Three unique requirements: 

objectivity, reproducibility, and systematization.

 Objectivity requires an approach that is independent of the researcher’s personal view with
respect to the answers to the problems under investigation. 
Reproducibility is a procedure that ensures that other researchers could duplicate the research
and obtain the same results. 
Systematization, the most important of the three research-investigation requirements, needs each
step to be planned so that it will yield what is necessary at the next step.  Systematization in
research is synonymous with planning of research. 
Therefore, no investigation can fulfill the three requirements of a research investigation unless it
is properly planned in advance.

The research investigation can be divided into the following seven sequential steps:
A.     Formulation of research problem
B.     Review of related research
C.     Definition of concepts, variables, and hypotheses
D.     Selection of research design
E.      Selection of data collection technique
F.      Selection of subjects
G.     Planning of data processing and analysis

 A.  FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

A. Select Research Topic
 a) Practical concerns
[may present topics for research.  Basically, these can be divided into three categories:
1.      Provision of information for decision making on the need for some new or enlarged
facilities or services.
2.      Provision of information concerning the probable consequences of various courses of
action for deciding among proposed alternatives.
3.      Prediction of some future course of events in order to plan appropriate action.]
b) Scientific or intellectual interests
[may suggest an equally wide range of topics for research.  Here, the selection of the topic may
arise (a) from a concern with some social problem or (b) from an interest in some general theme
or area of behavior.
The major difference between topics suggested by practical concerns and those dictated by
scientific interests is that the latter are less likely to involve the study of a specific situation
primarily for the sake of knowledge about that particular situation.
Before the investigator can select data-collection and data-analysis procedures, he or she needs to
formulate a specific scientific problem that can be investigated.]
 B. Discover a problem in need of solution.
 
B. REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH
There are two main reasons for reviewing:
1.      To explain and clarify the theoretical rationale of the problem.
2.      To tell the reader what research has and has not been done on the problem.
 
C. DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS, VARIABLES, AND HYPOTHESES
Concepts, variables and hypotheses are the linking pins between theory and empirical test.
1.      Concepts are terms that refer to the characteristics of events, situations, groups, and
individuals that are studied. 
Examples: justice, love, tree table….
To test a theory or proposition, the nominally defined concepts must be put to an empirical test. 
This requires their operational definition.  Operational definitions are nothing more than nominal
definitions quantified.
2.      Variables are concepts that have been operationally defined; relational units of analysis
that can assume any one of a number of designated sets of values or properties that take on
different values-a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned. 
Variables can be classified in at least three possible ways: 
1. Relationships with each other
2. According to the research design
3. According to their level of measurement
Relationships with Each Other 
Variables can be divided into four types: 
independent, dependent, intervening, and control. 
Independent variables are so called because they are independent of the outcome itself; instead
they are presumed to affect or influence the outcome. 
Dependent variables are so called because they are dependent on the independent variables. 
They are presumed to be the effect of the independent variables. 
Intervening variables are variables that come between the independent and the dependent
variables. 
Control variables are so called because they need to be held constant, or randomized, so that their
effects are neutralized or compensated.
According to the Research Design 
The variables that are manipulated are called active variables
The variables that are measured are called attribute variables.
According to the Level of Measurement 
Variables can be categorized as either discrete or continuous. 
Discrete or categorized variables are those variables that have a set of finite or fixed values. 
Continuous variables have no separate and distinct categories; rather, there is continuum that
represents gradually greater and greater amounts of the characteristic or quality.

Examples (variables)
IV- Independent Variable
DV- Dependent Variable
IVV- Intervening Variable
CV- Control Variable

MV- Moderating Variable

- Second IV is included because it is believed to have a significant contributory or contingent
effect on the original IV-DV relationship.
1. A promotion campaign (IV) will increase visitor arrivals (DV), especially when free prizes are
offered (MV), but chiefly among budget travelers (CV). The results come from enhancing the
motivation to travel (IVV)
2. In routine office work (CV). The introduction of a 4-day workweek (IV) will lead to higher
productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV).
The introduction of a 4-day workweek will lead to higher productivity by increasing job
satisfaction (IVV).
3. Hypotheses - proposition formulated for empirical testing; declarative statement of tentative
and conjectural nature
Characteristics of a good hypothesis. A good hypothesis should fulfill three conditions.
1. Adequate for its purpose
That is, it must clearly state the conditions, size or distribution of some variable in terms
of values meaningful to the research task if it a descriptive hypothesis. If it is an
explanatory hypothesis, it must explain the facts that give rise to the need for explanation.
Therefore, using the hypothesis, one should be able to deduce the original problem
condition.
1. Testable
If a hypothesis cannot be testable with the existing techniques or it defies all the known
physical or psychological laws, then it is not good.
2.  Better than its rivals
That is it must be able to explain the phenomenon with more facts and with greater
variety of facts than do others. It is a better hypothesis if it is simple and if it requires few
condition or assumptions.
Assumptions- statements accepted to be true without the necessity of proof
Hypotheses- statements which cannot be accepted to be true unless otherwise proven
 Null hypothesis (Ho)
-No difference or no relationship hypothesis
-It means neutrality and objectivity which must be present in any research undertaking
 Alternative Hypothesis (HI)
-Specifies an existence of a difference or a relationship
-Opposite of null hypothesis
-It is non-directional
 Predictive Hypothesis (HI)
-specifies that one group is better than the other and is therefore directional