical edges of th e rainw ater out lets. A n access
cover is provided for maintenance purp oses.
Wate r drains at th e level of th e wate rproo f
membrane, w hich is dressed into th e base of
th e o ut let.
Balcony plant er s
Planting troughs w it h automatic irrigat io n and
a dr ainage system can be incorp orated at
roof level int o cur tain wall facades. In some
 @

Vertical section I: I0, Rainwater outlet

3-D detail of pipe penetration in lightly planted roof 3-D detail of two-way outlet in lightly planted roof

- @

, \ / \ / , , \ / ',I \ 1 \ / \ / \ I" / \ 1\/ \ / \ I \/-\f\!\fl\fI

Vertical section I: I 0, Light planting, Roofiight upstand Vertical section I :I0, Roofiight upstand in lightly planted roof

MCE 4 15
Concrete Roo 5 03
Planted

Vertical section I: I0, Heavy planting, Pipe penetration, Vert ical section I: I0, Heavy planting, Cill junction, Planter edge,

1/11'1/1/1/11'1 II ,II 111111111\,/11'1/1/11 01 "1,II/I/I/',/I/I/II'I/I/I/\J~

8

3-D details of pipe penetration in heavily planted roof

cases, a small planter can be integrated into a e nd, typically by a wate r supply pipe of small
balcony. The plant er is sea led, but sho uld any diamete r set into t he roof finishes.The drain-
wate r leak e it he r from th e plant er (as a result age pipe is typically of SOmm diameter for
of damage) o r if wate r pen etrat es th e seals such installat ion s, and is set e it he r w it hin t he
D e t ails aro und its top edges , th en th e wate r is facade pane ls o r d irect ly in front of t he
I, Light vegetation
2, Heavy vegetation dr ained by an intern al wate rproof tray into facade . Plant e r boxes are made from glass
3. Soil /growing medium th e transom be low, w he re it drains t o t he re inforced po lyeste r (GRP) w hich is mou lded
4, Filter sheet
5, Drainage layer o utside .The curtain wa ll syste m, w hich is to fo rm a single , sealed she ll.This mate rial is
6, W at erproofing layer dr ained and vent ilate d int e rnally, allows any very resilient and can be mou lded by hand to
7, Thermal insulation
8, Vapour barrier wate r t hat pe netrated th ese planter seals to suit individual project req uire me nts. Planter
9, Concrete deck dr ain t hro ugh it s pressure equalisat ion cham- boxes made from t he rmop lastics are much
10. Smooth gravel
II . Coping bers.A glazed balustrade is show n beh ind t he more expe nsive t o manufacture , requiring
I 2. Pipe / duct plante rs, indicating th at t he planter wo uld be large numbe rs to be fabricated at t he same
I 3. Supply pipe
14. Rainwater outlet maintained from t he facade clea ning syste m, size to make t hem eco no mic.The boxes are
15. W all cladding typically cleaning crad le.Alternat ively, large r set int o a met al frame provided w it hin t he
16. GRP planter
17. Glazed external wall ve rsio ns of t his plante r can be used t hat are curt ain walling system and are sea led w it h sil-
I 8. Glass balustrade more suitable for much larger plants.The icon e aro und t he ir edges. In t his example, a
plante rs are d rained intern ally in t he same metal str ip is set o n top of t he plante r to
way. In all plante rs wate r is supplied at o ne co nceal t he GRP from view.

MC E 4 16
 3-D sectional view showing small
balcony planter arra ngement

@
@

........

, ]
@

3·0 view showing small barcorw planter arra ngement

~~~MoUJt

® 0

3·0 detail view showing section t hro ugh small balcooy planter
arrangement Vertical sect ion 1:5. Small balcony planter

MC E 4 17
- - -"0"0'"'
, ~el""R85"""'------"
Planted

3-0 exploded 'neW ~ hghtly planted ccoo ete roof assembly

Details
I. 4lht ~oon
1 -.,,_
3. Soli gr'O'MIlg rnedun
" filt er sheet
5 """"'..,.,.
6. Watelpl ooftlg layer-
7. Therma l nAAnton
8. Vapour bamer
9. Ccocete oeo;
10. Smooth gr<M"1
II . CopIng
12. Pipe { c1.d
11 Supply pipe
14, Rainwater outlet
IS. W all cladding
16. GRP planter
17. Glazed ext ernal wall
18 G lass balustrad e

3-0 _ stlowIng parapet ccocooo on l.ght1y planted 3-D exploded voew showing p.uapet coodrtlOO on hght ly
ptned roof assembly
root "'""""
MC E 4 18
3-D exploded _ showro& jJnclJon WIth parapet on
hudy pLyned roof assembly

• -....._---..
- --

®
•

3-D e><ploded "';ew sho'wlOg ~ wrth rooflogtrt on loghtly

planted roof assembly
MC E 4 19
TIMBER ROOFS
(I) Flat roof: Bit um en-based sheet
membranes
The material
Roof build-up
Solar p-otecuon
Fixing methods
Parapet upstands
Junction with tiled roof
Eaves and verges
(2) P itch ed roof:T iles
Plain tiles
Interlocking tiles
Ventilation
Eaves
Ridges
Verges
Hips and valleys
Ab utments
(3) Pit ch ed roof: Slat es
Roof folds
Vents
Monopitch ridges
Dormer windows
Abutments
(4) P itche d roof: Me tal
Standing seam cold roofs
Eaves and valley gutters
Ridges and abutments
Penetrations
Metal tiled rook

MCE 421
 irn er Roo sO
Flat roof: Bitumen-base d sheet membranes

3-D view of nat timber roof with a bitumen -based sheet

membrane. with pipe penetration and step in roof

- -0
Vertical section I: IO. Pipe penetration Vertical section I : I O. Step in roof

3-D view o f nat roof with a bitumen-based 3-D view of nat roof with a bitumen-based
sheet membrane. with pipe penetration sheet membrane. with step in roof

M CE 422
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011

r-- _
Vertical section I: I0, Two-way drain outlet
Thi s sect ion discusses fiat timber roofs th at
use a bitum en sheet -based membrane as a
wate rproofing layer in a warm ro of, w hich is
a commo n combinatio n.Alt hough ot her
membrane mater ials are used o n fiat t imber
roofs as both w arm and cold roofs , ty pically
formed in elastomeric and th erm op lastic
membranes,th eir applicat ion is discussed as
Exposed Membranes in th e Con crete chap-
t er.The prin ciples of detailing in th at sect ion
can be similarly applied t o t imber ro ofs, Bitu-
men-based sheet can also be used in 'inver t -
ed roof , or co ncealed membrane co nfigura-
t ion as described in th e Concrete chapte r
w here t he detailing is similar. but bitum en-
based sheet is generally less ro bust t han t he
membranes described in th at sect io n, Mem-
br anes applied t o co ncret e decks are usually
laid in hot liquid form and are reinforced t o
suit th e specific co ndit ions of fold s and joints
occurring w it hin th e st ruct ural deck, In th is
sect io n th e mater ial is co nsidered as an
exposed and visible materi al o n a relatively
lightweight deck,
Bitum en sheet membranes are eco nomic,
and are ofte n used w it h t imb er roof decks,
D etails
I, Bitumen-based sheet
2, Plywood sheet
3, Rigid thermal insulation
4, Vapour barrier
5, Softwood joists
6, Dry lining/drywall
internal finish
Vertical section I: I0, Door threshold
w hich t ogeth er provide an eco no mic roo f
design for relatively small-scale applications,
o r designs w it h a complex geo met ry of low
pitched ro ofs, as is ofte n used in hou sing and
in schoo l buildings, Bitum en-based mem-
br anes have developed over th e past 25
years t o co mpete w it h th e new er elastomer-
ic and th erm opl asti c materials by increasing
th eir fiexibility and making th em th inner,thu s
requirin g less materi al,w hich helps t o reduce
th eir overall cost. Bitum en-based membranes
can also be used w it h co ncret e and metal
decks,and th e prin ciples here can be applied
in a similar w ay t o th ose roof deck t ypes,
T he material
Bitum en-based sheet is manufactured in roll
form in w idt hs of aro und I OOOrnm, is black in
co lo ur, and is t ypically mixed w it h SBS (sty-
rene-butadiene-styrene) polym er s o r w it h
TPO (t hermo plast ic po lyo lefin) po lymer s.The
addit ion of th ese po lymer s raises th e melting
point w hich ensures stability in hot weat her
as well as increasing th e fiex ibility of th e
mat eri al at low t emp eratures (usually in w in-
t er in t emp erate climat es) and enhancing th e
7, Metal fiash ing
8, Timber upstand
9, External wall
10, Angle fillet
I I, Proprietary skirt
fiashing
12, Rainwater outlet
I 3. Paving bonded to
bitumen-based sheet
fire resistance of th e material. Bit umen-based
sheet ofte n has a glass fibr e reinforced upper
face t o provide greate r dim ension al st ability
and resistance t o accidenta l damage, as we ll
as a po lyester reinforced co re t o increase
t ensile strength,T hese sheet materials are
ty pically aro und 4mm th ick, depending o n th e
propriet ary system used. Even w it h th ese
addit ives, bitum en-based sheet is slow ly oxi-
dised by heat, making th e material gradually
more br itt le w hich event ually results in
cracks,Th e polymer add itives reduce thi s
effect, parti cularly th e TPO addit ives w hich
help t o increase th e life of th e mater ial, w hich
can now be up to aro und 25 years,T PO-
modifi ed sheet can be exposed t o th e effects
of th e sun, requ iring no addit ional so lar pro -
t ection , since th e material provides better UV
resistance th an o lder-ty pe bitum en-based
membranes, SBS-mo dified sheet is usually
covered w it h sto ne chippings o r so lar refiec-
t ive paint t o protect th em from th e effect s of
th e sun,
MC E 4 23
 im6er Roo sO
Flat roof: Bitumen-based sheet membranes

I 1 I

I i
CD I I

Ver tical section I:IO. Expansion jo int

Vert ical section I: 10. Low parapet wall

J o

I O _~==~~~
I I I I I I f I

i )@ I I (
CD
I I
f----- - -CD

3-D view of flat roof with a bitumen-based

sheet membrane. with expansion joint
Ver tical section I: IO. Rooflight

Roof build-up th e bitumen t o th e insulation.The bitumen-

Where plywood is used to form th e struc- based membrane is then bond ed t o the
t ural deck of a t imber roof. t he joi nts O n t im- th ermal insulat ion t hrough t he ho les in the
ber boarded decks, w here t his is not as prac- isolati ng layer.
D et ails
t ical a method . a t hin layer of bitum en is laid
I. Bitumen-based sheet
2. Plywood sheet o nto t he deck, applied typically in t hick liquid Solar protection
3. Rigid t hermal insulation
4. Vapour barrier
form t o seal t he joint s between th e boards, Resistance t o UV radiatio n is provided by
5. Softwood jo ist s wit h t he bitumen setting t o form a smoot h eit her a coating of fine st o ne chippings o r by
6. Dry lining/drywall
intemal finish substrat e.A vapo ur banrier is set o nto the aluminium solar reflect ive paint applied t o t he
7. Metal flashing prepared timber deck. the barrier being often visible surface of the bitumen-based sheet. As
8. Timber upstand
9. Extemal wall bitumen-based as part of a proprietary sys- a result of pro viding thi s additional UV pro -
10. Angle fillet tem . Rigid closed cell insulat ion such as poly- t ection. t hese coatings have t he addit io nal
I I. Proprietary skir t flashing
I 2. Rainwater out let ureth ane is bedded in hot bit umen onto t he benefit of reflecting heat. w hich has th e effect
13. Paving bonded to vapo ur barrier t o ho ld t he insulat io n securely of reducing t he surface t emperat ure of t he
bitumen-based sheet
in place.A loose laid perfo rat ed iso lating layer roo f below th at w hich wo uld ot herw ise be
is set o nto t he t hermal insulat ion w hich is t he case. So lar reflective paint gives t he roo f
used to allow th e mem brane and th ermal a metal appearance, w hich pro vides a visual
insulat ion t o release gases into th e iso lat ing alternative t o the characteristic black colo ur
layer w hich are formed as a result of bond ing of bitumen-based sheet. Membranes can also
MC E 424
Isometric view of assembly
Vertical section I: IO. Rainwater out let
be pro vided w it h a solar protection layer
dur ing manufacture as part of a prop rietary
bitumen-based membrane syste m.
Fixing methods
Bitum en-based membranes are fixed ty pically
by eit her t orching, bo nding o r mechanical fix-
ing methods.W it h t orching, a fiame is used to
melt an adhesive layer o n t he underside of
t he sheet so th at t he membrane adheres t o
t he substrate . Sheets are lapped by aro und
IOOmm t o ensure a w ate rt ight seal.Torches
are usually gas fuelled, supplied from a small
caniste r as part of a hand-held t ool, o r are
supplied from a large gas cylinder set onto
t he roof t o a variety of t oo ls, eit her hand-
held o r w heeled, fo r larger scale applicat ions.
In th e bond ed method, t he sheet is
applied cold o nto t he subst rate , t he adhesive
3-D view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based sheet membrane , parapet detail
Vertical section I : I0
Low parapet wall
being eit her poured and spread in place o r
spray applied t o t he subst rate / str uct ural
deck. Bitumen-based sheet is laid o n t op and
is ro lled into place. Laps are sealed w it h
adhesive, but t o rching is somet imes used t o
seal t he laps of bo nded membranes t o allow
t hem t o be inst alled more quickly. Like elas-
t om eri c and th erm op lastic membranes,th e
hot air we lding of laps and joint s is being
int ro duced. A t oo l th at provides hot air t o
t he edge of t he mat erial is used t hat allows
th e material t o melt locally and be sealed
t ogether.Th e use of bondin g avoids th e
need fo r a flame t hat can damage adjacent
finished wo rk.
W it h t he mechanical fixing meth od no
adhesive is required, t he membrane being
3-D view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based
fastened t hrough t he insulati on layer int o t he
sheet membrane, parapet detail
timb er deck w it h disc-type fastener s.Laps
MCE 425
T lm6er Roo s 0
Flat roof: Bitumen-based sheet membranes

I
Vertical section I: I 0, Low parapet wall
Vertical section I: I0, Expansion joint Vert ical section I: I0, Low parapet wall

Details 7, Metal fiashing

I, Bitumen-based sheet 8, Timber upstand
2, Plywood sheet 9, External wall
3. Rigidthermal insulation 10, Angle fillet
4, Vapour barrier I I, Proprietary skirt fiashing
5, Softwood joists 12, Rainwater outlet
6, Dry lining/drywall I 3. Paving bonded to
internal finish bitumen-based sheet

between sheets are usually t o rch sealed t o a
w idt h of aro und 150mm ,A vapo ur barrier.
w it h sealed laps, is laid onto th e structura l
deck or substrate w it h t he insulati on set on
top,Th e insulation is mechanically fixed to
t he deck, w it h t he bitumen-based sheet laid
o nt o th e insulation.The mechanical fastener s
are fixed w it hin th e area of th e lap in th e
sheet t hro ugh t he insulati on int o t he deck
beneath, Mechanical fixings are covered by
strips or are lapped over th e t op of t he fix-
ings, t he laps being sealed by t o rching, t hen
pressed in place w it h a roller t oo l.
Parapet upstand s
Up stands in bitumen-based sheets are
form ed by eit her fixing t he sheet to th e ply-
wood face of a t imber framed upstand, o r t o
t he face of th e th erma l insulation, depending
o n th e configurat ion of t he exte rnal w all.
W here a t imber roof deck meet s a masonr y
wall, and a concrete block w all is clad in tim -
ber rainscreen panels, t he bitumen-based
sheet is shown fixed to th e face of th e
upst and W it h a low upstand, t he membrane
cont inues up t he full height and exte nds
acro ss th e top of th e wall undern eath th e
coping,T he roof membrane is made cont inu-
o us w it h th e w ate rproo f seal of th e exte rnal
w all,w it h t he membr ane t erminating against
t he bitumen paint finish of t he exte rnal face
of th e blockwork w all,Th e coping can be
made from any imper viou s and durable
materi al.A pressed metal co ping overhanging
o n both sides provides added protectio n t o
th e membrane as it fold s over th e top of th e
w all. U pstands t o high parapet w alls can be
form ed by t erm inating th e membrane
150mm above th e finished roof level.A bove
t his level t he w all is w ate rproo fed w it h a dif-
ferent method Typically,concrete w alls are
wate rproo fed w it h bitumen paint and an
exte rnal panel-based finish, o r render.T he t op
of th e membrane is protected w it h a folded
met al flashing such as aluminium, w hich is
eit her bedded int o a groove formed in t he
joint between courses of blockw o rk, o r t he
metal strip is sealed against th e w all w it h sili-
cone if a concrete w all is used T he vapo ur
barrier cont inues up t he full height of t he
membrane,A 45° angle fillet is used t o avoid
t urn ing t he bitumen-based sheet t hro ugh a
full 90° fo ld in a junction w here significant
structural movement can be expected
Up stands for perforations and movement
joint s are formed in t he same w ay as ot her
upst ands, but t he membrane cont inues over
th e t op of th e upstand W here an expansion
joint is fo rmed, t he membr ane is separate d
on on e side of th e mo vement joint to op en
and close as a result of structural movement.
Junction w it h tiled roof
Th e juncti on of a fiat roof and a t iled pitched
roof is form ed by exte nding th e base layer
and membrane up 150mm above t he fin-
ished roof level, w it h an addit io nal reinforcing
layer t o strengthen t he juncti on,T he roofing
felt, o r breather memb rane, of t he t iled
pitched roof exte nds down over th e t op of
t his membrane t o provide a complete
we at hert ight seal acro ss t he roof The bot-
t o m t op row of t iles is kept clear of t his junc-
tion in ord er t o avoid th e possibility of dam-
age and t o ensure t hat rainw at er runnin g
dow n t he t iles cannot run back up t he gap
between th e ti le and th e roof membran e by
capillary actio n,W here a bitumen-based

MC E 426
 CD

Vertical section I: IO. Pipe penetration Vertical section I : IO. Step in roof

3-D view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based Vertical section I : IO. Rainwater outlet
sheet membrane, eaves detail

3-D view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based

Vertical section I : IO. Eaves sheet membrane, eaves detail

MC E 427
 irn er Roo sa
Flat roo f: Bitumen-based sheet membranes

3-D view of flat roof with a bitum en-based sheet

membrane. with low parapet wall and dra in outlet

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membrane, drain outlet detail
Vertical section I: I0, Low parapet wall with drain outlet

Isometric view of assembly Isometric view of assembly

MC E 428
Vert ical section I: IU, Low parapet wall Vertical section I: I0, Balustrade

D etails 7, Metal fiashing

I, Bitumen-based sheet 8, Timber upstand
2, Plywood sheet 9, External wall
3, Rigid thermal insulation 10, A ngle fillet
4, Vapour barrier I I, Proprietary skirt fiashing
5, Softwood joists 12, Rainwater outlet
6, Dry lining/drywall I 3, Paving bonded to
internal finish bitumen-based sheet

membrane forms a wate rproo f covering t o
an area of fiat roof at th e t op of th e pitched
roof, th e membrane is fold ed at th e edge t o
form a drip, so th at rainw ater cannot track
up int o th e roof construct ion,A metal drip is
somet imes used t o give a visually sharper
edge t o th e ro of The vapo ur barr ier beneath
th e th erm al insulation is turn ed up so that it
t erm inates against th e edge of th e mem-
brane drip t o provide a cont inuous barrier.A
metal flashing exte nds down from the vapour
barrier and is lapped over th e t op of th e ti l-
ing to provide a complete seal from th e bitu-
men-based membrane of th e roof t iles
beneath.The ro ofing felt or breather mem-
brane under th e roof t iling is t erm inated
against th e under side of th e upper t imber
deck W here th e membrane meets a roo f-
light upstand th e bitumen-based sheet is
t aken over t he t op of th e timber upst and t o
form a cont inuous seal w it h the vapour barr i-
er on th e inside of th e building, w here
required, as we ll as th e vapour barr ier
beneath the th erm al insulat ion,The roofiight
is fixed t o th e t op of th e sealed upstand, t ypi-
cally w it h a cont inuous t imber glazing bar or
metal st rip th at seals th e gap between glaz-
ing and upstand.The edge of th e roofi ight
t ypically includes a drip t o avoid wate r run-
ning back up int o th e joint betw een upstand
and roofi ight.
Eaves and verges
The eaves detail is formed w it h a fold ed drip
form ed in th e same w ay as described for th e
junction w it h th e t op of a pitched roofThe
gutte r is tu cked up behind th e drip t o ensure
th at all rainw ater running off t he edge of t he
eaves is collected by th e gutter,and th at no
wate r is allowed t o run behind th e gutter
and down th e face of th e wall below, w here
staining can occur from th e dust washed off
th e fiat ro of The vapo ur barr ier under th e
th erm al insulation is cont inued t o th e edge of
th e roof t o ensure th at th e t imber sections
forming th e edge of th e eaves are kept dr y
and vent ilate d w it hin th e roof void beneath,
The th erm al insulation is kept co nt inuous
between wall and roo f t o avoid th erm al
br idging th at reduces th e th erm al insulati on
value of th e ext ernal envelope,
Verges t ypically exte nd along th e edge of
shallow slopes of bitum en-based roo fs, and
are formed w it h a low upstand th at prevents
rainw ater from running over th e edge of t he
verge,The membrane is cont inued up over
th e t op of th e upstand,A GRP or metal
edge trim is set at th e edge t o t ermin ate th e
membrane as we ll as forming a dr ip at th e
t op of th e exte rnal wall.A n addit ional sealing
st rip of membrane is lapped over th e edge
trim t o pro vide a complete w at er tight barri -
er, as we ll as providing reinforcement t o
st rengthen t he joint.The vapo ur barri er
exte nds up th e side of th e t imber upstand
but it is not necessary t o exte nd it t o th e
edge of th e ro of due t o th e extra layer of
bitum en-based membrane th at provides a
full seal.

MC E 4 29
 im er Roofs aI
Flat roof: Bitumen-based sheet membranes

3-D line drawing of typical fiat timber roof construc-

tion with rigid insulation above roof structure 3-D view of typical fiat timber roof construction with
rigid insulation above roof structure

Details 7. Metal fiashing

I. Bitumen-based sheet 8. Timber upstand
2. Plywood sheet 9. External wall
3. Rigid thermal insulation 10. Angle fillet
4. Vapour barrier I I. Proprietary skirt flashing
5. Softwood joists I 2. Rainwater out let
6. Dry lining/drywall I 3. Paving bonded to
internal finish bitumen-based sheet

3-D exploded view of typical fiat timber roof con-

struction with rigid insulation above roof structure

CD
~ --- - -

3-D exploded view of typical fiat timber roof con-

struction with insulation between roof joists

3-D line drawing of typical fiat timber roof construc- 3-D view of typical fiat timber roof construction with
tion with insulation between roof joists insulation between roof joists

MCE 430
 3-D exploded view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based
sheet membrane , with step in roof

3-D exploded view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based

sheet membrane, with pipe penetration and step in roof

3-D exploded view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based

sheet membrane , with pipe penetration

3-D exploded view of expansion joint in a fiat roof with a

bitumen-based sheet membrane

3-D exploded view of drain outlet in a fiat roof with a bitumen-

based sheet membrane

MC E 43 1
 im5er' Roofs 02
Pitched roof:Tiles

Vert ical sect ion I:20. Unventilated roof

3-D view of ventilated roof with

terracottatiles

Details
I. Plaintile
2. Interlocking tile 1O. Vapour barrier
3. Softwood battens 1I. Softwood joist
4. Softwood counter battens 12. Metal flashing
5. Roofing felt I 3. Ventilator
6. Gutter 14. Fascia board Vertical section I:20.Ventilated roof
7. Softwood rafter 15. External walt
8. Vapour permeable membrane 16. Ridge capping
9. Thermal insulation 17. Innercavity leaf

C lay ti les for ro ofs are most commo nly made
from clay o r co ncrete . In t he clay t ype natural
clay is mixed w it h addit ives such as quartz,
mica, iron oxide and crysta lline aluminium
oxide . Clay t iles are fired in a kiln at aro und
I 100°C t o make th e material both rigid and
resistant t o moisture penetratio n. Plain t iles
are used on pitched ro ofs ranging from vert i-
cal t ile hanging t o pitches as low as aro und
35° above t he ho rizont al. Int erlocking ti les,
w it h grooves and complex laps can be used
in down t o a minimum pit ch of 22.so above
t he ho rizont al. Co ncrete t iles are made from
aggregate and Po rtland cement w hich are
mixed t oget her and t hen cured in t emp era-
t ure-co ntro lled chambers in t he factory.T heir
appearance t ends t o imit at e t hose of tradi-
ti on al clay ti les in both shape and variety of
colour. but large int erlocking t iles are available
in sizes t hat are difficult t o achieve in clay. In
commo n w it h clay t iles, co ncrete plain t iles
are used in ro of pitches dow n t o 35° above
t he ho rizont al.A n advantage of co ncrete t iles
over clay t iles is t hat some co ncrete int er-
locking ti les can be used for pitches as low as
12.5° above t he hori zont al.
Both ti le types are fixed t o timber bat-
t ens set ho rizont ally, t hat is, at right angles t o
t he direction of th e slope.Th e battens are
fixed o nto roofing felt, w hich fo rms a second
line of defence and full weat her t ight barrier
t o th e ro of Th e ro ofing felt is set o n timber
rafters (sloping t imb ers) o r full t imb er truss-
es.T he ti les pro vide t he first line of defence
against rainw at er penetratio n as we ll as pr o-
t ecting t he ro ofing felt from direct w indblown
rain, t he effects of t he sun, as we ll as pr otect-
ing th e felt from accidenta l damage. Many ti le
shapes and profi les are available w hich have
been develop ed fro m hist ori cal examples.
T he design life for ti led ro ofs in both clay
and co ncrete ty pes is aro und 30 years but
t hey are act ually expecte d t o last for aro und
100 years.
Plain t iles
Plain t iles are made in a variety of sizes, t he
m ost commo n being aro und 260mm x
160mm.T iles are lapped by a minimum of
aro und 35mm o n t heir t op edge, called t he
'head lap', w hen hung vert ically, and are head
lapped by a minimum of aro und 65mm w hen
hung o n any slo pe down t o 35° above th e
hori zont al.The maximum head lap for all
co ndit ions is aro und 90mm, so t hat ti les are
always lapped w it h t hree t iles set over one
anot her.T iles are butted up t o one anot her
o n th eir sides, w it h joints st aggered over one
anot her t o avoid rainw at er penetratio n by
dr aining wate r th at penetrates th e outer ti le
o nto t he middle of t he t ile beneath, w here it
runs on dow n t he ro of W it h t he maximum
head lap, t he smallest size of visible t ile is
aro und 170mm x 160mm, giving a shape t o
each t ile appro ximating t o a square.T iles are
fixed t o batt ens w it h nails fixed t hro ugh two
holes at t he t op of th e ti le, w hich are cov-
ered by t he tw o t iles t hat lap ove r it.Tiles
have two nibs (bracket s) o n t heir underside
w hich hook over th e batt ens t o both sup-
po rt t he we ight of t he t ile and t o align t hem
o n th e battens, w hich are set o ut accurate ly
t o ensure t hat t he required arrangement of
t iles is achieved.
Interlocking tiles
Int erl ocking ti les in both clay and concrete
are also made in different profiles and sizes,

M C E 432
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3·0 vIews show ing t imbe r t iled roof eaves and abutment using plain t ile,

f,%
Q) , J
o
~
1

@1==1

Vertical section I :20, Plain t iles, Eaves Vertical section I:I 0, Plain t ile" Eaves and abutment

MC E 4 JJ
Vertical section I: Ia. lnter locking tiles.Abutment 3-D views showing abutments
in both fiat and pitched
interlocking tiled roofs

Vertical section I:Ia.lnterlocking tiles.Abut- w it h a t ypical size of aro und 400mm x dow n t he ro ofing felt to t he bottom of t he
ment
300mm.T his t ile ty pe has a longer head lap ro ofThe typ ical IOOmm head lap and 30mm
of aro und I OOmm w hich accommo dat es side lap give a typical visible ti le size of
gro oves in t he bottom of th e t op til e.T hese 300mm x 270mm w hich, like plain ti les, has a
grooves ser ve as drips t o avoid t he passage square- like size.Th is is ofte n not perceived
D etails
I. Plain tile of rainw ater up th rou gh th e t ile by capillary due to t he ro lled o r wavy pro files typical of
2. Interlocking tile action.T iles are also lapped at t heir sides, t raditio nal designs, but is visually dom inant in
3. Softwood battens
4. Softwood counter battens again w it h gro oves set int o t he t iles, usually fiat, modern designs. Like plain t iles, t he int er-
5. Roofing felt o n both faces of t he ti les t hat lap.Again rain- locking t ypes have nibs on th eir under side t o
6. Gutter
7. Softwood rafter w ate r is drained down t hese gro oves o nto hang and align th e t ile, and are fixed w it h
8. Vapour permeable membrane
t he cent re of t he t ile below, w hich has t he nails w hich are usually larger th an t hose used
9. Thermal insulation
Ia. Vapour barrier overall effect of draining t he t ile o n all fo ur for plain t iles in o rder t o secure t he larger
I I. Softwood joist
sides.T his inter locking of t iles, t ogeth er w it h sized ti les.
12. Metal fiashing
I 3. Ventilator t he pr ovision of drainage grooves , avo ids th e
14. Fascia board
need fo r th ree t iles to always lap o ne anot h- Vent ilati on
15. External wall
16. Ridge capping er, as is requ ired for plain t iles.A s t iles lap Like fiat roofs, pitched ro ofs are fo rmed as
17. Inner cavity leaf
o nly at t heir edges, only one t ile t hickness is eit her w arm roofs or co ld ro ofs. In t he cold
required. w it h any wate r t hat passes t hro ugh roof, hori zont al joint s are insulat ed, and t he
th e joint from w indblown rain being drained vo id is vent ilate d t o ensure t hat any co nde n-

MC E 434
 Vertica l section I: IO. Interlocking t iles'va lley gutter
3-D view of plain t iles on monop itch roof
sat ion forming in th e ro of void can escape,
w hich avoids damage t o both th e t imber and
th e th erm al insulation . In recent years it has
becom e more commo n t o use a vapour
perm eable membrane or 'breather' mem-
brane as th e under layer t o th e ti ling instead
of wate rproo f roofing felt.Th is is done t o
avoid vent ilat ing th e ro of void, w hich can
become very damp in t emper ate climates
during w inte r.A ny vapour in th e roof void
escapes through th e breather membrane,
but in pr actice th e ceiling has t o be com-
pletely sealed t o avoid any vapour passing
from th e space below int o th e roof void.
W hile a vapo ur barri er between th e th erm al
insulati on and th e dry wall lining beneath is
standard, in all roof const ruct ions, th e barrier
must be complete ly sealed aro und ro of
hatches, pipes and ducts as we ll as at it s
Vertical section I: IO. Interlo cking t iles. Mon opitch ridge
j-U view ot plain t iles on rnono prt ch ro ot
edges for thi s t o wo rk. In pr actice, most cold
roofs are st ill vent ilate d at th e ridge and at
th e eaves even w hen a breather membran e
is used as an under lay t o th e t iling.These
prin ciples apply equally t o monopitch ro ofs
and ro of spaces w hich are divided.
In th e warm roof. th e sloping rafters are
filled w it h th erm al insulation in order t o allow
th e internal space of th e ro of void t o be
used.As w it h th e cold roof, a vapour barr ier
®
is set between th e th erm al insulation and th e
int ernal dry wall lining.A vapour perm eable
membrane is set on th e outside face of th e
sloping rafter s as an under lay t o th e t iling. If
th e insulati on complete ly fills th e void
between th e rafter s,th en thi s breather mem-
br ane serves t o allow moisture trapped w it h-
@
in the const ruction t o escape. If th e th erm al
11
insulation does not fill th e void, and is set Vert ical section I : I O. Plain t iles. Monopit ch r idge
MC E 435
Details
I. Plain tile
2. Interlockingtile
3. Softwood battens
4. Softwood counter battens
5. Roofingfelt
6. Gutter
7. Softwood rafter
8. Vapour permeablemembrane
9. Thermal insulation
10. Vapour barrier
I I. Softwood joist
I 2. Metal flashing
13. Ventilator
14. Fascia board
15. Externalwall
Vertical section I: 10.
16. Ridge capping
Interlocking tiles.
17. Ridge capping
External fold (top) and
internal fold (bottom)

3-D view showing internal fold

on interlocking tiled timber roof

against th e internal dry lining, th en th e void
between th e insulation and th e breather
membrane is vent ilated at t he ridge and at
t he eaves.W here a breather membrane is
used, t he cavity between t he outside face of
t he membrane and th e ti les is increased from
2Smm t o SOmm t o allow t he air w it hin t he
void t o move more freely, ensuring th at
vapo ur being released t o the outside can be
disper sed easily.The increased gap ifformed
by battens set perp endicular t o t he t iling bat-
t ens,called counte r battens,w hich are set in
t he direction of t he rafters,and are fixed
dow n t o t hem t hrough t he underlay.
Eaves
Bot h plain t iles and int erlocking t iles are t er-
minated at th eir base w it h a gutter. In order
t o maint ain a constant pitch of t iles dow n t o
t he gutter,th e bottom row of battens is
raised up on a wedge-shaped timber profi le
called a t ilting fillet. This allows t he underlay
t o meet th e underside of th e bottom ti le,
and drain bot h rainw ater running dow n t he
ti les as we ll as any moi sture running down
t he underlay, int o t he gutter.A vent ilato r,ty pi-
cally in PVC-U, is set betw een th e bottom
ti le t o vent ilate eit her th e roof void in a cold
roof. or t he cavity between t he underlayer
and th e ti les in a w arm ro of configurat ion.
In t he cold roof version t he proprietar y
vent ilator is set beneath the under layer. Fresh
air is allowed t o flow int o t he vent ilato r set
beneath th e bottom ti le and is released into
th e roof void w it hout affect ing th e th erm al
insulati on of t he roof at ceiling level, w hich is
cont inuous between wall and ro of In t he
warm ro of version, a vent ilato r set betw een
t he bottom t ile and t he felt underlay int ro -
duces air int o t he void between t he t ile and
t he breather membrane.The t hermal insula-
ti on eit her cont inues to th e fascia board,
t hen return s horizont ally back t o form a
cont inuity w it h th e wall insulation, or alte rna-
t ively t he wall insulation cont inues vert ically
until it reaches t he sloping insulat ion set
between th e rafter s. In th e second version,
t he void forming t he fascia and soffit imme-
diately beneath it is in 'cold' ro of configura-
t ion and is required t o be vent ilate d in order
t o avoid damp, stagnant air from damaging
t he t imber s.
Ridges
W here a sealed ridge is required, ridge ti les
are eit her bedded in a sand cement mor t ar,
or are dry fixed w it h metal screws, typically
stainless steel, w here a rapid inst allation is
required. For vent ilate d ridges,proprietary fix-
ings usually made in PVC-U w it h vent ilat ion
slots are used t o vent ilate eit her t he batten
cavity between th e underlay and th e ti les,in a
warm ro of. or t he roof void in a cold roof
configurat ion.W here t he batten cavity is ven-
t ilated th e cavity is sealed across the ridge. A ir
is allowed t o pass t hrough a gap betw een th e
bottom of th e ridge ti le and t he roof ti le
immediat ely beneath, t he gap being formed
by th e PVC-U vent ilat or.The ridge ti le itself is
mechanically fixed t o a ridge batten w hich is
secured back t o th e counte r battens beneath
w it h met al clips, usually in stainless steel.
W here t he complete roof void is vented t o
t he outside in a cold roof, a gap of around
IOmm in t he underlay is form ed at t he ridge.
The underlay is turned up th e side of th e t op
row of battens on each side of t he ridge t o
ensure that rainw ater is not blown up th e
batten cavity and down into th e roof void

MC E 436
Vertical section I:IO. lnterlocking tiles. Verge 3-D view showing verge detail on interlockingtiled roof

,
\ . "\
\
\ \

CD
3-D view showingvalley on plain tiled roof

Vertical sections I: I0, Plain tiles, Hips Vertical sections I: I0, Plain tiles, Valleys

MCE 437
 imoer Roofs 02
Pitched roof:Tiles
Vertical section I : IO.Plain tiles. Ridge
3D view showing ridge on plain tiled roo f
3D detail view of ridge on plain tiled roof
MC E 438
Vertical sect io n I : I O. Int erlocking tiles.Valley gutte r
3D view showi ng valley on inte rloc king tiled roof
beneath.The ridge t ile is fixed in th e same
way in th e warm ro of version, w it h a PVC-U
vent ilato r set below th e ridge t ile.
Verges
Verges, o r gable ends, are clo sed w it h a
sand cement mortar seal betw een th e
under side of th e ti les and th e fascia board
beneath. Metal clips, usually in sta inless stee l,
are used t o restrain th e edge ti le. Propri e-
t ary syste ms of int erlocking t iles ofte n have
special verge ti les.w here th e ti le forms a
st raight ver t ical face.The verge t iles are
clipped t ogeth er t o hold th em in place t o
resist w ind uplift.The vo id enclosed by th e
t imb er fascia bo ard and soffit board
beneath is usually vent ilate d in order t o
keep it dry. The vents, as at t he eaves, have
bird mesh or insect mesh t o prevent t he
voids from being used as nesting areas.
Hips and valleys
Hip s and valleys in plain t iles are formed w it h
eit her specially folded hip t iles or by cutting
th e ti les t o create a mitred corner. Specially
folded hip ti les form part of manufacturer s'
ranges of t iles,but usually th ey suit only 90°
corners in plan, and only certa in ro of pitches.
More complex folds in th e roof can be
form ed w it h cut ti les th at meet at th e fold
line, w it h th e open joint being closed by a
metal flashing beneath the fold line. Hips in
inter locking ti les are ofte n made using th e
same method as at t he ridge in order t o suit
th e individual shape of the ti le used.
Valleys are formed in th e same way, w it h
Vertical section I :I a.Interlocking tiles. Ridge Vertical section I: Ia. lnterlocking tiles.Eaves

3-D detail showingeaves detail on roof

with interlocking tiles

eit her fo lded t iles o r mitred t iles.W hen a it self A gap betw een t he vert ical wall and
large amo unt of rainw ater is co llecte d in t he t he t o p t ile is maint ained t o allow t he free
D etails
valley, a full gutter can be form ed by intro- passage of air,w hile t he gap between vent ila- I. Plain tile
ducing a met al o r GRP strip.T he edges of t or and wa ll is closed w it h a met al flashing 2. Interlockingtile
3. Softwood battens
t he gutter are fo lded up t he adjacent batt ens t hat is set int o t he vert ical wa ll and fo lded 4. Softwood counter battens
and are made cont inuous w it h t he felt over t he t op of t he PVC-U vent ilato r,t o 5. Roofing felt
6. Gutter
under lay.The gutte r is usually suppo rted by w hich it is bond ed o r mechanically fixed. A 7. Softwood rafter
t imb er boards or plyw ood sheet set side abut ment requires no vent ilat ion and 8. Vapour permeable
membrane
between t he rafter s as shown.A n addit ional t he metal flashing fold s into t he gap below 9. Thermal insulation
layer of underlay is somet imes set beneath t he t op t ile o r is formed int o t he slo pe of IO.vapourbarrier
I I. Softwood joist
t he gutter as a second line of defence against t he int erl ocking t ile. 12. Metal flashing
rainw ater penetration at fo lds and junctions I 3. Ventilator
14. Fascia board
in t he gutter. 15. External wall
I 6. Ridge capping
17. Inner cavityleaf
Abutments
W here a ti led roof meets a vert ical w all at
t he ridge, a propriet ary vent ilato r is set onto
t he t op t ile, w hich is clipped onto t he t ile

MC E 439
- - -m Se Roofs 0'.,.-- - - - - ..,
Pitched roof: Tiles

3D explodedVIew showing t imber uled roof

eaves and abutment using plaIn ules

Details
I , Plain t ile
Zfnterkx king t ile
3.Softwood battens
4. Softwood coonter battens
5. RoofIng fert
6.Gutter
7.Softwood rafter
Svapour permeable membrarle
9 Thermal insulat ion
IOVapour barrier
I I. Softwood joist
12.Metal flash ing
l Lveotilator
14, Fascia board
I S. External wall
16. Ridge capping

3D exploded view show ing tiled roo f abutment condition 3D exploded view showingeaves condition on roof with interlocking
t iles

Me E 440
3D exploded view showing internal fold on roof using interlocking tiles 3D exploded view showing valley condition on roof using plain tiles

3D exploded view showing condition of roof using curved terracotta tiles

MC E 44 1
Tim5er Roofs 03
Pitched roof: Slates

Vertical section I :I O. External fold

3-D view of external fold detail in timb er pitched roof construction with
roofing slates

3-D view of internal fold detail in timber pitched roof construction with
roofing slates

Vertical section I :10. Internal fold

Roofing slates are made in eit her natur al cut imit ati o ns of natur al slat es w hich are more
D etails stone. as recon stituted sto ne o r as fibr e eco nomic th an th e natural materi al.
I. Slate
2. Softwood battens cement t iles w hich imit at e th e appearance of A ll th ese slate ty pes can be used in roof
3. Softwood counter th e natural mater ial.A ll th ese slat e types are pit ches from vertically hung t o usually 22.5"
battens
4. Roofing felt made in a similar size t o t iles.at aro und above t he horizontal.A ll slate ty pes require a
5. Gutt er
450mm x 350mm, but are also available in a head lap (discussed in th e previou s sect ion
6. Softwood rafter
7. Vapour permeable w ider range of sizes, from 600mm x 300mm o n ti les) ranging from 60mm to aro und
membrane
down t o 400mm x 200 mm, depending o n I 20mm depending o n t he roof pitch. Both
8. Thermal insulation
9. Vapour barrier th e manufacturer. N atur al slat e is used as a natural slat e and fibre ceme nt ty pes are laid
10. Softwood joist
flat mater ial t hat is fixed in th e same way as in a way t hat maintains a minimum th ickness
I I. Metal fiash ing
12. Vent ilat or t iles, as discussed in th e previou s section. of two layers of slate t o ensure a weat her
I 3. Fascia board
Recon stituted slates are made from t ypically t ight roof covering. Reconstit uted slate is
14. External wall
15. Ridge capping 50% t o 60% recycled waste slat e (fro m th e ofte n form ed w it h profi led edges th at int er-
16. Flexible pipe
quarr ying of slat e) w hich is mixed w it h resin lock t o reduce th e possibility of capillary
and glass fibre reinforcement, th en pr essed t o action from rainw ater being drawn up int o
shape. Recon stitut ed slates are usually made t he lap between th e slates.This improved
w it h an inter locking profi le to enhance th eir jointin g allow s t he material t o be used in a
perform ance in reducing rainw ater penetra- single th ickness rather t han as two layers.
ti on . Fibre cement slat es are ceme nt -based

MC E 44 2
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011

Vertical section I: I O. Eaves
3-D view of timber monopitched roof construction with roofing slates
N atur al slate is sort ed into at least three
gro ups o n sit e, based on th e mater ial th ick-
ness, w hich varies in th e splitting of th e natu-
ral material.W hen fixed, slat es used o n any
course (row of slat es) are of similar th ickness.
The thi ckest slat es are used at th e base of
th e roof, and th e th innest are used at th e t op
of th e roof, w it h slates in between varying
pro gressively from th ick t o th in. Fibre cement
slates are of constant thi ckness and do not
require any sorting o n sit e.
The vent ilat ion of slat e ro ofs follow s th e
prin ciples set out in th e previous sectio n o n
t iled ro ofs,w it h both w arm and co ld roof
configurat ions being detailed in th e same way.
The detailing of eaves,ridges, verges, hips and
valleys follow s th e same prin ciples of rainw a-
t er drainage, vent ilat ion and th erm al insula-
ti on as o ut lined in th e sectio n o n t iled roofs.
Vertical section I : IO.A but ment
@
r
t-"'"-----".2'"
8 ~==1 11
Vertical section I : IO. Monopitch ridge
Roof folds
Changes of roof pitch th at form a fo ld line
are form ed by reducing th e lap at th e head
of th e t iles,o r head lap, t o a minimum. W hen
th e ro of pitch forms an intern al fold, th e
upper ti le is butted up t o th e low er til e. A
metal flashing is set beneath th e upper slat e
and is lapped over th e o ut er face of th e
lower slat e t o ensure th at rainw ater is direct- ·
ed down th e slo pe and not onto th e under-
lay beneath.A n external fold is form ed by
projecting th e upp er slat e o ut slight ly t o
form a drip, ensuring th at rainw ater does not :
run back up th e metal flashing beneath,
w hich is positioned in th e same way as w it h
an intern al fold.
3-D view of timber mono pitched roof construction
with roofing slates
MC E 443
Tim6er Roofs 03
Pitched roof: Slates

I
I
/
@ ;' /
I
I

/ /
Vertical section I : IO. Ridge

Vertical sections I : IO.Verges

3-D view of valley detail in timber pitched roof construction with roofing slates

Vertical sections I : IO. Valleys

3-D view of valley detail in timber pitched roof construction with roofing slates Vertical sections I: IO.Valleys

MC E 444
 Details
I. Slate
2. Softwood battens
3. Softwood counter
battens
4. Roofing felt
5. Gutter
6. Softwood rafter
7. Vapour permeable
membrane
8. Thermal insulation
9. Vapour barrier
10. Softwood joist
I I. Metal flashing
12. Ventilator
I 3. Fascia board
14. External wall
15. Ridge capping
16. Flexible pipe
Vertical section I : I O. Ridge with vent extract

Vertical section I : I O. Eaves 3-D view of timber pitched roof construction with roofing slates with gutter at eaves

3-D view of timber pitched roof construction with roofing slates with gutter at eaves Vertical section I: I O. Eaves

MCE 445
 im6er oafs 03
Pitched roof: Slates

Vertical section I: I0, Expansion joint

,---------'
D et ails
I, Slate
2, Softwood battens
3. Softwood counter
battens
4, Roofing felt
5, Gutter
6, Softwood rafter
7, Vapour permeable
membrane
8, Thermal insulation
9, Vapour barrier
10, Softwood joist
I I. Metal flashing
I 2, Ventilator
I 3. Fascia board
14, External wall Vertical section I: I 0. Eaves
I 5, Ridge capping
I 6, Flexible pipe

Vents
Extr act po ints for mechanical vent ilat ion
ducts can be integrated into a vent at th e
ridge as we ll as on th e general area of
pitched roof w it ho ut requiring a pr oject ion
above th e ro of th at wo uld be visible from
below.A ridge vent uses a similar vent as th at
required for a vent ilate d ridge, as describ ed
in th e sect ion on til ed ro ofs,Th e t op of th e
fiexible duct has a co nnecto r, usually in
PVC-U as part of a propri etary syste m.T he
connecto r is closed aro und th e base of th e
ro of vent and is sealed w here it penetrates
th e under lay t o ensure th at rainw ater cannot
find its way into th e ro of vo id. A vent ilato r
set into th e pit ch of th e ro of can have a fiexi-
ble duct co nnected t o it in th e same way.
Mo nopitch r idges
As w it h apex ridges,a monopitch ridge is
formed w it h a specially formed ridge slate o r
clay t ile.Th e ridge slate o r t ile is mechanically
fixed t o th e timber struct ure beneath t o
eit her allow th e ridge t o be vent ilate d o r
closed against th e sloping slates o n one side,
and a t imber board on th e vert ical face.
D o rmer w indows
For slate cladding o n th e vert ical faces, o r
cheeks, of a dorm er w indow th e suppo rting
st ruct ure for th e slates is typically t imber
fram ed, w it h insulation set betw een th e tim -
ber st uds (vert ical fr aming memb er s) in
warm roof configurat ion. Horizont ally-set
softwood battens are fixed o nt o vertically-set
battens w hich are fixed back t o th e under lay
o r breather membrane.Th e vert ically-set bat-
t ens, or counte r battens, ensure th at moisture
is allowe d to run freely down th e membrane
o r under lay as we ll as enco urage natural ven-
til ation behind th e slates, Slates are hung
from th e battens,Th e edge of th e low
pitched roof of th e dormer w indow has it s
fascia board set fo rw ard of th e slates, t o
ensure th at vent ilat ion of th e ver t ical cladding
is maintained at th e t op of th e cheek.A ir is
also allowe d t o ente r th e batt en cavity at th e
base of th e wa ll.At th e corne rs of th e verti-
cally-hung slates, slates form intern al and
exte rnal co rne rs by butting th e slates t ogeth-
er from each side t o form a corne r, and set-
t ing a metal fiashing beneath t o ensure th e
co nt inuity of weat her ti ghtness at th e co rne r.
Abutments
A but me nts at th e side of a pit ched roof, and
at a mon opitch ridge co ndit ion, are form ed
by covering th e jo int between wa ll and ro of
w it h a metal fiashing w hich is fixed over th e
t op of th e first slate of th e roof and is sealed
against th e vert ical face of th e wall.W here
br ick is used th e fiashing is returned int o a
joint between bri ck courses,
Valley gutters are form ed in th e same
way, w it h a metal tray fold ed up th e under-
side of th e slate , as describ ed in th e sect ion
o n t iled roofs.The vertical face of th e gutter
w here it meets th e adjacent w all is sealed
w it h a fiashing set over th e t op of th e gutter
t o pro vide a co mplete weat hert ight seal.

MC E 446
 o
.... ~
Vertical section I: IO. Ridges

Vertical sections I: IO. Hips

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Vertical sections I : IO. Ridges

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Vertical section I: IO. Vent ilators 3-D view of ridge detail of timber pitched roof construction with roofing slates

MC E 44 7
 I
I imber Koors 03
Pitched roof: Slates
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Vertical section I : IO.Verge Vertical section I : IO.Abutment

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Vertical section I: IO. Abutment Vertical section I : I OValley gutter

3-D view of abutment detail of timber pitched roof construction

with roofing slates

MC E 448
 @

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o

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Vert ical section I :10. Monopitch ri dge
Ho rizontal sections I: I0, Vertically
o I
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hung slate, at intern al comer
--

>'0 vertical section I: 10. Base of wall

e ~

:® '
verr car section 1:1 0, Vertocally hung slates at external co-r-er

l
Horizontal secto- I :10. VerticalfyhUrlg slates at
external comer

Details
I. Slate
2 Softwood battens
3 Softwood counter
battens
4. Roo~r;g felt
5. Gutter
6. Softwood rafter
7. Vapour permeable
membrane
8. Thermal irtsulat'oo ®,
9. Vapour barrier
10. Softwood joist
II. Meta l flashing
12. Ventilator
13 Fascia board
14. External wal l --<
15. Ridge capping \
16 Flexible pipe

Vert ical secton I: 10. Donner window

MC E 44 9
- - -m Se Roofs 03- - - - - .,
Pitched roof: Slates Details
I. Slate
2. Softwood battens
3. Softwood counter
battens
4, Roof""gfelt
5. Gutter
6. Softwood rafter
7, Vapour permeab le
mem b rane
8. Thermal insulation
9, Vapour barrier
10. Softwoodjoist
I I. Metal flashing
12. Ventilator
13. Fascia board
14. External wall
15. Ridge capping
16. Flexible pipe

3-D overview of t imber

pitched roof construction
with roofing slates

3-D detai l view of tercer pitched roof construcuo- with

roofIngslates

3·0 exploded view of t imber pitched roof construct ion

with roofing slate,

3-D exploded view of timber pitched roof construction with rooflng slates

Me E 450
3-D exploded v;ew of abutment detail of timber pitched roof construct ion with rocfu

3-D exploded view of timber monc pitched roof construction w ith roo fIng slates

==~.~

3-D line draw ing of timbe r rroncpitched roof construction w ith roofog slates

3-D line drawing of t imber pitched roof construction w ith roofing

slates. external fo ld detail

3-D exploded view of tim ber pitched roo f constr uction with roofing
slate s, external fol d detail

3-D exploded view of timber pitched roof construction with roofJngslates. eaves detail

MC E 451
 im5er' Roofs 04
Pitched roof: Metal
Isomet ric view of assembly
Standing seam cold roofs
Standing seam roo fs are discussed in th e
Metal chapte r as sealed, insulat ed roof cover-
ings in a wa rm ro of configurat ion.W hen
used in th e cold roof configurat ion w it h a
pitched timber roof, th e st anding seam ro of
is vent ilate d, w it h th erm al insulati o n provided
at ceiling level.
In thi s build-up a vent ilate d st anding seam
metal deck is set o nto a t imber ro of of tru ss-
es and pur lins.At ceiling level, th erm al insula-
ti on quilt is set between th e ceiling joists
(ho rizontal memb er s). A vapo ur barri er is set
beneath th e insulati o n, position ed o n th e t op
surface of a dry lined wa ll beneath.Th e roo f
void is vent ilate d at th e lowest point (eaves
or parapet gutte r) and at th e highest po int
(ridge o r abut ment), w it h verges and para-
pets at th e sides of th e roof remaining sealed.
Eaves and valley gutters
Eaves are vent ilate d by leaving a gap
between th e t op of th e fascia board sup-
porting th e gutter and th e under side of th e
standing seam roo f sheet. A metal angle is
fixed in front of th e o pening t o avoid rainw a-
MC E 45 2
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D view showing meta l standing seam pitched roof with timber structure
t er being blown through th e o pening into
th e roof void.Valley gutters are formed in a
sim ilar w ay, w it h a gap formed betw een th e
gutter tray and th e metal sheet t o provide
vent ilat ion t o th e roof void.Th e metal tray
has an upstand at th e edge w hich is lapped
up t o th e under side of th e met al sheet and
sealed against th e sheet. This ensures th at
rainw ater runn ing down th e gutter cannot
ente r th e ro of vo id, w hile air can st ill pass
int o th e roof vo id.
Ri dges and abutments
Ridges are formed by creat ing a gap, ty pically
IOOmm between th e metal sheets.Th e gap
at th e ridge is covered w it h a fo lded metal
ridge capping w hich is fixed t o th e sheets
beneath.A narro w gap is maintained
between th e ridge sheet and th e standing
seam sheet in o rder t o pro vide constant
vent ilat ion along th e ridge.A lte rnat ively,
PVC-U vent ilato r blocks are added at cen-
tres along th e ridge, and th e joint between
th e ridge and th e roo f deck is sealed. A but -
ments are form ed in a similar w ay t o ridges,
w it h a fo lded metal sheet th at is fixed t o th e
ro of sheet on o ne side and is sealed against
th e adjacent masonry/concrete wa ll o r para-
pet, typically w it h an addit ional met al flashing
w hich projects from w it hin th e depth of th e
wa ll.Verges are formed w it h a metal clip
w hich provide a closer t o th e edge sheet,
w it h an addit ional metal coping set over th is
t o pro vide a second line of defence against
rainw ater penetration.
Pen et rat ion s
Penetration s are formed in a w ay w hich
form s a gutter aro und th e op ening in th e
roof In some examples, rainw ater run s off
th e ro of into th e gutter,at th e edge of th e
upstand, w hich is set at th e level of th e adja-
cent ro of sheets.Wate r is directed around
th e sides of th e upstand and back o nto th e
roof sheet ing below. Penetration s in roofs are
positioned so th at th e st anding seam joint s
between roo fing sheet s are clear of th e sides
of th e o pening in th e ro of t o ensure th at
rainw ater can run freely aro und th e sides of
th e upstand t o th e roof opening.
 Vert ical section I: IO. Verge

Ver tical section I:IO. Parapet verge

[
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~:
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Details
I. Standing seam
sheet 9. Metal sheet fixing
2. Fibre quilt bracket
thermal insulation 10. Soffrt board
3. Vapour barrier I I. Metal supports
4. Timber beam/joist 12. Ridge piece
5. Folded metal 13. Metal flashing
gutter 14. Parapet flashing
6. Folded metal drip
7. Fascia board
8. Externalwall

3-D view showing standing seam cold roof

configuration
M C E_ 453
 im5er Roofs OLf
Pitched roof: Metal

.
@ @

f---
o

Verti cal section I : I O. Eaves Vertical sectio n I : IO.Valley gutter

3-D view showing eaves and gutter detail on metal pitched roo f 3-D view show ing valley gutter detail on met al pitc hed roof

r
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--=:::.-.

I- I - r- 1"

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Ver t ical section I : I O. Ridge 3- D view showing r idge detail fragment

MCE 4 54
 L- ---'--'-- --"----'''''---"'------LL--'
CV'----_---'

Vertical section I :IO. Eaves Vertical section I: IO. Verge

3-D view showing verge on metal standing seam cold roof 3-D view showing edge condition on metal standing seam cold roof

Details
I. Standing seam
sheet
2. Fibre quilt
thermal insulation
3. Vapour barrier
4. Timber beam/joist
5. Folded metal
gutter
6. Folded metal drip
7. Fascia board
8. External wall
9. Met al sheet fixing
bracket
IO. Soffit board
I I. Met al supports
12. Ridge piece
13. Met al flashing
14. Parapet flashing

Vertical section I: 10. Penetration

MCE 455
T lm6er Roofs 04
Pitched roof: Metal

Vertical section I: I O. Standing seam roof.

Valley gutter

3-D views show ing valley gutter and eaves gutter

details on st anding seam roof Metal tiled roofs ent from profiled metal sheet, w it h its cont in-
Metal t iles are increasingly being used for uous lo ng lengths of sheet ing.T he sho rt
ro ofs due t o th e flexibi lit y of th e roof pit ch met al ti les, lapped over one anot her,can easi-
and t ile lap th at can be formed econom ically ly t ake up com plex geomet ries w it h a pat-
D etails : Standing seam roof for individu al proj ects. Copp er and zinc are t ern of joints and laps th at clearly show th e
I. Standingseam sheet
commo nly used. w it h th eir characte ristic pat- form of th e ro of.
2. Fibre quilt th ermal
insulation ina th at is suitable for both walls and roofs. Ridges and verges are usually made from
3. Vapour barrier
Metal til es are fixed in th e same manner as folded metal sheet and are individu ally
4. Timber beam/joist
5. Folded metal gutter clay t iles and slates, w it h battens and counte r designed and fabricated for a building project.
6. Folded metal drip
battens set o nto a bitum en- o r po lymer- A n advantage of metal sheet til es over clay
7. Fascia board
8. External wall based w at erproof underl ay.Eaves and para- t iles is t hat til es and edging pieces can be
9. Met al sheet fixing bracket
pet gutters are form ed in th e same way as individually designed for each proj ect w hile
10. Soffit board
I I. Met al supports standing seam roofs,w it h vent ilat ion slot s remaining economic, since metal can be fold -
12. Ridge piece
provided t o ensure th at air can pass through ed w it hout th e need for mou lds w hich are
I 3. Met al fiash ing
14. Parapet fiashing th e roof vo id. Metal til es are eit her flat like required for clay til es and slate s.
slate s, or alte rnat ively are made from profil ed
sheet, w hich imit at es th e appearance of tra-
dit ional til ed roo fs made from curved o r
profiled t iles.Th eir appearance is very differ-

MC E 456
 ~eta i ls :Tiled roo f
. Metal tiles ;;: Vapou r barrier
16. Softwood 24. Softwood joist
17. V battens
apour permeable 25. Meta l flashing
membrane Soffitboard
18. Gutter 26. Fascia board
19. Softwood
20 . rafter 27. Exterra l wall
. Verltilatioo void 28. Ri dge piece
2 1. The rrnalosuation
' I 29. Ventilator (i1)

Vertical section I' 10 M

pitc h ridge wit h' metal
. otiles
no-

Vert ical secuon )' 1

mo nopitc h ridge' o.Aftematrve

3-D view show ing stand Ing seam roof on timber structure

MC E_ 45 7
- - -m Se Roofs 04- - - - - ....
Pitched roof: Metal

.>.@'--~';
,r- r \
-'-'4:'"

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~ r;r1 ~,
__ @ -r-{f @I
.1 1J.,.l>~
,PII,(~
Vertical section I: I 0. Standing seam roof. Eaves andgutter Vertical section I: 10. Metal tiled roof. Abutment

3-0 views showing eaves and gutter coooto-

3-D viewsshowing eaves andgutter condition

\
®

Vert ical sect ion

o
I
MC E_ 45 8
 ®

....-----=-----@ - - - - -

Vertical section I: IO. Metal t iled roof.Abutment

Vertical section I: IO. Ridge

3-D view showing ridge detail fragment

Details:Tiled roof
15. Met al tiles
16. Softwood battens
17. Vapour permeable
membrane
18. Gutter
19. Softwood rafter
20. Ventilation void
21 . Thermal insulation
22. Vapour barrier
23. Softwood joist
24. Met al fiashing
25. Soffit board
26. Fascia board
27. External wall
@ 28. Ridge piece
29. Ventilator

MC E 459
- - -m Se Roofs 04- - - - - ....
Pitched roof: Metal

3-D exploded view showing metal standing

seam cold roof coof guraton

J
-J
3-D exploded view showing edgecondition on metal
standing seam cold roof
'"
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r 0
-e-c

'1
'1

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3-D exp loded view shOWing meta l 3-D exploded view show ing ridge configuratioo on metal standing seam roof 00
standirlg seam roof 00 timber st ructure limber structure

Me E 460
3-D exploded view showing ridge configuration on
3-D exploded view showing eavesand gutter assemblyon metal standing seam
metal standing seam roof on timber structu re
roof on timber structure

Details : Standing
sea m ro of
I. Standing seam sheet
2. Fibre quilt thermal
insulation 9. Metal sheet fixing
3. Vapour barrier bracket
4. Timber beam/joist 10. Soffit board
S. Folded metal gutter I I. Metal supports
6. Folded metal drip 12. Ridge piece
7. Fascia board I 3. Metal flashing
8. External wall 14. Parapet flashing
3-D exploded view showing valley gutter configuration on metal standing seam roof on
timber structure

MC E 46 1
PLASTIC ROOFS
(I) GRP roo nights
Eaves and upstands
Verges
Abutmeo~

Sliding roof panels

(2) GRP pan els and shells
Smaller panels and shells
larger panels and shells

MCE_ 463
 a, 0
GRP rcoff hts

ver tca t section 1:5. Large roofiight upstand at base o

l-
,--0
0
1

3-D view of small rooftigtlt

r
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0
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ill-
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Verticalseetioo I:5. Small roofiight verge

3-D viewof small rooftigl1t verge

Glass reinforced polyester (GRP) is used in
t he form of thermallyinsulat ed panels to
form t ranslucent rooflights which are robust
and economic when compared to an equiva-
lent glazed rooflight with do uble glazed units.
GRP roo flights use the principlesof metal
Key plan and elevation.
composite panelsw hich are combined w ith
T)'P;QI small roofiight layout
greenhouse glazing framing to provide a light-
mosetting polyester resios that provide high
tensile and compressive strengths,The mate-
rial is not combustible, making it a suitable
material for rootlights a, well as an opaque
roof cladding material,W hile GRP rooflight
systems do not usually achieve the high levels
of resistance to wind blown rain of internally
drained and ventilated curtain walling sys-

De tails weight highly th ermally insulated and eco- terns. they are robust and economic.making
I. fran shxerrt and insulated nomic rootlightW here glazed roo tlights them ideal where translucency is required
GRP roof panel
2 Thermally broken alumin sometimes need an additional layer of solar rather than the transparency provided by
iurn framing shading. or use solar performance glass to glass panels.
3 Inside
4 Outside reduce the effects of the sun, GRP roo tlights Rootlights are made from GRPsheet
5 Pressure plate provide a more economic solution.The which i, bonded to an aluminium carrier
6 Adjacent masonry/con
crete wall advantages of GRP over glass are its strength. frame around its edges.Thennal insulatio n set
7 Folded metal cover strip light ness and fl exib i lit~ as well as the materi- into t he void is usually bonded to the outer
8 EPDM strip
9 Support ingstr ucture al's high resistance to impact damage. GRP is GRP faci ng sheets to provide t rue composite
10 Concrete upstand a composite material formed by reinforcing action between the GRP skin and the insulat-
flexible fibreglass mat (or fibres) with ther- ed core. like metal composite panels. GRP

MC E 4 64
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011

Vertical section I :5.Abutment
Vertical section I :5.Verge
3-D view of small
roofiight panel to
panel junction
panels increasingly have a th erm al break
int ro duced int o th e framing t o reduce th e
possibility of co ndensat ion forming o n th e
underside of th e panel in t emperate climates
as we ll as t o improve th e overall th erm al
insulation value of th e ro ofiight.Th erm al
breaks are usually made from an ext ruded
polymer th at has a much low er th erm al con-
ductivity th an aluminium, and are bond ed t o
th e ext r usion in th e manner of glazed cur tain
walling or are clipped t o it and secured in
place by self-t apping screws th at hold th e
pressure plate in po sition.
In small roofiights, up t o aro und a
3000mm ( l Oft) span, GRP composite panels
require no addit ional suppo rt, w hile th ose of
greate r span use an addit ional aluminium o r
steel frame beneath t o support th e compos-
it e panels over th e greate r span. Panel sizes
CD
0)
Vertical sections 1:5. Small roofiight panel to panel
0)
junction
Vertical section 1:5. Small roofiight panel to panel junctior
0)
Vertical section I :5. Large roofiight panel to panel
vary w it h th e proprietary syste m and w it h junction
th e individual roofiight design.Typical panel
sizes range from around 400mm x 800mm
( 16in x 32in) t o 800mm x 3000mm (32in x
120in) . GRP roofiight panels use a lightweight
fr aming syste m rather th an a lapped junction
o r raised edges t o pro viding a standing seam
t ype joint used in metal composite panels.
Th ese make th eir appearance more refined,
since th e fr aming is ver y visible in translucent
GRP panels, unlike th eir metal equivalent.An
ext r uded aluminium T-section form s th e sup-
port t o th e panels o n all four edges, w it h an
ext r uded aluminium pressure plate being
used t o hold th e panels in place o n th e oute r
face of th e GRP panels. Most suppo rt fr ames
are now intern ally drained and vent ilate d t o Vertical section 1:5. Large roofiight ridges.
provide a second line of defence against rain-
wate r penetration.Th e oute r seal is provided
MC E 465
 a, 0
GRP rcoff hts
/
.."
f'C'----
Vertica l section I:5. l..arge roofi,ght ridge
o
Vertical section I:S Large rooflight eaves
-:
/(,/
~/
-: 3-D view of large rooflight
by an extruded EPDMgasket clipped into
t he aluminium extrusion, Proprietary tapes
are also used. but are more de pe ndent upon
good wo rkmanship on site than gaskets
w hich are fixed to t he pressure plate in fac-
tory conditions.
==0
Verti cal section 1:5. Small roofiight r idge and eaves Pressure plates for panel Joints running
down the slope. are set over the joint
between the panelsin the manner of glazed
curtain walling.Joints running across the
slope sometimes have pressure plateswith
lapped Jo ints in order to avoid water building
up on the upper sideof the joint and being
unableto run over the joint The lap is
formed by setting an aluminium strip or
extrusion under the bottom edge of the
panel which laps over the top of t he panel
below.Thiscombination of glazed curtain
Vert ical section I:5. Small roofiight r idge walling (or greenhouse glazing) techniques
Me E 466
o
" ~:r- -:-
...
and composite metal panel techniques pro -
vides a method of construction for translu-
cent rooOights which is visually lightweight
with slender joint lines.
In addition to these standardjunctions
which form part of proprietary systems. pan-
els are jointed with folded metal sheet.
where unusual junctions are to be formed.A
folded metal sheet is fixed over the top of
the upper panels. to ensurethat rainwater
runs down the panel. and forms a drip where
it is fixed to the top of the vertical panel.An
inner metal sheet is bonded to the junction
of t he panels to provide an inner seal and
vapour barrier.An alternat ive detail is to fill
the void w ith thermal insulation in order to
reduce the risk of condensation formingon
the underside of the panel in temperate c1i -
mates.This is typically used in a wider than
 Details
I. Translucent and
insulated GRP roof
panel
2. Thermally broken
aluminium framing
3. Inside
4. Outside
5. Pressure plate
6. A djacent masonry/
concrete wall
7. Folded metal cover
strip
8. EPDM strip
9. Supporting structure
10. Concrete upstand

Vertical section I:5, Large rooflight eaves 3-D view of large rooflight eaves

Vertical section 1:5 , Large rooflight ridges

typical joint w he re th e provision of a t herm al
break is usually difficult to achieve.A seco nd
line of defe nce against rainwater pe netratio n
is provided by a membrane set immediate ly
ben eath the metal fl ashing rath er th an on th e
inne r joint between pane ls, as is t he case
elsew he re, because t he t hermal insulation
cannot be set wit hin th e drainage cavity
whe re it wo uld both impede t he passage of
t he small amo unts of wate r th at wo uld be
drained in t he intern al cavity, as we ll as lose
its t he rmal insulation prop e rt ies d ue to t he
abso rpt ion of wate r.
A ridge fl ashing can be formed in t he
same way, wit h a metal sheet fi xed to th e
uppe r face of t he GRP pane l frame and a
membrane waterproo fi ng laye r ben eath.Any
rainwater th at penetrates th e o ute r sea l is
drained eit he r at t he e nds of t he ridge o r
down th e joint betw een th e panels th at run
down t he slope of t he roof
Eaves and upstands
W he n a rooflight termin ates in an eaves, an
int e rmediary aluminium extrusion o r fo lded
sheet is used to fo rm t he junction .An o ute r CD 0)
EPDM o r ext ruded silicone sea l is used as an Vertical section 1:5, Small roofiight ridge and eaves
o ute r line of defe nce against rainwater pe ne-
tratio n at th e junction w it h t he GRP roof
panel.Drainage slots formed in t he bottom
of t he aluminium closer piece drain away any
wate r that passes t hrou gh th e o ute r sea l.
These drainage slots also take away any
wate r to th e o utside from th e dr ainage chan-
nels wit hin t he joints bet wee n panels t hat CD 0)
run do wn th e slo pe of th e roof The GRP
panel ben eath th e closer piece th at form s a
vert ical part of t he roofl ight is formed by Vertical section I:5, Small roofiight ridge

MC E 46 7
 a, 0
GRP rcoff hts

CD

Vertical section I:5.Small roofhgtTl upstand at base

CD

0)

Vertical section I :5.Large roofiight monopitch r idge

1
Vertical section I:5. Large roofiight base

setting the panel beh ind a vertical aluminium used to provide a cont inuous edge support
strip that forms a lapped jo int over the top to the GRP panel aswe ll as a weathertight
of the panel,avoiding the possibility of rain- seal.A waterproof membrane is bonded to
water passing through the joint.The gap the outside of the closer piece and is secured
between the aluminium closer and the GRP to the upstand below. typically formed in
3-D view of large rooftight monopitch ridge pane l is sealed with either an EPDM gasket a reinforced concrete.The closer piece is ther-
proprietary tape. or a silicone sealant.A mally insulated and is sealed on its inner face
De tails metal gutter is fixed to the metal closer if with a thin folded aluminium strip that serves
I. Tr.ll1slucent and
insulated GRProof required, but this is usually exposed unlessit both to retain the thermal insulation in place
panel forms part of a fascia such asthe curved and as a vapour barri er The visible width of
2. Thermally broken
aluminium framing eaves used in profiled metal roo fing,for the inner closer strip usually matches that of
3. lnsde example. In smaller roofl ights the rainwater the adjacent aluminium jo ints between the
4, O utside
5. Pressure plate typically runs off onto the surrounding area panels and is visible within the building.The
6. Adjacent masonryl of flat roof. gap between the bottom of a GRP panel and
co-c rete wall
7. Folded metal cover Upstands are formed either with an alu- the upstand beneat h is sealed with a metal
"n p minium closer piece as used at eaves, or w it h flas hing set forward of the vertical face of the
8. EPDM strip
9. Supportingstructure a metal flas hing. where the GRP panel is sup- upstand. This allow s water to drain out of the
10. Co ncrete upstand ported on an additional steel or aluminium vent ilated channels in the joints that form the
supporting frame.A metal closer piece is second line of defence against rainwater pen-

Me E 468
 Vertical section 1:5. Large rooflight internal fold
o /
/
/
/
Vertical section 1:5. Large Vertical section 1:5. Large rooflight
roofiight external fold external fold
et rat ion.A w at erpro of membrane, typically
EPD M, is bonded t o t he bottom edge of t he
met al frame surro unding t he GRP panel and
is sealed against th e w at erpro ofing layer of
t he upst and, providing a co nt inuous seal from
t he surro unding area of flat roo f up t o t he
rooflight. A t herm al break in t he framing of
t he GRP composite panel ensures a cont inui-
ty in t he t hermal insulati on from upst and t o
GRP ro oflight.
Verges
The gable ends of sloping GRP rooflights are
fo rmed w it h an aluminium flashing t hat is
bon ded, or mechanically fixed and sealed, t o
t he met al edge frame t o t he side of t he GRP
panel forming t he slop ing panel, and to t he
t op of t he tri angular-shaped vert ical end
panel.The slo ping panel can exte nd slight ly
3-D view of large roofiight monopitch ridge
3-D view of large roofiight monopitch ridge
fo rw ard of t he vert ical panels t o give a thin
edge t o t he roof. A lte rnat ively t he roof can
t erminate in a sharp edge, w it h a fo lded alu-
minium sheet o r angle closing th e gap
between t he panels.A s w it h ot her panel t o
panel juncti o ns, a wat erproof membrane is
set o n t he under side of t he o ute r met al
flashing as a second line of defence against
rainw ater penetratio n.T he void between t he
panels is filled w it h miner al fibre quilt type
t hermal insulati on, w hich has t he flexibility
required t o fill t he irregular-shaped voids
between GRP panels.A n addit io nal alum ini-
um angle is used at t he juncti on of t he inner
face of th e panels t o provide an addit ional
seal and vapo ur barrier.
Vertical section 1:5. Large rooflight abutment
MCE 469

Vertical section I:5.verge
A but ments
W here a GRP rooflight is set against a vert i-
cal wall in anot her material, such as rein-
fo rced concrete o r concrete block, a met al
flashing is used. Beneath t he metal flashing, a
wate rpro of membrane is bond ed t o th e
edge of t he GRP panel and is fo lded up t he
abutting wa ll t o w hich it is bonded.W here
wall and rooflight are not connecte d struc-
turally,th e membran e usually has an ext ra
curve of material between t he panel and t he
wall t o allow for st ructural movement
between wall and roof T he o ute r line of
defence formed by t he met al flashing is set
onto th e membrane and is fold ed up th e
vert ical face of t he wa ll.A n addit ional met al
flashing is used t o cover t he t op edge of t he
metal flashing w here significant struct ural
movement is expected, t he oute r met al flash-
ing being fixed into a cont inuo us gro ove o r
hori zont al joint line in t he concrete o r
masonry wall t o pro vide a weat hert ight seal
t o th e t op of th e flashing.
MCE 4 70
Vertical section 1:5. Ridge
Sl iding roof panels
T he lightweight nature of GRP rooflight pan-
els is being used increasingly in sliding panels
t hat allow a rooflight t o be opened at differ-
ent t imes of t he year.Typically up t o aro und
40% of panels in a rooflight are opened by
sliding t hem over adjacent fixed panels, in rel-
atively modest elect rically o perate d syste ms.
W hereas larger-scale glass rooflight panels
are difficult and expensive to becom e o pena-
ble due t o t he we ight of t he glass and t he
complexity of th eir seals, GRP roofli ght pan-
els are easier t o slide, w it h seals being provid-
ed by lapped joint s w it h EPDM o r extruded
silicone seals in th e manner of sliding doors.
Opening panels are sealed t o t he levels of air
infiltrati on associate d w it h o pening w indows ,
w hich are usually low er th an th ose of fixed
glazed ro oflights.
Panels can move eit her side to side in th e
manner of sliding doors,o r vert ically in t he
manner of sash w indows .T he same prin ciples
of fixing and wate rproo fing joints are used
regardless of t he directio n of movement of
th e panels.For example, o ne side of th e hori -
zontally sliding panel wo uld have an upst and,
w hile th e oth er three sides wo uld be set into
a slot. In t he slot connect ion, t he oute r
(upper) seal comprises EPD M or silicone-
based gaskets, usually in a 'flipper' section
th at allows th e aluminium fr aming t o slide in
and o ut of th e housing o n o ne side, and t o
slide o n t he ot her two sides.A ny rainw at er
t hat penetrates t he o ute r seal is drained
away in a cavity w it hin t he rooflight frame,
dr aining o ut through holes in th e bottom of
th e aluminium profi le onto th e roof below.
A n inner air seal, eit her po lymer foam based
o r similar t o t he o ute r gasket seals, is provid-
ed o n t he under side of t he GRP panel.These
general pri nciples of sliding panels w ill no
do ubt be develop ed t o suit more complex
geomet ries of o penable panels over th e next
t en years.T he pop -out t ype sliding doo r s t hat
move o utwa rd before sliding, t ogether w it h
hinged panels,w ill make thi s rooflight system
more generally applicable t o large-scale appli-
cat ions of all building ty pes.
 f ~-
A'
\
7
,
~
+
-;
,

-,
~

, _, ""'"c"t
ical section I:5. Eaves Small curved roofl,gtlt layout
- -,
o
<-:s:
Details
I. Translucent and insulatedGRP
I

lLllJ·f
)

i0ruJ
r .,..

roof panel
CD
2. Thermally broken aluminium
framing
J. tosoe
4. Outside
5. Pressureplate
6. Adjacent masonry/concrete wall
7. Folded metal cover strip
8. EPDM strip
9. Supporting structure
10. Ccoc-ete upstand

Key plan. Small curved roof layout

3-D view of small curve d roofhghl 3·0 view of ridge detail

MC E 471
 a, 0
GRP rcoff hts

3-D exploded view of large pitched rooflight

Details
I. Translucent and insulated GRP
roof panel
2. Thermally bro ken aluminium
framing
3 Inside
4 Outs ide
5 Pressure plate
6 Adjacent masonry/concrete wall
7 Folded metal cover strip
8 EPDM strip
9 Support ir<g struct ure
10 Concrete upstand

3-D exploded VIew of large pitched rooflight

o
\
3-D line drawing of large pitched roofbght

3-D exploded view of parapet junction of GRP pitched rooflight

Me E 472
 3-D line drawing of
small roofiight

3-D exploded view of small roofiight

3-D exploded view of small roofiight

3-D exploded view of large

roo fiight w ith monopitch

3-D line drawing of large roofiight with monopitch

3-D exploded view of large roofiight with monopitch

MC E 473
3-D view of top of roof
Note: GRP shown tran slucent for clarity only
W here glass reinforced po lyester (GRP)
rooflights, discussed in t he previo us section
on ro oflights,are made as panels w hich are
join ed t o form t ranslucent ro ofl ight s. Opaque
GRP panels can be made as mo no lithic, self-
suppo rt ing shells, usually made from panel
segme nts w hich are bro ught t o site and bo lt-
ed t ogeth er.Th e segment sizes of GRP shells
are made in sizes w hich are suita ble for trans-
portatio n by road, usually set upright on a
t railer.The shells can t hen be lifted by crane
into place as a co mplete d assembly, w hich
makes th em quite different from ro of st ruc-
tures in ot her mat erials.
Smaller panels and shells
Smaller shells co nsist of a set of segme nte d
panels w hich are bo lted togeth er to form a
roof shell of approximate ly 7.0 metres diam-
ete r. Some variat ions are suppo rte d by an
addit ional fram e, w hile ot hers are self-sup-
porting GRP shells.
GRP panels can be suppo rted by a light
met al frame beneath.The fr ame comprises
steel o r aluminium T-section s w hich are we ld-
ed t oget her t o fo rm a st ruct ure t hat sup-
M C E 4 74
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
ports th e co mplete o ute r skin.Th e frame has
curved members t hat radiat e fro m t he cen-
tre at th e t op t o th e edge and from th e cen-
tre at t he lowest po int of t he st ruct ure, back
t o t he perimeter.T he radiatin g 'spokes' of t he
w heel are held in place by T-secti ons t hat, in
plan, form co ncent ric circles.T his 'bicycle
w heel' form is suppo r te d near its perim eter
by a met al ring beam t hat is set immediat ely
above t he glazing beneath t he GRP roofThe
ring beam is suppo rte d by posts t hat are
fixed t o th e roof deck beneath.
T he metal frame is clad in pr efabricated
GRP panels w hich are bo lted t o t he suppo rt
fr ame on th eir intern al face in order to avoid
visible fixings. Panels are made w it h an o ute r
skin of GRP aro und Smm t hick, w it h an over-
all panel depth of aro und 4Smm for th e pan-
els sizes shown of 3S00mm long and
1800mm w ide.Th e GRP panels are st iffened
by concent ric ribs, aro und 120m m w ide.T he
lo ng edges of panels do not require thi ck ribs,
and th ese are aro und I Omm t hick. Panels
are secured w it h bo lts w hich are fixed
through th e metal suppo rt fr ame into rein-
forcing ribs at t he edges of t he GRP panels.
D etails
I , GRP shell panel
2. GRP oute r cladding panel
3. GRP structural rib
4. GRP thin panel with honeycomb core
5. Mild steel or aluminium frame
6. Mild steel or aluminium truss
7, GRP fiashing
8. Waterproofing membrane
9. Metal fixing bracket
10, Thermal insulation
I I . Glazing
12. Concrete base
Jo int s between GRP panels are form ed by
butting panels up t o o ne anot her and sealing
th e gap between th e panels.The seal is
form ed in a co nt inuous ste p profile o n t he
long edges of each panel t hat creates a co n-
tinu ous groove at t he joint betw een panels.
T he groove is filled w it h a laminati on of glass
fibr e and resin to fill th e gro ove to th e level
of t he t op of t he panels.T he exte rnal face of
t he GRP is t hen gro und smoot h, usually by a
hand-held grinder.t o achieve a uniform,
smoot h surface th at co nceals th e joint lines.
Finally,a paint finish is applied, usually as a
spray, t o give a smoot h and reflective finish.
W here pigment s are applied t o th e t op coat
o r 'gel' coat in t he factory,a more limit ed
range of colours is available.T hermal insula-
tion is set o n th e under side of th e shell, being
bo nded t o t he inner face of t he GRP panels
in o rder t o achieve co nt inuity of insulation .
Typical examples use glass fibre ribs t hat
form part of th e shell t o pro vide integral
struct ural sta bility t o th e shell. Panels are gen-
erally aro und 200mm deep, and are bo lted
together t o form a self-suppo rt ing GRP shell.
Ribs are made in solid GRP in o rder t o allow
 Horizontal and vertical sections I :SO. GRP shell roof

3-D section through roof

assembly
M C E_ 475
 ~0 0) 0)
\ nQ),±t] [UJ' n1
11 ::0 q:j fl CD -

11::0 q:j i!!_ CD

-e- .1J ®~
·- - 0 [m ~ L0)~

Vertical sections I : I o. Panel to panel junction 3-D view showing GRP shell roof internal structure

~<D .Jl2c=
~ n
=;1
, r-

CD ~. CD
~.
r;

Vertical section I: I O. Perimeter

Vertical sections 1·5 Panel to panel junction

th em t o be bolted t ogether easily Panels are Th e underside of th e shell is mostly set

\ n01JEf '~" " ,,0=

=CD~ jo ined and sealed o n th eir exte rnal face. int ernally behind curve d glazed units inst alled

,
Th ere are various methods for forming th e near th e perim eter of th e roof Th e intern al
,tn ( « J
:: t op of th e roof W here panel segme nt s con- part of th e shell on its under side, has th e
. :r ~ :1 '.~
I :r II verge at th e t op of th e shell, a separat e cen- same panels w it h th e same finish,but w it ho ut
CD '-' .., ' - '
"

.':
tre panel is used t o create a smoot h exte rnal any th erm al insulation, w hich is ty pically set
-
finish.A cent ral exte rnal panel avoids th e dif- around th e o ute r edge of th e shell in order
ficulty of brin ging up t o 16 panels t ogether at to keep t emp eratures w it hin th e void close
D etai ls
a single point w hich wo uld make it difficult t o t o th ose w it hin th e building. Close t o th e
I. GRP shell panel
2. GRP outer cladding panel achieve a smoot h transition from o ne side of edge of th e shell, on th e under side, th e joint
3. GRP structural rib
th e shell t o th e ot her. In th e example shown, between th e t op panel w hich curves aro und
4. GRP thin panel with
honeycomb core a shadow groove is set aro und th e jo int th e edges, and th e adjacent panel under-
5. Mild steel or aluminium
between th e cent ral panel and th e segments neath, has a groove formed along th e joint t o
frame
6. Mild steel or aluminium in order t o avoid any misalignment between serve as a dr ip.W indblow n rain w ill still be
truss
segmente d panels from being visible.Th e pushed along th e underside of th e soffit
7. GRP flashing
8. W aterproofing membrane per imeter jo int of th e panel can be filled and panel, but th e drip reduces th e amo unt of
9. Metal fixing bracket
sealed using th e meth od describ ed earlier, wate r t hat run s dow n t o th e glazing below.
10. Thermal insulation
II . Glazing w it h addit ional grinding required o n site t o Th e curve d glazed units beneath th e roo f
I 2. Concrete base
ensure a smoot h finish. shell are set int o a recessed slot at th e panel

MC E 4 76
3-D view of underside of GRP roof assembly fragment and
connection to glazed wall
3-D fragment of GRP shell showing intern al st r uct ure
joint.The recess avoids th e possibility of a
weakne ss in the seal t hat cou ld result in using
a butt joi nt between shell and glazing. The
edge of the double glazed unit is sealed com -
pletely around the junction w it h the shell.
typically w it h silicone.
Both the cladding panels and the self-
supporting shell are made using the same
manufacturi ng process. Panels are made in a
mo uld. usually from a single segmented panel
type to form a co mplete rooflight. Moulds
are usually made from plywood t o create th e
shape and are th en finished in G RP t o create
th e negative shape of t he panel being
formed. GRP panels are fabricat ed by first
applying a release agent t o th e mou ld t o
allow th e finished panel t o be removed easily.
then the rmose tting polyester resins are
applied t o th e face of the mo uld, w it h flexi ble
fibreglass mat being laid int o t he resin, usually
w it h rolle rs.T he proce ss of fabricat ing GRP
panels is very labour-intensive. but requires
no expe nsive equipment. making panel pro-
duction a craft-based te chnique rather t han
an industrial proce ss.When th e panels are
released from the mould the y are trimmed
along th eir edges and ground smooth w here
necessary.A n alternative met hod is t o apply
a mixture of resin and glass fibre particles as
a spray direct ly into th e mou ld.The mixt ure
is applied to a thi ckness of 3mm t o Smm
depend ing o n th e panel size requ ired.
Larger panels and shells
In many cases a hemispherical dom e of 20
metre diameter is co nstr ucted as a self-sup-
port ing shell.The GRP shell can eit her be
3-D fragment showing GRP shell and mi ld steel
made from GRP on ly.or can use add it ional structural frame fixing details at to p of glazed wall
MC E 477
 Vertical section 1:20.
Junction at base

D etails
I. GRP shell panel
2. GRP outer cladding panel
3. GRP structural rib
4. GRPthin panel with honeycomb core
5. Mild steel or aluminium frame
6. Mild steel or aluminiumtruss
7. GRPflashing
8. Waterproofing membrane 3-D fragment of basejunction
9. Metal fixing bracket on domed GRP roof with
10. Thermal insulation external exposed truss structure
II . Glazing
I 2. Concrete base

struct ural sta bility prov ided by an exte rnal
steel o r aluminium truss.Th e truss might be
used t o suppo rt a decorative o ute r screen or
a lighti ng syste m t o illuminat e translucent
panels, for exam ple.
In many instances,a loadbearing inner
shell, w it h int egral GRP st ruct ural ribs, is clad
w it h GRP panels th at form a weat hert ight
oute r screen.T he inner shell serves as th e
loadbearing struct ure, it being easier to install
panels w it h a pre-finished int ernal surface
since no furth er access is required for finishes
wo rk o n its intern al face. Consequent ly,no
scaffo lding o r access platforms are required
inside th e building t o install and finish th e
roofl ight.Th e o ute r skin of GRP cladding pan-
els is fixed using a lightweight crane th at lifts
th e o ute r segmente d panels into position .
The co nst ruct ion method can, of course, be
reversed so th at an o ute r shell w it h a facto-
ry-applied finish can be installed as a pre-
assembled item th at requires no furth er
wo rk exte rnally. GRP cladding panels can
th en be applied t o th e int ern al face of th e
shell from inside th e building, but thi s is th e
more difficult const r uction meth od.
Th e struct ural shell is usually assembled
by br inging th e panel segme nts t o site indi-
vidually, due t o th eir size.Th e panels are th en
bolted t ogeth er o n site, o n th e gro und.Th e
jo ints are th en form ed on th e finished face,
eit her intern al o r exte rnal. Finally,th e shell is
lifted by crane int o position o n th e roof as a
complete item.The flexibility and lightweight
nature of GRP makes th is possible, w hich
avoid s th e need for scaffo lding and access
equipment at roof level.A n alte rnat ive meth -
od, w here no space is available on site for
assembly, is t o create a platform beneath th e
shell inside th e building, w here th e ro of can
be assembled in place. How ever. th e sanding
and grinding o perat ions requ ired t o make
th e inner face of th e shell smoot h and co n-
tinu ous,and ready for painting, usually require
th e in-sit u co nstructe d solut ion t o be in an
enclosed space t o avoid GRP dust particl es
from spreading aro und th e building.
Th e inner shell is generally made w it h an
inner wall around 15mm thi ck made as a thin
composite panel.The panel is form ed w it h
t wo o ute r skins of GRP. 2 -3mm thi ck, w it h an
inner core made from po lypropylene-based
honeycomb sheet.T he hon eycomb core pro -
vides a rigid reinforcing layer t o th e o ute r
skins of GRP th at give th em a flat, smoot h
appearance.Th is inner skin is reinforced by
struct ural ribs th at form an int egral part of
th e panel. and are set hori zont ally at approxi-
mately I OOOmm cent res.Th ey are also made
from GRP. filled w it h mineral fibre insulation
o r inject ed foam t o provide th erm al insula-
tion, w it h overall sect ion sizes of around
200mm w ide x 300mm deep.Th e horizontal-
ly-set ribs span a maximum of aro und
450mm at th e base of th e shell, deceasing in
size unt il th ey reach th e t op of th e shell. GRP
ribs are also set vertically o n th e edges of th e
panels, filled w it h th erm al insulati o n but made
as solid GRP w here panels are fixed t ogeth er
w it h bolted co nnect ions.
Th e shell is th erm ally insulat ed w it h min-
erai fibre o r foam-based insulation set in th e
voids between th e ribs.Th e o ute r face of th e
shell is covered w it h a GRP skin th at pro vides
an oute r seal against rainwater penetration.
Th e layer is given a further protect ion and
visual screen pro vided by o ute r cladding pan-
els. Like th e inner shell,th e o ute r cladding is

MC E 4 78
 3-D fragment of domed GRP roof with external
exposed truss structure

\=

Hor izontaland vertical

sectoos 1:200, GRP
domed roof with 3-D VIew showing fragment of domed roof formed
external steel truss using GRPshell panels andexternal exposed truss
structure structure

MC E 47 9
 astic Roo sO
GRP panels and shells

,*,l
;%
Horizontal section I: I0, Panel to panel Vert ical section I: I0,Junction between shell panels Vert ical section I: I0,Junction between shell panels
junction and external supporting trus s and external supporting truss

-3--D view showing-fixing method "for t -RP roof panel"formed with 3-D view showing fixing method for GRP roof panel formed with
steel structure steel structure

D etails made from 15mm t hick compo site panels, t he inner shell are reduced t o 20mm t hick
I, GRP shell panel st iffened by GRP ribs aro und IOOmm deep x ribs,A metal plate is set between t he adja-
2, GRP outer cladding panel
3. GRP structural rib 200mm w ide,These o ute r segme nte d panels cent panels,w it h th e joint being sealed w it h
4, GRPthin panel with honeycomb core are bond ed t o th e inner shell w ith resins o r silicone,A n o ute r skin of GRP cladding panels
5, Mild steel or aluminium frame
6, Mild steel or aluminium t russ w it h silicone, and sealed w it h silico ne at th eir can provide an o ute r line of defence against
7, GRP fiashing joints t o fo rm a co nt inuo us oute r skin, Small rainw ater penetrati on , Panels are mechanical-
8, W at erproofing membrane
9, Metal fixing bracket amo unts of rainw ater th at might penetrate ly fixed to a co nt inuous metal plat e form ing
10, Thermal insulation th e o ute r line of defence are drained away part of th e truss,t he panel being sealed
II , Glazing
I 2, Concrete base down th e oute r GRP skin of th e inner shell. against th e plat e w ith silicone seal.
W hile it is easier t o provide a co nt inuous In many cases th e jun ction at th e base of
smoot h finish in a smaller shell, in larger th e shell is treat ed as an upst and.Th is allows
examples it is more difficult t o avoid visible th e shell t o be set a minimum of 150mm
surface irregulariti es o n larger shells, For thi s above th e adjacent roo f level w it ho ut t he
reason , visible jo int s are usually preferred in need fo r complex junctions between roof
larger-scale GRP shells, slab and shell.The base of t he shell has a co n-
In generic exam ples, an additional metal t inuo us GRP flashing bon ded w hich also
tru ss in either mild steel or aluminium is fixed serves as a fixing plate o nto th e co ncrete
Horizontal section I : I0, Panel to panel junction
at th e panel joints t o pro vide st ruct ural st a- upst and.Th e base plate is set on levelling
bilit y.The GRP ribs w it hin th e panels forming shims to take up th e co nst ruct ion to lerances

MC E 480
 ~I_/. I
~1

3-D view showing stripped-back GRP panel-clad dome

/
Horizon tal and vertica l sections 3-D view showing base junction of dome formed with
GRP shell panels and external steel truss

in th e height of th e concrete upstand.Th e

wate rproo fing memb rane of t he adjacent
roof is t aken up to t he t op of t he upst and
and is lapped under th e GRP fiashing.A n
addit ional wate rproo fing memb rane may
exte nd t o th e inside of th e inner shell and up
t he int ernal face of t he shell w here it is pro-
t ected by anoth er GRP cover strip, concealed
from view by int ernal finishes.

3-D view showing hemispherical dome formed with GRP shell panels and external steel structural truss

MC E 48 1
 ~..! OJ ~t:1' to

t!,,~~ 1!lllil4~, ~TIl.1 ~:!.l!~l~1

0);7'~
-- .. ..-
-
..?~

Details
I. GAP shell panel
.- - 2.GAP outer cladd,ng panel
3.GAPstr\.ICt\nlrtl
4.GRP thlll panel WIth hclne)'con"C core
S.Mold steel or ~ frame
6. Mold steel or a1um,nun truss
7. GAPRash;ng
8.vvaterprcofing membrane
9,Metal fixing bracket
10. Thennal in$uIabOn
Il .Glazng
3-0 exploded _ sl10wKlg fra~ of GRP sheI 12. Ccocete base
~lIed roof wrth ,ntemal steel st.n..oet\n

3-D view show,ng fragment of GAP shell parelled roof with 'ntemal stee l structure

MCE_ 482
3-0 exploded VIeW sI'1<.1wIng outer edge of frawnent of GRP
sheI paneled roof wrth onternal steel struet...-e

3-D e><pIoded voewshowng as~ of hemispherical

3-0 exploded view shcming base ccootce of domed dome formed WIth GRP shell panels and external steel
roof rorrned using GRP shell panels and steel tM$ struetI.ral truss

MC E_ 483
FABRIC ROOFS
(I) ETFE cushions
Cushions

Ar w""'"
The matenal
Fabrication
Durability
Performance in fire
(2) Sin gle m embrane: Cone-shaped roof
Fabric roof principles
Fabric types
Comparison of types
Thermal insulation
Acoustics
Durability
Performance in fire
Co ndensation
(3) Single membrane: Barrel-shaped roof
Membrane roof fabricatio n
Membrane roof edges
Suspension points
Membrane folds

MCE 465
3-D view of junction between ETFEcushions

Details
I. ETFE cushion
2. Extruded aluminium
clamping plate
3. Extruded aluminium
retaining profile
4. Plastic edge bead to
fabric membrane
5. Support ing structure
6. Plast ic air supply tube
7. Main air supply tube
8. Insulated metal lined gutter
9. Metal flashing
IO. ETFE cushion with
contours shown for clarity

3-D overview of inregular shaped ETFE cushions used in facade assembly

Fabrics used as ro of membranes have th e A lt hough large scale self-suppo rt ing

advantage of being light in we ight. stro ng in
t ension and durable, and have th e ability t o
be cut t o different shapes and joined t ogeth-
er eco nomically, w hich is difficult t o achieve
so easily w it h metal and is very expensive t o
achieve w it h curved glass. Roof membrane
fabrics are used in t ension struct ures, eit her
by stretc hing th e mater ial, o r 'prestressing'
th e membrane, between st ruct ural suppo rts
o r,alte rnat ively, by suppo r t ing th e mater ial
pneum atically in inflated struct ures.The use
((
of fabric membranes in pr estressed ro ofs is
discussed in th e next two sections o n single
Isometric view of junction of clamping plates layer fabric membranes.This section co nsid-
ers ETFE cushions, also called 'p illow s' o r
'foi ls', w hich are th e most commo n applica-
t ion of inflat able fabric ro ofs.
inflat able roof struct ures are in use, particu-
larly for covering spo rts stadiums, th ey
remain st r ucturally stable o nly w hile air is
being supplied t o th e st r ucture. If th e air sup-
ply is int errupt ed, th e co mplete roof struc-
ture deflates. In smaller scale applicat ions,air-
filled cushions remain in place w hen th e air
supply fails or is switc hed off w hen used as
non -Ioadbearing panels.Thi s ty pe, w here
ET FE sheet is used t o make panels formed as
air-filled 'cushions', pro vides highly transpar-
ent. lightweight and resilient ro ofs th at have
th erm al insulati o n values similar t o th ose of
doubl e glazed units.
C ushions
ET FE cushions usually co nsist of a minimum
of two layer s of ET FE sheet w hich are set

MC E 486
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011

----
Vertical section 1:5.Junction of clamping plates
3-D view of junction of clamping plates
back t o back t o form a flat panel and are
sealed at th e edges.Th e void w it hin th e cush-
ion-shaped panel is inflated w it h air t o a pr es-
sure of between 200 Pascals and 700 Pascals,
depend ing o n th e cushion size and th e manu-
facturer 's propri etary system, t o provide
struct ural sta bility t o th e panel.Th e increased
air pressure st ret ches, o r 'prestresses', th e
oute r membranes, giving ETFE cushions th eir
characte ristic curve d shape.Th e cushio ns are
held in place by clamps th at form a frame
aro und th e cushions in th e manner of glazed
ro oflights.Th e clamping frames are th en sup-
ported by a mild steel st ruct ure form ed t ypi-
cally as box sect ions o r tub es.Cushion s ty pi-
cally have three layers th at form two cham-
ber s.The two chambers are linked by a ho le
formed in th e middle (flat) membrane in
order t o allow air t o pass t o both chambers
----
.... ~-_._._---
Vertical section I :5. Clamping plate assembly
----
1------------);'
-
l~~l < - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
(( ))
Vertical section I: I O.Junction of clamping plates
from a single air supply,and t o ensure th at
th e air pr essure in both chambers remains
equal.T his three layer cushion pro vides a
U-value of aro und 2.0 W/m2 K, w hich is simi-
lar t o a doub le glazed unit used in glass roofs.
Cu shion s made from two layers of ET FE
sheet are also used but th e th erm al insulati o n
perform ance is reduced co nside rably.T her-
mal insulati o n performance is reduced at th e
perim eter of th e cushio n w here its thi ckness
is reduced t o a th in edge. Som e cushions
have th erm al br eaks at th e panel perim eter
t o parti ally overco me thi s loss of th erm al
insulati on.Th e overall U-value can be
reduced by forming a w ide gap between th e
t w o oute r membranes, t o provide a consist -
ent ly w ide air space w it hin th e cushion.T her-
mal insulati o n performance can also be 3-D cutaway view of junction between ETFE facade
and ground
improved by increasing th e numb er of air
MC E 48 7
Fal5ric Roofs 0 I
ETFE cushions

Di
""JI/I\IIII\II\(
o
)~
- 0
Horizontal section I : IO. Clamping plate with air supply pipes
®

Verti cal section 1:5.Junction with gutter

0--~~~==:;,8 .""O:---------------j

3-D detail of cushion to cushion air supply

3-D detail of junction between ETFEcushions
chambers w it hin th e cushion by adding fur-
t her layers of ETFE membrane.
Ai r supply
A ir is supplied t o cushions from rubb er pipes
o r flexible plastic pipes th at are co nnected t o
t he underside of t he cushion near t he clamp-
ing assembly Pipes are usually of aro und
25mm diameter. and are co nnected t o a larg-
er pipe th at supplies th e air t o all th e cush-
ion s eit her side of a single struct ural suppo rt.
T his main pipe is also usually made from plas-
ti c and can be co ncealed w it hin th e suppo rt-
ing st ruct ure, being o nly up t o a diameter of
aro und 60mm.The air supply w hich maintains
t he air pr essure w it hin t he cushions at a co n-
stant level. is supplied by electrically pow ered
fans w it h air filter s (to avoid th e passage of
dust) , as used in mechanical vent ilat ion sys-
t ems w it hin buildings.The humidity level of
t he air is usually co nt ro lled t o avoid t he pos-
sibility of condensat ion forming w it hin th e
cushions. Once th e ETFE cushions have been
inflated, air is supplied t o th e cushions for
o nly aro und 5- 10 minutes per hour t o com-
pensate for loss of air pressure from leaks
from cushions o r from air supply pipes.
If air pressure w it hin t he cushion is lost as
a result of damage to one of t he o ute r mem-
branes o r from loss of air pressure in th e
supply pipe, t he cushion deflates t o it s flat -
t ened shape. As w ind pressures are applied
t o t he exte rnal face of t he cushion, t he o ute r
skin w ill deflect eit her inw ards o r outwards
as a result of t he positive o r negative pres-
sures.T his does not usually cause damage t o
th e cushions before th e air supply is restored.
Som e manufactu rer s' systems have o ne-way

MC E 488
 1
Vertical section I 10.junction at base
3-D detail of junction with adjacent roof
valves to prevent loss of air pr essure from
th e cushions back t o th e supply pipes.
Condensation o n th e underside, or inter-
nal face, of ETFE cushio ns is avo ided by
ensuring th at vent ilat ion levels w it hin th e
building are sufficient ly high t o avoid thi s
occurring, and th at levels of relative hum idity
are suita bly cont ro lled.W here condensat ion
is st ill a risk, co ndensat ion channels are fixed
to th e under side of th e cushion clamping
assembly,similar to that used for glazed ro of-
light s. In most cases th e t emp erature of th e
air supplied t o th e cushions is similar t o th at
of th e int ernal space immediat ely below th e
roof, so condensat ion do es not usually occur
on th e under side of th e cushion.
3-D detail of junction between ETFE facade and ground
1---- ®-------::3"":~-r====;.......
CD
Vertical section I:I O. junction with adjacent roof
f-----0
------
Vert ical section I:IO. junction of clamping plates
The material
ETFE (et hylene-tet ra-flouro -et hylene) is a
polym er similar t o PTFE (markete d asTeflon)
w hich is made by ext r usion as a sheet mate- D etails
rial.Thicknesses vary but 0.2mm is a commo n I. ETFE cushion
2. Extruded aluminium clamping plate
thi ckness of material for ETFE cushions, 3. Extruded aluminium retaining profile
allow ing th em t o be very light in we ight at 4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane
5. Supporting structure
aro und 350g/m2 for thi s thi ckness of sheet. 6. Plastic air supply tube
H eavier gauge sheet at O.5mm th ickness 7. Main air supply tube
8. Insulated metal lined gutter
we ighs aro und I 000g/m 2 . Inner layer s of 9. Metal flashing
ETFE sheet th at pro vide separate chambers 10. ETFE cushion with contou rs shown for clarity
w it hin th e cushion are ofte n made from
0.1 mm thi ck sheet.T he materi al is also used
for it s high level of transparency,w it h 95%
light transmission, and its durability w hen
compared to ot her fabric materials, w it h a life
expecta ncy of 25-35 years, based on visual
crite ria. In o rder t o pro vide translucent areas
of ro of (o r facade) using th e same mater ial, a
MC E 489
 CD

Vertical section I: I O. Opening smoke vent s with insulated gutter

D eta ils 5. Supporting

I. ETFE cushion structu re
2. Extruded alu- 6. Plastic air supply
minium clamping tube
plate 7. Main air supply
3. Extr uded alu- tube
minium reta ining 8. Insulat ed meta l
profile lined gutte r
4. Plastic edge 9. Meta l flashing
bead to fabric 10. ETFE cushion
membrane with contours
shown fo r clarity

3-D overv iew of ETFE roof system

w hite co loured translucent sheet is manufac-
tured w hich provides aro und 40% light trans-
mission . ETFE does not provide a barri er t o
th e passage of UV light, making it ideal for
use in buildings w here exte nsive planting is
displayed, th ough th e translucent w hite sheet
has great ly reduced UV light transmission .
Solar shading can be prov ided by a patt ern of
dots pr inted o nto th e surface of th e ETFE
cushion, w it h a refiective silver co lour being a
popu lar cho ice, th ough other colours and
patt ern s can be develop ed for individual
proj ects.Th e printe d dots o n clear ET FE
sheet reduce th e light transmission t o aro und
50-60%. but t his can be increased furth er by
printing dots on two faces of th e air-filled
cushion in areas of th e roof w here more
shading is required.Th e amo unt of solar
shading provided can be varied by allowing
th e middle layer t o move as a result of
changing th e air pr essure w it hin t he cushion.
The middle layer moves eit her o utwa rds o r
inw ards t o increase th e over lap of th e print-
ed screen of dots th at has th e effect of vary-
ing t he amo unt of solar shading pro vided.
The sound absorpt ion of ET FE cushions
is low, so th at sound travels easily th rou gh
th e mater ial.W hile th is can be an advantage
in noisy intern al enviro nme nts, it can be an
inappropriate material if exte rnal noise is able
t o travel through th e roof t o int ern al spaces
w here a quiet enviro nme nt is required. Cush-
io ns can also pr odu ce a drumm ing effect
during rain resulting from th e use of a thin
st retc hed, membrane mater ial.
Fabri cati on
ET FE cushions are usually fabricated in th e
workshop but can be assembled on site t o
suit project condit ions.Th e mat er ial is manu-
factured in ro lls of considerable length but of
a w idt h of around 1.5 metres.For thi s reason,
ET FE cushions are ofte n made w it h spans in
w idt hs of aro und 3.0 metres t o 4.0 metres
between clamped frames, in lengths up t o
between 15 - 30 metres, but lengths up t o
60 metres have been used. Larger cushions
are made by we lding sheet t ogeth er in th e
workshop t o form w ider sheets t o fo rm
cushions th at vary from th e rectangular form
create d from a standard w idt h of ET FE sheet.
Cu shion s up t o aro und 7.0 x 7.0 metres have
been made in a variety of shapes from circles
t o hexagons using a hot we lded pro cess
undertaken in th e wo rksho p.The we lded
seams are visible but are not visually st riking
w hen viewed from aro und th e building.The
w idt h, o r span, of th e cushion has an effect
on it s depth , w here th e depth is ty pically
around 1/5 t he span of th e cushion. Larger
cushions somet imes use a net of co nnecte d
cables t o provide addit ional restraint.
The cushions have an edge bead, ty pically
in plast ic, w hich is used t o retain th e panel in
its suppo rt ing frame.The cushion is set into a
clamping frame, usually made from extruded
aluminium, th at hold s th e panel in place by
clipping it into an aluminium profile, th en
ho lding it in place w it h an aluminium pr es-
sure plate th at clamps th e edges.Th e com-
plete assembly usually perform s in a similar
way t o th e framing used for glazed ro ofs,
w it h a dr ained and vent ilate d inner chamber
th at serves as a second line of defence
against rainw ater penetration .A ny rainw ater
th at passes th rou gh th e o ute r clamp ing plate
is drained away in grooves formed adjacent
t o th e edges of th e ET FE cushions,th e wate r

MC E 490
 \
>(
X X
\
\
"i
X
-@ X
"'
Isometric view of junction of clamping plates lscmetn c view of junction of ETFE cushion assembly

tscroetr c view of junction wrth gutter

3·0 overVIew of ETFE roof system

3-D view of joint between ETFE cushions showing aIr supply pipes

3-D view of junction with adjacent roof Isometn c view of junction of clamping plates

MC E 49 1
Fa6ric Roo sOl
ETFE cushions
Vert ical section I : IO.Junction of clamping plates
C r0 J
Vertical sect io n 1:5.Junction of clamping plates 3-D view of joint between ETFE cushions showing air supply pipes
being drained back t o th e o utside of th e ro of
T he clamping assembly is ty pically aro und
I OOmm w ide, w hich is w ider t han th at used
for glazed roofs, but less framing is required
t han commo nly used o n glazed roofs.
Th e complete ET FE cushion assembly is
suppo r te d by a struct ural frame beneath,
w it h mild steel, aluminium and laminat ed tim -
ber all being used t o suit th e design.T he
clamped framing assem bly is fixed t o mild
stee l tub es by fixing t he framing onto T-sec-
t ions w hich are we lded in short lengths t o
G) th e mild steel tub e.The aluminium framing
/
o spans between t he T-section suppo rt s t o pro -
vide a visual separat io n between th e ETFE
cushions and th e suppo rting st eelwo rk.
3-D exploded view of joint between ETFE
cushions showing air supply pipes
MC E 492
o CD
Du rability
Th e t oughness of ET FE sheet is com bined
w it h a high resistance to t ear. D amage by
sharp o bjects puncturin g an o ute r membrane
does not spread easily into a larger t ear.
Birds can puncture th e o ute r membrane, but
t hey have great difficulty in coming t o rest o n
t he ro of it self. except o n th e clamping plates,
w here w ire is somet imes fitt ed t o avoid pr o-
viding any spaces for birds t o stand.T he
materi al has fairly high resistance t o surface
fading from UV light w here t here is a gradual
loss of surface reflecti vity. ETFE sheet is also
highly resistant t o attac k from chemicals and
from airbo rne pollution in urb an areas. It s
low level of surface frict ion ensures t hat
cushions do not hold dirt and dust easily,
making cushion roofs relatively easy t o main-
t ain. ET FE roofs are usually cleaned as a result
 (( ))
Vertical section I :5,Junction with adjacent roof

f
\ \' \

"

Vertical section 1:5,Junction of clamping plates 3-D view of junction with adjacent roof

of rain in t emp erate climate s,t hough access burnin g fragment s w ill fall below durin g a fire,
fo r maintenance is required, usually provided Since th e mater ial melts rather th an burn s, D etails
I, ETFE cushion
by w alking along t he exte rnal clamping plates w it h most of th e burnt material being carried 2, Extruded alu-
minium clamping
w it h cable assista nce or from exte rnal st r uc- away in th e rising hot air of a fire, ET FE sheet
plate
ture, Roofs are designed so as t o ensure th at melts at aro und 275 °C, form ing holes in th e 3. Extruded alu-
minium retaining
rainw ater drains easily from th e roo f Gutters fabr ic w hich allows th e heat and smo ke of a
profile
are int roduced o n lo ng span roofs betw een fire t o escape, However. so me roofs still 4, Plastic edge
bead to fabric
set s of clamp ing plat es,C ushions are repaired require sm oke vents, since thi s may not
membrane
by th e use of ET FEt ape, w hich is visible, o r always occur during a fire if t he smo ke and 5, Supporting
structure
by co mplete replacement of th e panel, heat is being generated in an area away from
6, Plastic air supply
depend ing largely o n t he visual requirement s t he roof, w here th e ET FE cushions are not tube
7, Main air supply
of t he roof design, affecte d by t he fire,T he small amo unt s of
tube
materi al used in ETFE cushions, w it h an aver- 8, Insulated metal
lined gutter
Perfo rm ance in fire age w all th ickness of Q, 2mm, result in littl e
9, Metal fiashing
A major co ncern in th e use of po lym er materi al being deposited durin g a fire, 10, ETFE cushion
with contours
materials for single layer and mu ltiple layer
shown for clarity
fabric ro ofs is th eir performance in fire, ETFE
sheet is not easily inflammable and w ill self-
extinguish qu ickly under direct flame, Few

MC E 493
- - -Fa6 " Roofs Or-- - - - .....
- - ;ETFE cushions

3·0 detail of junct io n betw een ETFE cushions 3-D exploded view of junction between ETFE cush ions

Details
I. ETF E cushion
2. Extrude d alu-
minium clamping
plate
3. Extruded alu-
min ium retain ing
profile
4. Plastic edge
bead to fabric
• membrane
S. Supporting
structure
• 6. Plastic air supply
rub,
7. Main air s.upply
rub,
8. Insulated metal
lined gutte r
9. Metal flashing
• 10, ETFE cush ion
w rth contours
shown for clarity

3-D exploded view of irregular shaped ETFE cushions used in facade assembly

3-D detail of junction between ETFE cush ions and ground 3-D exploded view of junction between mE cushions and ground

MC E 494
 ----

3-D exploded view of ETFE roof system

3·0 exploded view of ETFE roof system

3·0 view of ETFE roof joining concretestructure

3-D view of ETFE roof joiningconcrete structure

1
Exploded axonornetric view of ETFE roof joiningconcrete structure 3-D exploded view of ETFE roof joiningcooc-ete structure

MC E 495
 3-D overv iew of co ne shape roof with tension cable support !

Isometric view of cone-shaped fabric roof

The fo llowing two sect ions discuss th e two porting struct ure, w hich is typically a mixture
most co mmo n shapes used for single laye r of mild steel tubes and sta inless stee l cables.
roo fs:th e 'con e-shaped ' roo f and th e 'barre l-

Details shape d' ro of A third type , based o n th e Fabric roof principles

I. Fabric membrane panel shape of a hyperb o lic paraboloid, uses th e Early exa mples of fabric ro of st ruct ures of 30
2. Supporting mild steel structure
3. Extruded aluminium same principles as th ose for th ese two types years ago we re based , in part, o n o bse rva-
retaining profile and is co nst ructe d using the same pr inciples t ion s of how forces act in soa p bubb les,
4. Plastic edge bead to fabric
membrane and same co nst ruct ion details. For th at rea- w he re th e soap film wall of th e bubble t akes
5. Extruded aluminium clamp so n it s spec ific geo met ry is not discussed up a minimum of surface area as a result of
assembly
6. Stainless steel cable here, but th e co nstruct ion principles th e surface ten sion of th e wa ll of th e bubble
7. Stainless steel connector described here can be applied eq uallyt o being eve nly dist ribute d. In a fabric roof th e
8. Membrane skirt
9. Gutter formed by membrane hyperb o lic parabo lo id forms. membrane is st ructurally mod e lled so th at
skirt The advantages of single membrane fab- t he resultant form deve lop ed between archi-
10. Mild steel ring support
I I. Fabric cover to close ring ric ro ofs are th e ir smoot h curve s, typically tect and st ruct ural e nginee r distr ibutes th e
w it h different and thin , sharp edges, in o ppo - ten sile forces w it hin th e membrane wit ho ut
site d irect ion s, th at pro vide translucent roofs ove r-te nsioning so me parts and under-ten -
th at allow diffused daylight t o pass throu gh sioning ot he r parts of th e membrane , w it h
th em .They use th eir curvat ure as a meth od th e resulting design resisting all load co mbina-
of ten sion ing th e membrane against a sup- t ion s in the ir d iffe rent d irect ion s.Th is wo rk is
MC E 496
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
 Horizontal section I :400. Cone-shaped fabric roof
3-D view of underside of cone shape roof
usually developed in th e form of a computer
model, eit her by specialist st r uctural consult -
ants or by manufacturer s as part of t he
design developm ent pro cess.Th e minim al
surface form must also be suitable for drain-
ing away rainw ater,w hich form s anot her
aspect of design develop ment, t ogether w it h
th e treatment of interfaces w it h adjacent
areas of roof and exte rnal wa ll.T he resulting
form is designed t o keep all parts of th e fab-
ric membrane in t ension, not just from th e
suppo rt ing st r uct ure but fro m imposed loads,
mainly w ind loads.W ind pressures are resist-
ed by re-distributing t he forces w it hin t he
fabric membran e.A ny areas of th e fabric roof
t hat go int o compression as a result of slack-
ness in t he membrane reveal t hemselves as
creases in th e material.
Both t he cone-shaped example in t his
Tensile roof shape types:
CD Cone
CD Saddle
G) Arch
G)Wave
sect ion and th e barrel-shaped example of
t he fo llow ing sect ion make use of an int ern al
stee l structure t hat suppo r ts part of t he
membrane, t o t ension it in some areas, w it h
roof edges w here th e mater ial is held and
t ension ed, eit her at po ints o r w it h cont inuous
clamp ed fixings similar t o t hose described in ;:..." /.
><
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•.
. .-
th e previou s section on ET FE cushio ns. Gen- ... < .»; ><
.x
erally speaking, t he high po ints of t he sup-
porting struct ure t ake up th e down loads
from th e membrane and impo sed loads
(mainly w ind loads) and t he low er po ints at
th e edges t ake up th e effect of w ind uplift. In
shallow sloped roof membranes, more of t he
st ructural loads are t aken by th e edges o r
points at t he base, often resultin g in large col-
umns o r posts being required at t hese po ints.
Th e distributi on of loads w it hin th e fabric
roof design is revealed in t he suppo r t ing
MC E 49 7
Fa6ric oafs 02
Single me mbrane: Co ne-shaped roof
C0 >--
(
CD
J Vertical section I : IO. Clamping ring
---- 19~1
Vertical section 1:5. Base of ro of with membrane skirt
stru cture, w hich can be as visually lightweight
and elegant as th e fabr ic membrane it self, o r
can becom e visually heavy,w hich can detra ct
from th e int ended light w eight effect of th e
membrane.W here ro ofs transfer forces t o
an adjo ining st r uct ure, rather th an co ntain
th e loads w it hin th eir own suppo rt ing frame,
th e visual effect o n th e adjo ining st ruct ure is
balanced w it h th e requ irements of th e mem-
br ane roof and its ow n frame.
W here imposed loads such as snow o r
sand can cause perm anent stretc hing of th e
fabric membrane, th e form of th e ro of and
it s associate d slopes are made sufficient ly
steep t o avoid creat ing areas o r pockets o n
th e fabr ic roof w here th ey can co llect.
Fabric types
The tw o m ost commo n fabr ics used are
PVC- coated polyester fabric and PTFE-coat-
ed glass fibr e fabr ic. Both are wove n cloth
mat erials w hich are protected by coat ings,
usually applied o n both sides. O t her o pen-
weave mater ials are used as solar shading
only, and are manufactured w it hout protec-
t ive coat ings. Th ese are made from po lym er
MC E 498
3-D detail of fabric membrane clamped to edge ring
threads, somet imes w it h a protective coat ing
applied t o th e manufactured thread it self, t o
increase th e life ex pectancy of th e materi al. In
all th ese wove n mater ials th e strength of th e
fabr ic can be different in th e t w o direct ions in
w hich th e 'clot h' is woven.W hen select ing a
mater ial, th e st rength of th e' wa rp' threads
runnin g th e length of th e materi al is com-
pared t o th e 'w eft' threads runn ing th e w idt h.
In most commo nly used ro of membranes,th e
t ensile strength of th e wa rp and we ft direc-
ti ons are similar.but th ese need t o be
checked w hen th e mater ial ty pe is chosen.
Most fabric roof mater ials imit at e th e
appearance of natural canvas, but thi s material
is used o nly w here it s appearance and indi-
vidual t exture is co nsidered t o be th e most
important co nsiderat ion. N atural canvas is
less sta ble th an synt het ic fabr ics w hen used in
t ension struct ures, and is difficult t o clean.A
m od ified acry lic canvas mater ial, w it h a similar
t exture t o natural canvas, is somet imes used
for its greate r dim ension al sta bility N eith er
mater ial is suita ble for lo ng span fabric roofs.
PVC/p olyester fabrics are made from pol-
yester cloth w hich is coate d o n both sides
w it h a layer of PVC.The coat ing protects th e
fabr ic against th e effects of rain and of UV
light.Th e PVC coat ing is a mixture of PVC
powd er. softe ners and plasticiser s, UV stabilis-
ers, pigment s and fire retardants.A n addit ion-
al o ute r coat of lacquer slows down th e
effect in th e PVC coat ing of becom ing
increasingly brittle w it h age,w hich results
from th e softe ners w it hin th e mater ial gradu-
ally moving t o th e surface of th e PVC coat ing.
The lacquer coat ing also slows down th e fad-
ing effects of th e colo ur pigments.A PVD F
lacquer (a fluorinated po lymer) is typically
used, w hich also ensures th at th e surface has
low surface fri ction so th at it w ill attract littl e
dust and dirt, and allowing th e membrane t o
be cleaned easily. Ac ry lic lacquers are also
used.Th e ty pical we ight of roof using thi s
mater ial is 500-800g/ m 2. A PVC/p o lyester
membrane ro of w ill last aro und 15-25 years.
PTFE/glass fibre membranes are made
from a glass fibre mat w hich is coated w it h a
PTFE layer such asTeflon. As w it h PVC/p oly-
este r membranes, th e coat ing pr otects th e
fabric from th e effects of both th e weat her
and UV light as we ll as forming a low fr iction
Elevation 1:400.
Cone-shaped fabric roof

---
--- I

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CD
Vertical section I :400.Cone-shaped fabric roof

Vertical section I: IO. Base of fabric roof

D etai ls assembly
I. Fabric membrane panel 6. Stainless steel cable
2. Supporting mild steel structure 7. Stainless steel connector
3. Extruded aluminium 8. Membrane skirt
retaining profile 9. Gutter fonmed by membrane
4. Plastic edge bead to fabric skirt
-~-~~ .........._ ......_ ...._ - ~....... membrane 10. Mild steel ring support
3-D detail of edge ring supported by tension cables 5. Extruded aluminium clamp I I. Fabric cover to close ring

MC E 499
 a nc Roo s 02
Single membrane: Cone-shaped roof

Vertical section I :SO. Clamping ring with fabric cover

3-D detail of cone top with protruding structural support

MCE 500

Elevation I:200. Membrane cover
u
CD
Vertical section I :200. Cone-shaped fabric roof
surface t o reduce th e collect ion of dirt and
dust. Most dirt is washed away by rain, but
some cleaning is needed using th e same
meth ods as for PVC/p olyester roofs.Typically
2
it we ighs 800- 1500g/m .T he life expecta ncy
of a PTFE/glass fibre membrane roo f is longer
t han PVC/p o lyester membranes at aro und
30-40 years.
Compar ison of t ypes
Both PVC/p o lyester and PTFE/glass fibre have
high t ensile st rength and high fiexibility, mak-
ing t hem very suita ble for curve d and doub le
curve d roof memb ranes.T hey bot h have a
light transmission of 5-20% depending on t he
t hickness of mem br ane used, refiectin g
75-80% of light. N eith er w ill catc h fire easily,
and both resist th e deteriorating effects of
UV light, t hough PVC/p olyester becomes
increasingly brittle w it h age. Both have almost
no acoustic perfo rm ance and have poor
t herm al insulatio n performance w hen used as
a single membrane roo f PVC/po lyest er has a
greate r range of co lours readily available,
w hile PTFE/glass fibr e is usually w hite, th e
colour t o w hich it bleaches nat urally from it s
/
.~
manufactured beige co lour afte r a few
m onth s of being exposed t o sunlight. Weld
marks th at occur during fabrication also dis-
appear as a result of bleaching in sunlight.
PTFE/glass fibr e has low er surface frict io n
th an PVC/p o lyester, allowing th e form er to
remain cleaner, w hile PVC/p o lyester requires
cleaning more frequent ly PTFE/glass fibre
requires greate r care in transpo rtatio n t o site
and erect ion th an PVC/p olyester, th e latter
being capable of being fo lded w it ho ut dam-
age t o t he memb rane.
Thermal insulation
A single layer membrane fabric roof in eit her
PVC/p olyester or PTFE/glass fibr e t ypically
has a U-value of aro und 6.0W /m 2K.W here
t w o layered mem br anes are used, w it h a
minimum air gap of 200mm between t he
membranes,th e U-value can be reduced t o
aro und 3.0 W/m2 K. D ouble layer membr anes
are less co mmo nly used as t hey have a
severely reduced light transmission , th e trans-
lucency of t he mat erial being one of t he main
advantages of th e material.Therm al insulation
can be added t o a do uble layer memb rane
D etails
I. Fabric membrane panel
2. Supporting mild steel structure
3. Extruded aluminium retaining profile
4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane
5. Extruded aluminium clamp assembly
6. Stainlesssteel cable
7. Stainlesssteel connector
8. Membrane skirt
9. Gutter formed by membrane skirt
10, Mild steel ring support
I I, Fabric cover to close ring
tl
by using a translucent fibre-based insulation ,
as used in fibre glass cladding panels dis-
cussed in th e previous chapter.Th e insulation
can be fixed t o t he inner face of either mem-
brane, depending o n how t he roof vo id is
vent ilate d.W ith th e increasing impo rtance of
t he role of t herm al insulati on in t he reduc-
ti on of energy use in buildings, th e use of
do uble layer fabric mem br anes is set t o
develop co nsiderably over th e next t en years.
A coust ics
Like ET FE cushions discussed in t he previous
sect ion, single layer mem branes pr ovide no
significant reduction of noise t hrou gh th e
roof A do uble layer roof w it h an acoust ic lin-
ing w ill provide some acoustic perfo rmance
but w ill have th e effect of losing most of th e
light t ransmissio n t hro ugh t he membranes. In
add it ion, low frequency sound is difficult t o
absorb due t o t he low mass of t he cladding
mat eri al. In commo n w it h ET FE cushion ro ofs,
th e ro ofs are almost transparent t o sound
emitted from w it hin t he building.
MC E 50 I
Fa nc Roofs OL
Single membrane: Cone-shaped roof
'-----
Vertical section I : IO.Junction of adjacent fabric membranes meeting at same angle
Vertical section I: IO. Junction of adjacent fabric membranes meeting at different angles
Du rability
Fab ric roofs are highly susce pt ible t o damage
from sharp o bjects. Small cuts in t he mem -
brane can be rep aired w it h patches made
from th e same material w hich are glued into
position. Larger tears are rep aired w it h hot
air we lde rs, usually undertaken by th e spe-
cialist co nt racto r th at installed th e fabric roof
Large rep airs are visible, and pane ls are
rep laced w he re visibility is th e most impo r-
tant co nside rat ion. Since large tear s can affect
th e ove rall st ruct ural performance of th e
membrane, th e co mplete membrane is
somet ime s rem oved for anot he r pane l to be
stitc hed o r we lde d, and re-coated in th e fac-
tory
The o ute r surface of fabric ro ofs are
cleaned wit h soft bru shes th at wash th e
membrane surface, th e wo rk be ing don e typ-
ically from e it he r a mobi le platform o r by
rop e access cleaners (abse ilers) w ho are
attache d in harn esses and suspe nded from
cables attac hed t o a stee l bracket ancho r
po int o n th e top of th e membrane ro of The
ancho r point forms part of th e st ee l o r tim -
ber suppo rt ing struct ure t o th e membrane
MC E 502
0 0 '----- -----'
roof C leaning is also an important co nside ra- 270 °e. W it h both materials, t he failure of
t ion in areas of high humidity w he re there is th e membrane forms holes in th e roof
a higher risk of mou ld forming o n th e surface w hich allow heat and smo ke t o esca pe .
of t he fabric w hich can cause permanent
sta ining. Regular cleaning prevents mou ld Con densation
growth. PVC/p o lyester is more susce pt ible to W he re co nde nsat io n is li kely to oc cur o n
mou ld growth th an PTFE/glass fibre fabrics, th e underside of the membrane in an inter-
esse nt ially because th e latt e r has lowe r sur- nal space w it hin th e building, e it he r a second
face friction . membrane is adde d o r, more co mmo nly,
increased vent ilat ion is pro vided w it hin th e
Performance in fire space be low th e ro of
The performance of a membrane during a
fire dep end s o n both th e fabric used and th e
st itc hing at th e sea ms, w he re t his jo ining
meth od is used. Membranes lose th eir ten -
sio n under high temperatures, wit h PVC/po l-
yester st retching above 70 -S0°C, and PVc/
po lyester sea ms sta rt ing to pee l at aro und
IOO°e. At 250 °C th e PVC me lts, leaving
ho les in th e membrane . PVC has fire retard -
ants in th e coat ing so t hat it se lf-ext inguishes
w he n th e flame so urce is rem oved w hich
results in few, if any burning fragments to
drop down from t he roof PTFE/glass fibre
fabrics fail at a aro und IOOO°C, but sea ms will
fail at a much lowe r temperature of aro und
 ") 0 0 0

Details
I. Fabric membrane panel CD
2. Supporting mild steel structure
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3. Extruded aluminium retaining profile
4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane
5. Extruded aluminium clamp assembly CD ~
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6. Stainless steel cable 0 0
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7. Stainless steel connector
8. Membrane skirt

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9. Gutter formed by membrane skirt
10. Mild steel ring support
I I . Fabric cover to close ring
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3-D cutaway view of pinnacle condition with membrane hood
Honzontal section I: I0. Junction of adjacent fabnc membranes

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Vertical section I: I0,Junction between panel

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Vertical section I: I0, Edge of roof at abutment

3-D detail of cone top with protruding structural support

MCE 503
 a nc Roo s O
Single membrane: Cone-shaped roof

3-D exploded overview of cone shaped roof with tension cable support

3-D exploded view of edge ring supported by tension cables

3-D exploded overview of cone shaped roof with tension cable support
MC E 504
 Details
I. Fabric membrane panel
2. Supporting mild steel structure
3. Extruded aluminium retaining profile
4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane
5. Extruded aluminium clamp assembly
6. Stainlesssteel cable
7. Stainlesssteel connector
8. Membrane skirt
9. Gutter formed by membrane skirt
IO. Mild steel ring support
I I. Fabric cover to close ring

3-D exploded overview of cone shaped roof with tension cable support

3-D exploded view of cone top with protruding structural support 3-D exploded detail view of cable connections with protruding structural support

MC E 505
 al5ric Roofs 03
Single membrane: Barre l-shaped roof

3-D overview of single membrane barrel-shaped roof

3-D overview of single membrane barrel-shaped roof

Isometric view of roof assembly

Membrane roof fabrication slight ly under sized t o allow for t he stretc hing
Roof membranes are made from individual of th e mat er ial w hen it is under t ension as a
panels of fabric w hich are cut fr om sheet roof membrane,
mat er ial, t he curve d forms of membranes Fabr ic panels are join ed t ogether w it h
being formed from fiat sheet mat eri al.The lapped seams w hich are either sewn, we ld-
D etails
I, Fabric membrane panel conical-shaped example show n in t he previ- ed, bond ed o r join ed in a comb inat io n of
2, Supporting mild steel structure o us section is made from panels w it h edges st itching and we lding, w ith all processes
3, Extruded aluminium retaining profile
4, Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane t hat curve inw ard, w hile th e barrel-shaped being carried o ut in th e wo rkshop .T he
5, Extruded aluminium clamp assembly roof shown in t his section is made from pan- w idt h of th e lap, w hich is visible from below
6, Stainless steel cable
7, EPDM sealing tape els w it h edges th at curve o utwa rd, PVC th e roof as we ll as from o ut side th e building,
8, Membrane skirt coate d po lyester fabric is made in w idt hs is det erm ined by th e st r uct ural forces o n
9, Gutter formed by membrane skirt
10, Thermal insulation from 2000-3000mm, in t hicknesses up to th e membrane, w ith higher loads requ iring
I I, W elding seam I .Zmm, w hile PTFE coated glass fibre fabric is w ider seams,
12, W ind up lift cable (above membrane)
made in w idt hs up t o aro und SOOOmm in In stitched panel jo int s, w ider seams
thi cknesses up t o I .Omm, Large panels are have mo re rows of st it ching visible, w it h t he
usually cut by CNC cutting machines, w ith mat er ial fo lded over it self to st rengthen t he
small pieces cut by hand, but even small piec- joint. Joint w idt hs vary from aro und 2Smm
es are now being made increasingly by a cut- to I OOmm depending o n th e size of th e
t ing machine, Fabric panels are usually made membrane and it s associated loads,A ddi-

MC E 506
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes
© Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
 Horizontal section and elevation I:200. Barrel-shaped fabric roof
ti o nal st rips of fabric are usually bon ded
o nto t he o ute r (upper) face of t he st itc hed
seam t o avoid rainw ater penetration
t hro ugh t he sewn t hread. PVC/p o lyester
panels can be st itc hed in co njunct ion w it h
mo st lacquer t ypes.
Welded seams are made by fo rming a
lap between panels,t hen heating th e lapped
areas and pressing t hem t ogether.Joint
w idt hs are similar to those required for
stitc hed seams. Seams in PTFE/glass fibre
panels are fo rmed by hot element we lding
rather th an by stitc hing o r bondin g, w it h an
addit ional fabric strip added eit her on t op o r
w it hin th e joint itself between th e mem-
branes t o provide t he required strength. Fo r
we lded joints on PVC membranes,th e edge
of th e panel being jointed has th e PVDF lac-
quer removed before we lding, w hich is
applied again w hen t he we lding is complete
t o ensure t hat t he PVC is fully we lded and
th at t he PVDF lacquer form s a cont inuous
seal across t he joint w hen fo rmed. PVC/p o ly-
este r can be both hot air we lded and hot
element we lded. t he advantage of hot air
we lding being t hat repair wo rk and some
complex jointing can be undert aken duri ng
erect ion o n site . Fabric ro ofs w it h high struc-
tural loads w it hin t he membranes can be
both we lded and sewn t o pro vide a st ro nger
joint. If t he joint is fir st sewn t hen we lded, t his
avoids th e need for an addit ional strip t o be Isometric view of roof assembly
added t o t he upper surface, w hich can
enhance th e visual appearance of th e mem-
brane o n it s oute r surface. Bo nding w it h sol-
vents is used o n PVC/p o lyester fabrics o nly,
but can be don e in conjunct ion w it h most
lacquer s used on t hat mat eri al.
MC E 50 7
 L ]
Vertical section I: IO. Edge of roof
® --
\
3-D view of fabric roof edge
Membrane roof edges
Edges of mem branes are usually eit her gen-
t ly cur ved or st raight. Cur ved edges are
formed w it h a cable held in a co nt inuo us
D etails
I. Fabric membrane panel pocket at th e edges of th e membrane.A n
2. Supporting mild steel structur e alte rnat ive detail used in PTFE/glass fibr e
3. Ext ruded aluminium retaining profile
4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane cano pies is t o have an exposed cable con-
5. Ext ruded aluminium clamp assembly nected t o th e clamped edges of th e mem-
6. Stainless steel cable
7. EPDM sealing tape br ane w it h a series of stainless steel link
8. Membrane skirt plates. Straight edges are usually formed w it h
9. Gutter formed by membrane skirt
10. Thermal insulation an edge bead made from a flexib le PVC or
I I. W elding seam EPDM rod in a small pocket.T his reinfo rced
12. W ind up lift cable (above membrane)
edge is th en held capt ive w it hin an alumini-
um clamp ing plate assembly sim ilar t o t hat
used for ET FE cushio ns, o r alte rnat ively in a
luff groove extrusio n.
Cable restrained curve d edges t o fabric
roofs usually follow a circular or cate nary
shape.A sleeve is form ed by fo lding t he
MC E 508
3-D cutaway view of fabric roof edge
membrane back over itself and st it ching o r
we lding it t o form a cont inuo us pocket in
w hich a stainless ste el cable is inserted. A
25mm diameter st ainless st eel cable is t ypical,
depending o n t he struct ural forces.A strip of
membrane mater ial o r plastic is set between
t he cable and t he membrane t o allow t he
two t o move independent ly w it ho ut abrasion
occurring.A reinforced plastic strip is some-
tim es added into th e pocket but thi s is not
visible fro m eit her above o r below t he roof.
Straight clamp ed edges use clamping
plates, aro und IOOmm w ide, set back to back
and bolted t ogether,w hich comprise two flat,
gro oved plates,rather th an th e clamping
plate and suppo rt ing extrusion used at joint s
between panels.Th e clamping plates are fixed
back t o eit her a visible cable w hich is set
aro und I OOmm away from t he edge of t he
 \
\
/ 0 0 )
I

Elevation I: IO. Roof penetration

/
/
;0
\
\
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
/

Vertical section I : IO. Edge of roof with penetration Elevation I 10.Roof penetration

cable, w hich fo llow s th e edge of th e mem-
brane o r, altern atively, individual brackets are
fixed to a suppo rt ing w all, w here no stainless
steel cable is required.The edges of th e
membrane have a flexib le plastic o r EPDM
edge strip o r rod, ty pically of I Omm diameter,
th at prevent s th e membrane from slipping
w it hin th e clamping assembly Th e clamps
somet imes have an addit ional cover st rip t o
serve as a first line of defence against rainw a-
t er penetration but any rainw ater th at passes
int o th e groove , w here th e edge of th e
membrane is held capt ive, is drained away
w it hin th e groove w hich also serve s as a
dr ainage channel.Wate r is th en drained at
th e base of th e roof.
Clamping plates are also used at th e
junction between two areas of ro of w here
th e two parts are requ ired t o be fabr icated
and inst alled separate ly, usually w here th e
membrane has reached a maximum size for
eit her fabrication or installation . In both cases
th e clamping plates are position ed t o ensure
th at rainw ater can run freely along it s edge
rather th an creat ing a barri er w here rainw a-
t er can co llect.
W here tw o cables meet at membrane
co rne rs o r po ints, th ey are usually fixed t o a
single mild st eel plate.The cable is fixed into a
stainless steel cable fixing w hich is secured
w it h a pin connect ion back t o a suppo rt ing
stee l plate.Th e corne r of membrane is cut t o
form a curve d end. A ddit ional straps are
3-D view of junction between two fabric panels
somet imes added t o ensure th at th e mem-
br ane does not slide away from th e co rne r.
Rainw ater can be directed along th e
edge of a membrane, rather th an being
allowe d t o fall directly off th e edge, by int ro-

MC E 509
 (s) '51
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B
Vertical section I 10,Edge of roof

CD
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I
Vertica l section I : 10, Edge of roof

3-D cutaway detail of junction between two fabric panels

3-D detail view of junction between two fabric panels

6(
~=;:;;;;:;=:::O;===============;'7""':=:r:;=~
----;::::'--~~u-~l ..............""--= - - -

Vertical section I : I0,Junction between panels

ducing a standing seam adjacent to th e edge.
A strip of membrane is rolled aro und a foam
st rip and is we lded or stitched to the mem-
br ane.This is parti cularly useful w here building
users pass beneath, as w hen th e fabric roof
_ form s an exte rnal cano py Junction s w it h ver-
t ically-set membranes beneath th e roof, are
form ed as fiexible membrane connect ions to
allow for movement between roof and wa ll.
Suspension po ints
Suspension po ints at th e t op of a cone-
shaped fabric roof are usually form ed eit her
by a metal ring, w hich is fixed back t o a cen-
tral mast by cables or cant ilevered brackets o r,
3-D view of junction between two panels alte rnat ively, by a 'palm tree' arrangement of
proj ecting curve d metal bracket s w hich serve
to t ension th e cont inuo us membran e against
it s suppo rting mast set w it hin th e building.
Th e first o pt io n w it h a metal ring
requires an addit ional membrane cover piece,
w hile the second 'palm tree' option forms a
cont inuo us membrane w it h a smoot h curve d
t op, w it ho ut any breaks in th e cont inuity of
th e membrane. In th e 'ring' solut ion, th e
membrane is clamped between an inner ring
and an o ute r ring fixed to gether w it h bo lts.A
second clamp is used t o fix th e cone-shaped
membrane th at covers th e top of th e ring.
Th e t op of th e conical-shaped cover is eit her
pulled over th e t op of th e cent ral mast o r
clamped aro und it.Th e ring is eit her freely
suspended from cables,o r is firm ly fixed t o
th e mast w it h cant ilevered br ackets t o w hich
th e ring is secured.
In th e 'palm tree' suppo rte d solut ion,
cant ilevered brackets w it h a curved shape
are set o ut radially in o rder t o create a

MCE 5 10

Vertical section I :200. Barrel-shaped fabric roo f
3-D view of underside of barrel shaped fabric roo f
smoot h curved form o n which th e mem -
brane is set.The brackets are usually aligned
wit h joints between membrane pane ls.
Memb rane fold s
In an exte rnal fold in a roof membrane, th e
mate rial is draped ove r t he suppo rt ing st ruc-
ture, fixed w it h fabric strips that are sew n o r
we lde d to t he underside of t he membrane
and clamp ed to th e suppo rt ing st ruct ure. An
addit ional membrane cove r st rip is fixed to
t he top of t he joint to co nceal t he st itc hing if
required. An alte rnat ive method is to form a
joint betw een two membranes at t he exte r-
nal fold,clamping th em wit h a pressure plate
to an aluminium ext rusion which is suppo rt-
ed by th e primary struct ure , such as a mild
steel tub e, curved to form th e shape t aken
up by t he membrane .
--------- - - -
4.
Vertical section I: 10. Edgeof roo f at
abutment
Inte rnal fo lds are formed in th e same
way as hips, wit h t he membrane folded o ut-
wards rather th an across th e ridge and
Details
downwards. In so me cases th e membrane I. Fabric membrane panel
may pass under t he cable.These junctio ns are 2. Supporting mild steel structure
3. Extruded aluminium retaining profile
form ed by clamp ing th e e nds of adjacent 4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane
membranes t hat form t he valley. The edge of 5. Extruded aluminium clamp assembly
6. Stainless steel cable
eac h membrane is clamped wit h an edge 7. EPDM sealing tape
bead , while t he clamp itself is fixed to a ce n- 8. Membrane skirt
9. Gutter formed by membrane skirt
tral cable.The gap between th e membranes 10. Thermal insulation
is closed by two mem brane strips which are I I. Welding seam
12. Wind up lift cable (above membrane)
sew n o r we lde d t o t he base of t he st rip and
are clamp ed do wn to a thin pressure plate
betw een th e membranes.The clamp t hat
closes the two membrane st rips is suppo rte d
off t he metal straps ben eath. By raising t he
closing strips above the height of th e join,
two adjacent gutters are form ed, w it h th e
clamp ing strip sec uring th e closing flaps being
MCE 5 11
 a nc Roofs 03
Single membrane: Barrel-shaped roof
3-D details of edge clamp
above th e level of th e wate r th at is dr ained.
rather t han being subme rged in wate r.Th is
wo uld be th e case w here a single gutter is
formed w here th e clamp holding th e straps
in place is low er than th at shown.
W here two joining memb ers form a
cont inuo us line, th e same pr inciple of sewn
or we lded st rips can be applied. join ed w it h a
pressure plate set above th e level of th e adja-
cent roof, forming two gutters w here th e
pressure plate jo int is not submerged w hen
functioning as a gutter.
W here a single gutter is required in an
int ernal fo ld, a single membrane is sewn o r
we lded t o each side of th e joint and th e link-
ing membrane is held in t ension across th e
junction. In practice th is is difficult t o fix
unless th e st rip is bond ed o r we lded in posi-
ti on on site o n at least o ne side of th e mem-
brane.The solut ion of two strips joined w it h
a clamping plate allows more easily for fixing
tol erances o n site .
At th e base of a fabric roof, a clamping
plate fixed o nto a base plate w hich is we lded,
or form s a cont inuous part of a suppo rt ing
steel member, provides a sealed t erm ination
MC E 5 12
Vertical section I: IO. Edge of roof with penetration
t o a ro of A gutter t o dr ain away rainw ater o r, same principle can be applied w here a gutter
alte rnat ively, a metal sheet t o shed wate r is formed at th e base of a roo f Th e mem-
directly off th e roo f, can be added t o th e brane skir t at th e base of th e ro of is clamped
suppo r t ing struct ure.W here th e clamping t o th e side wall of an insulat ed gutter.A dja-
plate is at th e base of a low pitched mem- cent penetrations are closed w it h a specially
brane ro of, and th ere is a risk of wate r being form ed membrane skirt th at fit s aro und th e
held behind th e clamping plate, an addit ional structural member w hich penetrates th e
membrane skirt can be used t o dr ain away roofThe t op of th e skirt is clamped t o th e
wate r.The membrane skirt is sewn o r we lded projecting st ructure, w hile th e base of th e
t o th e membrane in th e wo rksho p. skirt is site we lded o r bond ed t o th e main
W here th e membrane is formed over roof membrane panels.
arched suppo rts, as in th e barrel-shaped ro of,
membrane skirt s are used t o form a junction.
Th e same pr inciple is applied at th e roof
edge, w here th e membrane cont inues over
th e edge of th e roof w here it is mechanically
fixed t o a metal fiashing.A clamping strip is D et ails
I. Fabric membrane panel
used t o fix th e membrane to th e flashing
2. Supporting mild steel structure
w hich also form s a wate rt ight seal.The metal 3. Extru ded aluminium retaining profile
4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membr ane
flashing is fixed t o th e timber arches.Th erm al
5. Extru ded aluminium clamp assembly
insulati on is set betw een th e metal flashing 6. Stainless steel cable
7. EPDM sealing tape
and th e membrane t o both avoid th e mem-
8. Membrane skirt
ber from becomin g t oo hot from th e effects 9. Gutter formed by membrane skirt
10. Thermal insulation
of th e sun (as a result of direct contact w it h
I I. W elding seam
th e supporting stee lwo rk) as we ll as t o allow 12. W ind up lift cable (above membrane)
th e two compo nent s t o avoid abrasion.The
 t @
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Horizontal section I: IO. Junction between membrane roof panels

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Ver tical section 1:5. Edge of roof

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Vertical section I : IO. Edge of roof Vertical section I : I O. Clamping plate assembly

MC E 5 13
- - -Fa6 " Roofs 03- - - - - - - ..
Details
I. Fabric me mbrane panel
1. Supporting mild stee l struct ure
... 3. Extr uded aluminium retaining profile
4. Plastic edge bead to fabr ic membr ane

.- 5. Extruded aluminium clamp assembly

6. Stainless stee l cable
7. EPDM sealing tape
8. Membrane skirt
• 9. Gutte r formed by memb-ane skirt
10, Therm al insulation
I I , Welding seam
12. W ind up 11ft cable (above membrane)

3-D exploded view of barrel shaped fabricroof

3-D exploded view of edgeclamp

3-D expkxJed view of barre l shaped fabric roof

.' . - .'
"" " ,. " " " "-" "
\\ \\

3-D exploded view of segment of barrel shaped fabric roof 3-D exploded line drawing of junction betweentwo segments
of barrel soaped fabric roof
Me E 514
 ®

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_ e I
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---::' _ e~ ~ "f'"' »>
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I

Exploded axonometric of junction bet0een two fabric panels

j-U exploded view ot Junction between two tabnc panels

Exploded axonometric of fabric roof edge

3-D exploded view of fabric roof edge

MC E 5 15
Thi s book has been produced by th e N ew -
t ecnic t eam: Ciaran Canavan,Julianne Cassidy,
N ick Channon , Mike Clarke, Jenny Coppi n,
Sana H asan,A lia Khonji, Rocky Marchant ,
Louise Scannell, Ho w ard Tee, Leon Turr ell,
A ndrew Watts,Yasm in Watts,Adam W il-
letts.Th e t ext is by A ndrew Watts.Views of
3-D mod els for th e book we re set o ut and
rendered by Julianne Cassidy and Lo uise
Scannell.The layo ut was designed byYasmin
Watts .T he cover image is by Michael Clarke.
D avid Marold is Editor for A rchitecture and
Philosophy at Springer Ver lag in Vienna. He
has driven t his book from a set of basic lay-
o uts t o a com plete d book. He has a passion
for books and t heir design, ranging fro m t heir
w ider co nte nt t o t he quality of pr int paper.
MC E 5 16
Before establishing th eir own pr actice
specialising in facades, N ewtecnic principals
A ndrew and Yasmin Watts w or ked exte n-
sively both in t he U K and ot her co unt ries.
During thi s tim e th ey we re invo lved in a
range of significant pr ojects including Federa-
t io n Square, Melbourn e w it h LAB A rchite cts,
th e Millennium Bridge, London for Foster
and Partners, Euralille and Institu t du Mon de
A rabe, Paris for Ate liers Jean N ouvel. and
Cite Int ern ati on ale, Lyo n and t he N ew
Caladon ia Cu ltural Centre for Renzo Piano
Building Worksho p.They have produced a
number of volumes on co nte mpo rary build-
ing t echnology w hich pro vide reference
mater ial for st udents.T he Modern Construc-
tion Series is pub lished by Springer Wi en
N ew York. In addit ion, t he Facades Technical
Review, fro m RIBA Publication s was pub-
lished in spring 2007.
N ewtecnic is a firm of Lond on -based
specialist architects w ho create facades
in co llabo rat ion w it h leading architects.
T he firm pr act ices int ern ati on ally as facade
designer s for archit ecturally and t echnically
challenging projects and has a particular
int erest in develop ing new facade syste ms
and in th e use of com plex geomet ries.
N ewtecnic follow s principles of rapid pr o-
t otypin g as a meth od of developin g facade
syste ms t hat can be manufactu red quickly
and w it h a high degree of accuracy and
pr ecision . Th e office's current wo rk ranges
fro m large scale develop ments in Moscow,
Dubai, Egypt Kuw ait C ity and St Pet er sburg
t o residenti al and comme rcial pr ojects in
Lond on, w here N ewtecnic are w o rking w it h
design t eams t o develop innovati ve t echni-
cal solut ions and o pt im ise co mplex designs
for digital fabricatio n.
 Much of N ewtecnic's w ork is informed
by a specific response t o climate and t o
th e t echnical performance of th e exte rn al
envelope. In pr ojects w here climate co nt ro l
and natural vent ilat ion are primary design
crite ria for th e facades in t emp erate climates,
doub le skin facades are ofte n used. Rather
th an fo llow rectilinear design, th e o ute r skin
of facades of projects w here N ewtecnic
are involved are required increasingly to be
shaped geomet rically in response t o specific
enviro nmenta l issues.Th ese resulting facade
form s are typically t wi sted. curved, t apered,
o r a combinat ion of t hese forms.These
pages aim to illustrat e some of th e research
undertaken by N ewtecnic in recent pr ojects
w hich exhibit th ese t endencies in t erm s of
th e possible solut ions for th e design of t he
cladding in both t emp erat e and hot climates.
Th e N ewtecnic t eam investigates mate-
rial systems that are explored through 3-D
mod elling rath er th an 2-D drafting.The
engineering aspects of th e design, both
st r uct ural and enviro nmental. are develop ed
through an investigati o n of t he behaviour of
co nstruct ion syste ms w hen modi fed geo-
metri cally. Rather th an develop a series of
o pt ions t o solve a design, a single parametric
mod el is used w it h fixed crite ria and crite ria
w hich can be st retc hed and pulled until an
o pt imum solut io n is found.Thi s allows a
single design model to pro vide a 'range' of
solut ions w hich can be explored through
rapid prototyp e models, using a variety of
mod elling t oo ls from 3-D printer s t o laser
cutters. Strands of fabrication, co nte xt , site
specificity, language of th e base 'compon ent'
of t he design and spat ial organisat ion are
develop ed in parallel for each proj ect.
MCE 5 17
A Gener ic rectangular roofi ight 380 Op aque glazing 101
Generic monopitch roofi ight 382 Sealing clamped glazing 102
Aluminium windows 136 Glass roof decks 382 Composite panels - roofs 306
W indows in openings 136 Brick cavity walls 200 Single wall composite panels 306
W indow walls 143 Ground level 202 Twin wall panels 309
Composite windows 143 W indow and door openings 202 Ridges 309
Authorship 5 16 Eaves and parapets 205 Verges 3 10
Eaves 3 10
Parapets and valley gutte rs 3 12
Composite panels - walls 34
Parapets and cil ls 36
B C W indows / door openings 36
Developments 38
Bitumen-based sheet membranes 422 Cast in-sit u /cast-in-place 158 Corner s 40
Bolt fixed glazed walls 106 Parapets, drips and cills 160 Thermal bridges at cills 41
Support methods 106 Finishes 160 Concealed membr ane roofs 390
Bottom supporte d glazing 109 As-cast fin ish 161 Materials 390
Top hung glazing 11 0 Washed fin ish 163 Structural joints 392
Corner s 11 0 Polished fin ish 164 Parapet upstands 394
Seals and interfaces 11 2 Cladding panels, rainscreens (timber)274 Balustrades and plinths 394
Bolt fixed glazing: small scale Timber boards 274 Rainwater out lets 396
roofi ights 358 Finishes 274 Penetrations for pipes and ducts 397
Gener ic support meth ods 359 Cladding panels and rainscreens 277
Supporting brackets 360 Plywood sheets 280
Bolt fixings 36 1 Cladding the t imber frame 264
Arrangement of bolt fixings 362 Timber frames 264
Glazed units 363 Ground level 267
Bolt fixed glazing: large scale Upper fi oor s 268 E
roofi ights 368 Corner s 269
Base of glazed roof 370 Roof eaves and parapets 270 ETFE Cushions 486
Exte rnal and internal folds 37 1 Clamped glazing 96 Cushions 486
Small glazed roofi ights 373 Comparison wit h bolt fixed Air supply 488
Larger roofi ights 374 glazing 97 The mater ial 489
Bonded glass roofi ights 378 Patch plate glazing 97 Fabrication 490
Gener ic conical roofi ight 378 Clamped glazing 98 Durability 492

MC E 5 18
 Performance in fire 493 window openings 121 M
Exposed membr ane roofs 400 Cast glass channels 122
Polymer-based membranes 40 1 Greenhouse glazing and Masonry cavity walls: brick 200
PVC membr anes 403 capped syste ms 338 Ground level 202
FPO (TPO) membr anes 404 Greenhouse glazing 338 W indow and door openings 202
Mechanically fixed meth od 404 Modern roof glazing 342 Eaves and parapets 205
Bonded fixing meth od 405 Capped syste ms 343 Masonry cavity walls: sto ne and
Parapets and upstands 406 GRC cladding panels 178 concrete block 2 10
Ballasted roofs 406 GRP panels and shells 474 Wa ll structures 2 11
Smaller panels and shells 474 Ground level 2 12
Larger panels and shells 477 Op enings in walls 2 13
GRP roofl ights 464 Eaves and parapets 2 15
Eaves and upstands 467 Masonry cladding 220
F Verges 469 Masonry loadbearing walls 190
Abutments 470 Mortars 192
Fabric roof systems 484 Sliding roof panels 470 Parapets 194
Flat roof, Bitumen-based sheet mem- Cills and openings 195
branes 422 Masonr y rainscreens 230
The mater ial 423 Mesh scree ns 54
Roof build-up 424 Rigid mesh 55
Solar protection 424 L Meshes fl exible in one direction 55
Fixing methods 425 Fu lly fl exible mesh 57
Parapet upstands 426 Loadbearing masonry walls 190 Mesh used on curves 58
Junction with t iled roof 426 Mortars 192 Perforated metal 58
Eaves and verges 429 Parapets 194 Metal canopies 326
Cills and openings 195 Bolt fixed panels 330
Louvred scree ns 64 Fixed metal louvre canopies 330
Metal louvres 64 Electrically operate d louvres 332
Glazed louvres 66 Metal rainscreens - roofs 3 16
G Solar shading 68 Panel arrangement 3 18
Wa lkways 70 Parapets 3 18
Glass blocks 11 6 Monopitch ridges and verges 320
Fixing glass blocks 11 9 Roof geometry 32 1
Steel support frames 120 Roof soffits 322
Masonry and timber framed Metal rainscreens - walls 44

MC E 5 19
 Materials 44 Eaves 436 Sealed and vent ilated method s 298
Fixing meth od s 44 Ridge s 436 Twin skin co nst ruct ion 299
Backing wa lls 46 Verges 438 Ridges 300
Con stru ction seque nce 48 Hips and valleys 438 Openings 30 1
W indow / door o pe nings 49 Abut me nts 439 Eaves and parapets 30 1
Parapets and cills 50 Plant ed co ncrete roofs 4 10 Ridges and valleys 302
Metal sta nding sea m ro ofs 286 System design 4 10
Site-based meth od 286 Plant ed ro of co mpo ne nts 4 10
Prefabricated meth od s 288 So il depth 4 13
Sealed and vent ilated ro ofs 290 O verflows 4 14
Ro of o pe nings 290 Roof junction s 4 14 R
Ridges and valleys 29 1 Rainwater o ut lets 4 14
Eave s and parapets 292 Balcony plant ers 4 14 Rainscreen s:
Plastic-base d claddin g sea led Metal roofs 3 16
pane ls 242 Metal wa lls 44
GRP pane ls 245 Masonry 230
Po lycarb onate cladd ing 246
P Plast ic-base d claddin g
rainscreen s 252
Pitched roof Metal 45 2 Flat po lycarb on ate sheet 252
Stand ing sea m co ld ro ofs 45 2 Multi-wall po lycarb on ate sheet 252 S
Eaves and valley gutters 452 Profiled po lycarb on ate sheet 254
Ridges and abut me nts 45 2 Plastic-composite fi at pane ls 255 Sheet metal 14
Pen etrat ion s 45 2 UPVC board cladd ing 256 Fixing method s 14
Metal t iled ro ofs 456 UPVC w indows 258 Open ings 16
Pitched ro of Slate s 44 2 GRP pane ls 258 Substr ate s and suppo rt ing wa lls 18
Ro of fo lds 443 Profiled metal cladd ing - wa lls 24 Corners, parapets and cills 20
Vents 446 Junctio ns 24 Silicon e-sealed glazing and roofiights 348
Mo no pit ch ridges 446 Parapets and gutte rs 27 Silicon e-sealed systems 348
Dormer w indows 446 W indow and door o pe nings 29 Junctio ns 350
Abut me nts 446 Insulatio n and li ne r trays 29 Use of cappe d profile s 352
Pitched roof Tile s 43 2 Deve lopments 30 Roofiights 354
Plain t iles 43 2 Profiled metal sheet roofs 296 Single membrane: Barre l-shaped
Inte rlocking t iles 43 2 Profiled metal decks as subst rates 296 ro of 506
Vent ilat ion 434 Profiled metal ro of sheeting 296 Me mbrane ro of fabricat ion 506

MC E 5 20
 Membrane roof edges 508 st ructures 2 11 Timber framed cladding 264
Suspension points 5 10 Ground level 2 12 Timber frames 264
Membr ane folds 5 11 W indow and door openings 2 13 Ground level 267
Single membr ane: Cone-shaped Eaves and parapets 2 15 Upper fl oors 268
roof 496 Stone cladding 220 Corner s 269
Fabric roof principles 496 Fixings 220 Roof eaves and parapets 270
Fabric types 498 Cladding to precast concrete Timber windows 146
Comparison of types 50 1 panels 223 W indow walls 146
Thermal insulation 50 1 Joints 223 W indow design 148
Acoust ics 50 1 Closed joints 224 W indows in openings 151
Durability 502 Movement joints 224
Performance in fire 502 Stone fin ishes 226
Condensat ion 502 Storey height precast panels 168
Slate tiled pitched roof 442 Panel types 168
Small precast /GRC cladding Thermal Insulation 171 U
panels 178 Joints 171
Individually supporte d panels 178 Acid etched fin ish 174
Selfsupport ing stacked panels 180 Unitised glazing 86
Parapets and cills 182 Glazing 86
Op enings 183 Jointing panels 86
Sand blasted and tooled fini shes 184 Op ening lights 89
Steel windows 126 T Corner panels, parapets and cil ls 89
Small-scale glazing 127 Penetrat ions 91
Large-scale glazing 130 Terracotta rainscreens 230 Silicone-bonded glazing 91
Stick glazing 76 Manufacture of panels 230 UPVC windows 258
Comparison wit h unitised glazing 76 Corner pieces 230
System assembly 76 Fixing syste ms 232
Framing profi les 79 Panel sizes 234
Op ening light s 80 Op enings 236
Parapets, cills and penetrations 81 Timber cladding panels and
Corner s 82 rainscreens 274
Spandrel panels 83 Timber boards 274
Stone and blockwork cavity Finishes 274
walls 2 10 Cladding panels and rainscreens 277
Cavity walls in framed Plywood sheets 278

MC E 5 2 1
A ndrew Watts
Lond on , England

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in th is publicat ion does not imply,even in t he absence of a specific statement, th at such names are exempt from t he relevant protective law s
and regulations and are t herefo re free for general use.

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Printed in A ustria
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usage of excerpts of te xt is not always successful.

Layout and Cover D esign: N ewtecnic Ltd., Lon don , England

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ISBN 978-3-709 1-0257-2 SpringerWienNewYork