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Principles and Performance of Solar Energy Thermal Systems: A Web Course by

V.V.Satyamurty
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MODULE 9 Lecture No: 9

Radiation Processing – Long Term
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In this Module 9, Lecture No. 9 deals with

9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 THE DAILY TILT FACTOR, R

9.3 ESTIMATION OF MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACES
9.4 SUMMARY

Lecture 9
9.1 INTRODUCTION

In Module 8, a method to estimate the solar radiation received by an arbitrarily oriented surface ( slope ,
and surface azimuthal angle  ) when I, the global horizontal radiation on a horizontal surface for a short
period, say, 1 hr, is known has been described. The simplification that the tilt factor R, can be evaluated at
the mid point of the hour has been established to be accurate enough for the short time interval. However, if
the solar radiation received by the tilted surface, over a day, month or an year is to be evaluated when the
corresponding horizontal radiation values are known, this simplification fails; obviously due to the
nonlinear time dependent nature of both solar radiation on the horizontal radiation and the most significant
component of Rb , of the over all tilt factor R.
In this Module, the methods to estimate the long-term solar radiation received by surfaces of
arbitrary orientation and their limitations are discussed.

9.2 THE DAILY TILT FACTOR, R

If H is the daily total radiation on a horizontal surface, with Hb and Hd as daily direct and diffuse
components, HT the daily radiation on a tilted surface can be expressed formally as,

H T  RH (9.1)

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R in Eq. (9.1) is the daily tilt factor, i.e., the factor, which, when multiplies the daily global horizontal
radiation, yields the radiation received by the tilted surface. Considering Eq.( 8.9) and summing over the
day, it follows,

SS SS SS SS
H T   I T   I b Rb   I d [(1  cos  ) / 2]   I g [(1  cos  ) / 2] (9.2)
SR SR SR SR

OR,

H T  H R  H b R b  H d [(1  cos  ) / 2]   g H [(1  cos  ) / 2 (9.2a)

In Eq. (9.2), SR and SS stand for apparent sunrise and sunset respectively. Apparent sunrise and apparent
sunset refer to the times that the surface receives the sunshine, not withdtanding the physical (actual)
sunrise and sunset at a location on a given day. Dividing Eq.(9.2) by H and realizing that R = HT/H, after
some manipulation, R can be expressed as,

 H  H  1  cos    1  cos  
R  1  d  Rb  d    g   (9.3)
 H  H  2   2 

It is straightforward to envisage the factors associated with the sky diffuse and ground reflected
components of radiation on a daily basis, since these factors remain constant throughout the day, given the
orientation of the surface. However Rb , associated with the direct component of radiation does vary with
time of the day and hence R b for the day needs to be evaluated as a weighted average given by,
SS

I R b b
Rb  SR
(9.4)
Hb

The summation in the numerator of Eq.(9.4) needs to be carried out from the time the tilted surface sees the
sun to the time stops seeing the sun, i.e., the apparent sunrise to apparent sunset hour angles, which are
designated by, SR and SS. It is to be noted that R b , as expressed by Eq.(9.4), is not easy to evaluate, due to,
1) needs hourly direct radiation data and 2) calls for calculations equal to the number of sunshine hours in a
day in a day, typically of the order of 12. The apparent sunrise and sunset hour angles needed to evaluating
R b are developed before proceeding to develop expressions for R b .

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Apparent Sunrise and Sunset Hour angles

Surfaces of General Orientation:

Apparent Sunrise and sunset hour angles for the tilted surface may be defined as the times the surface starts
seeing the sun and stops seeing the sun. In other words, as, the time when the surface starts receiving direct
solar radiation and the time when the surface stops receiving direct solar radiation. The corresponding hour
angles can be obtained by solving for  by setting  = /2 in Eq. (3.6) or Eq.(3.7). Consider Eq. (3.7)
reproduced here for convenience. As a convention, the original equation numbers for the equations
reproduced, taken from an earlier Module are retained, but shown in italics.

cos  = A + B cos + C sin (3.7)

A, B, C in Eq.(3.7) are given by,

A = sin  ( sin  cos  - cos sin  cos  ) (3.8)

B = cos ( cos  cos  + sin  sin  cos  ) (3.9)

C = cos  sin  sin  (3.10)

By setting  = /2 in Eq.(3.7) and realizing that cos = 0, upon solving for , two values of  are
obtained. Let 1 and 2 be the two roots. In terms of A, B and C, 1 and 2 are given by,

1 = arcos [ ( - AB + C ) / ( B2 + C2 ) ] (9.5)

2 = arcos [ ( - AB - C ) / ( B2 + C2 ) ] (9.6)

where,  is given by,

 = B2 + C2 - A2 (9.7)

The difficulty with Eqs.(9.5) and (9.6) is that they are multi-valued, resulting in two values each ( equal in
magnitude, opposite in sign ) for 1 and 2. Out of which two of them are correct. Without going too much
into the mathematical logic, it is sufficient to realize that this ambiguity is a result of incomplete
comprehension of apparent sunrise and sun set for the tilted surface. In summary, it may be stated that in
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general SR will be taken as negative given by Eq. (9.5) and SS as positive given by Eq.(9.6). But, the
exceptions do occur. The exceptions include, SR being positive and SS being negative and both being
positive or negative. The controversy can be resolved by realizing and adhering to necessary and sufficient
conditions for a particular time to be called as apparent sunrise or sunset.  = /2 is a necessary condition
for either apparent sunrise or sunset. Apparent sunrise is to be associated with subsequent decrease in 
and apparent sun set is to be associated with subsequent increase in  . Mathematically, the conditions may
be stated as,

Apparent Sunrise :  = /2 and d /d < 0 (9.8)

Apparent Sunset :  = /2 and d /d > 0 (9.9)

A physical idea can be obtained by examining Figs. 9.1 and 9.2 which represent the conditions for
the different signs for SR and SS . The ambiguity has been resolved by the studies (Lahiri, [10]) at Energy
Systems Laboratories, I.I.T Kharagpur, India. The solution to avoid ambiguity is to solve Eq. ( 3.7) after
setting  = /2 as a "sin inverse" which yields, say, '1 and '2 as given by,

'1 = arcsin [ ( - AC - B ) / ( B2 + C2 ) ] (9.10)

'2 = arcsin [ ( - AC + B ) / ( B2 + C2 ) ] ( 9.11)

where,  is given by,

 = B2 + C2 - A2 (9.7)
The difficulty with Eqs.(9.10) and (9.11), if adapted, instead of Eqs. (9.5) and (9.6), is that they yield once

again four values, even differing in magnitude. The correct roots are obtained simply by choosing the

common values as given by the two sets of equations, {Eq.(9.5), Eq.(9.6)} and {Eq.(8.10) and Eq.(8.11)}. It

may be noted that in Eq.(9.10) for '1 contains - B whereas, in Eqand (9.5) the 1 contains +CB and

in Eq.(9.11) for '2 contains + B whereas, in Eq. (9.6) the 2 contains -C . This reversal of 

ensures the general condition of cos2 x + sin2 x =1, irrespective of the cos or sin route that has been

followed in obtaining 1 , 2 which should correspond to'1 , '2.

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Indeed, incorrect evaluation of the apparent sunrise and sunset hour angles leads to incorrect values
for the radiation received by the tilted surface and at times, the values appear misleadingly correct!

This aspect is of paramount importance, in the context of lower ( < 230) latitude locations, and is of
concern for locations particularly in Southern part of India.

The general algorithm to find sr and ss , not withstanding, limiting to |s| may be stated as, choose
the magnitude as given by Eqs. (9.5) and (9.6). And, associate the sign as given by Eqs.9.10) and (9.11).
This may lead to sr > ss. For example, sr = 30o and ss= -45o. This implies, that the surface starts seeing
the sun at 2.00 PM and stops seeing the sun at 9.00 AM. Alternately, the surface sees the sun from physical
sunrise - s to ss= -45o, 9.00 AM and again starts seeing from sr = 30o, 2.00 PM to +s, the physical
sunset. Surfaces oriented in such a manner may be termed as, “double sunshine” surfaces, meaning, they
receive sunshine during tow intervals, physical sunrise to a certain time and again from some time to
physical sunset, with no sun shine received in the intermittent period. Fortunately, there are no more than
double (like triple etc.) sunshine surfaces!

Degenerate cases of no sunshine being received by the surface can arise 1) as a limit of single
sunshine period or that of 2) double sunshine situation. Case 1) may be described by, sr=-0o and ss=+0o
while the case 2) may be described by, sr= 0o and ss=-0o.

Examples of all the cases are given in Figs. 9.1 to 9.2.

Sl.
Angles in Degrees  vs  Diagram
No.
1  = 17 s = 86.72 
 = 90 sr = -86.72
 = 900
= 0 ss = 86.72
 = -10  = 0.065
n = 62.03
-s = sr =0 s = ss
Hour Angle 
2 = 17 s = 93.96 
= 90 sr = -11.17 sr  = 900
= 30 ss = 93.96
= 12  = 0.278
n = 84.84
-s =0 s = ss
Hour Angle 

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Sl.
Angles in Degrees  vs  Diagram
No.
3 = 17 s = 95.35 
= 90 sr = -28.05 sr ss  = 900
= 0 ss = 28.05
= 12  = 0.019
n = 87.99
-s =0 s
Hour Angle 
4 = 17 s = 82.07 
= 90 sr = 39.86
= 135 ss = 82.07  = 900
= -23  = 0.395
n = 117.64
-s =0 sr s = ss
Hour Angle 
5 = 17 s = 96.42 
= 90 sr = 6.70
sr ss  = 900
= 10 ss = 52.72
= 19  = 0.017
n = 90.97
-s =0 s
Hour Angle 
6  = 17 s = 82.07 
 = 90 sr = -82.07
 = 900
= 0 ss = 82.07
 = -23  = -0.057
n = 49.00
-s = sr =0 s = ss
Hour Angle 

Fig. 9.1 Examples of Single Sunshine Orientations

Sl.
Angles in Degrees  vs  Diagram
No.
1 = 25 s = 101.42 
= 90 sr = 24.45 ss sr  = 900
= 170 ss = -24.45
= 23  = 0.026
n = 92.01
-s =0 s
Hour Angle 

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Sl.
Angles in Degrees  vs  Diagram
No.
2 = 17 s = 96.06 
= 90 sr = + 0.00 ss sr  = 900
= 170 ss = - 00.00
= 17  = 0.000
n = 90.00
-s =0 s
Hour Angle 
3 = 25 s = 101.42 
= 90 sr = 3.68
= 150 ss = -101.42 sr  = 900
= 23  = 0.231
n = 91.72
-s = ss =0 s
Hour Angle 
4 = 17 s = 97.93 
= 90 sr = - 31.69 ss sr  = 900
= 165 ss = -50.17
= 23  = 0.003
n = 85.17
-s =0 s
Hour Angle 
5 = 0 s = 90.00 
= 70 sr = -90.00
= 160 ss = -90.00  = 900
= 22  = 0.08
n = 49.61
-s = sr = ss =0 s
Hour Angle 

Fig. 9.2 Examples of Double Sunshine Orientations

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Fig. 9.3 Examples of No Sunshine orientations

South Facing Surfaces:

It is straightforward to evaluate the apparent sunrise and sunset hour angles for south facing surfaces.
Firstly, because of symmetry, SR = SS  = 's say. Instead of Eq.(3.17), Eq.( 3.22) can be used for a
south facing surface. Eq.(3.22) reproduced here as,

cos = cos ( -  ) cos  cos  + sin ( - ) sin  (3.22)

By setting  = /2 Eq.(3.22) and solving for ,

"s = arcos [ - tan (  -  ) tan  ] (9.12)

The negative value of 's given by Eq.(8.8) is the apparent sunrise hour angle and the positive value is the
sunset hour angle according to the sign convention adapted in this course and other standard text books, say
by Duffie and Beckman [1].

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Limiting Values for the Apparent Sunrise and Sunset Hour Angles:

1, 2 , given by Eqs.(9.5) and (9.6) or, '1 , 12 given by Eqs.(9.10) and (9.11) or "s given by Eq.(8.12)
may exceed the value of s , the real sunset hour angle, i.e., beyond the time determined by, - s to s there
is no sun above the horizon. Thus, irrespective of the values of 1, 2 , given by Eqs.(9.5) and (9.6) or, '1 ,
12 given by Eqs.(9.10) and (9.11) or "s given by Eq.(9.12), the apparent sunrise and sunset hour angles
need to be limited to s.

Thus, the apparent sunrise and sunset hour angles are given by,

SR = SIGN [ min ( s , 1 ), ( - AC - B  ) ] (9.13)

SS = SIGN [ min ( s , 2 ), ( - AC + B  ) ] (9.14)

In Eqs.(9.13) and (9.14), 1 and 2 are the positive values as obtained using Eqs.( 9.5) and (9.6). By
recalling, the two values (each) for '1 and '2 as given by Eqs.( 9.10) and (9.11), differ by 1700, but the
sign is the same. The sign is determined by the sign of , ( - AC - B  ) or (- AC + B  ). Hence the
algorithms as given by Eqs.(9.13) and (9.14).

For south facing surfaces, the apparent sunrise or sunset hour angle is determined, after limiting to
s , from,

s' = min [s , "s ] (9.15)

In Eq.(9.15), s and "s are given by,

s = arcos [ -tan  tan  ]

"s = arcos [ - tan (  -  ) tan  ]

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Evaluation of Rb

The direct radiation makes the same angle with a given tilted surface either under terrestrial or
extraterrestrial conditions. Hence, Eq.(9.4) can be evaluated by first representing as an integral in terms of
the terrestrial direct radiation intensity Gb and approximating Gb by Go. Thus, R b evaluated under
extraterrestrial conditions is given by,

 SS

 G R d
 SR
0 b

Rb  s
(9.16)
2  G0 d
0

Using Eq.(5.2) for G0 and Eq.(8.6) for Rb, Eq.(9.16) simplifies to,

Rb 
 cos d (9.17)
 cos d z

Using Eq.(3.6) {or Eqs. (3.7) to (3.10)} for cos  and Eq.(3.11) for cosz in Eq.(9.17), upon integrating and
substituting the limits, it follows that R b for a surface of general orientation is given by,

cos  sin  sin  K  sin  cos  sin  cos  K  cos  cos  cos  L
 cos  cos  sin  sin  L  cos  sin  sin  M
Rb  (9.18)
2cos  cos  sin  S   180 S sin  sin  

where,

K   SS   SR  180 (9.19)

L  sin  SS  sin  SR (9.20)

M  cos  SS  cos  SR (9.21)

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The apparent sunrise and sunset hour angles SS and SR are given by Eqs.(9.13) and (9.14). The sunset

hour angle S is obtained from Eq.(3.14). For a south facing surface Eq.(9.17) simplifies to,

cos    cos  sin  s'   180 s' sin     sin 

Rb  (9.22)
cos  cos  sin  s   180 s sin  sin 

The apparent sunset hour angle  S' for a south facing surface can be obtained from Eq.(9.15).

HT, the solar radiation received by a surface of general orientation can now be estimated using first
equality of Eq.(9.2a) using Eq.(9.3) for R or using the second equality of Eq.(9.2a) along with Eq.(9.17) for

Rb . For a south facing surface, the procedure remains the same except that Eq.(9.22), a simpler equation is

used for Rb instead of Eq.(9.17) .

Values of R b given by Eqs.(9.17) or (9.17) are accurate enough, particularly for south facing
surfaces. The reasons for this fortuitous result are elaborated in Satyamurty and Acharya [11]. Satyamurty
and Acharya evaluated R b given under terrestrial conditions expressing Ib using the correlations for rt and rd
due to Collares-pereira and Rabl [7] and Liu and Jordan [8]. Later studies due to Lahiri [10] employed
improved correlations for rt and rd due to Satyamurty and Lahiri [9].

9.3 ESTIMATION OF MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACES

It has been found that the monthly average daily radiation on tilted surfaces H T can be estimated through a
relation analogous to Eq.(9.2a), read as under,

HT  R H (9.23)

R is now, the monthly average daily tilt factor and H is the monthly average daily radiation on a
horizontal surface as defined in Module 4, Terminology. R can be expressed as,

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 H  H  1  cos    1  cos  
R  1  d  Rb  d      (9.24)
   2   2 
 H  H

In Eq.(9.24) H d is the monthly average daily diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface. R b a purely
geometric factor as a consequence of the approximation that it has been evaluated under extraterrestrial
conditions, now needs to be evaluated on the mean day off the month. In other words, SR, SS,  S' , s are

to be evaluated with monthly mean declination given in Table 5.1.

It is to be noted that, though the second and third terms in Eq. (9.24) do not involve any
approximation in summing up the daily radiation over a tilted surface over the month and averaging (by
dividing with N, the number of days in the month, 30 or 31). R b , strictly speaking, is a weighted average of
daily tilt factors for direct radiation weighted with the corresponding daily direct horizontal radiation.
Evaluating, R b , on the monthly mean day does not lead to any significant loss in accuracy, since, the
change in R b due to change in declination from day to day is small.
Also, it is important to recognize that Eqs. (9.3) and (9.24) express R , the daily or the monthly
average daily tilt factor in terms of the daily or monthly average daily diffuse fraction. In other words, using
the correlations due to Collares-pereira and Rabl [7] or others for Hd/H or H d / H the daily radiation or the

monthly average daily radiation received by tilted surfaces can be estimated when even H or H only are
known.

9.4 SUMMARY
 Methods to estimate solar radiation on a surface of given orientation over a long term, a day or a
month, have been developed.

 The methodology involves expressing a tilt factor as comprising of contributions due to direct
radiation, sky diffuse radiation and ground reflected radiation.

 The expressions for the factors valid for a short time interval as developed in Module 8 are
available. The factors, particularly applicable for direct radiation for a day or a monthly average day
have been developed approximately, under extraterrestrial conditions. This approximation
fortuitously yields results of acceptable accuracy except under certain special situations.

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 The apparent sunrise and sunset hour angles needed in evaluating the tilt factor for direct radiation
have been identified to be of crucial importance and methods to estimate them correctly have been
presented.

 It is worth noting that the methods developed in this Module are not restricted to usual " solar
collector" orientation ( south facing ) and are finding increasing utilization in applications dealing
with architecture, air conditioning, lighting etc.

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