Appendix A

Process and Mechanical Standard Table

A.1 STANDARD PREFIXES

TABLE A.1 Conversion Tables of Units

Coded Prefix Meaning of Prefixed Multiply Coded Meaning of Prefixed Multiply
p Unit By Prefix Unit By
da deka 10 d deci 10
1
h hecto 100 c centi 10
2
k kilo 1000 m milli 10
3
M mega 106 m micro 10
6

G giga 109 n nano 10
9

T tera 1012 p pico 10
12
P peta 1015 f femto 10
15
E exa 1018 a atto 10
18
Z zeta 1021 z zepto 10
21
Y yotta 1024 y yocto 10
24

A.2 STANDARD UNITS

TABLE A.2 Standard Units for Temperature

Celsius C K
273.15 (F
32)  5/9 (R
491.67)  5/9

Rankine R K  9/5 F + 459.67 C  9/5 + 491.67

Fahrenheit F R
459.67 C  9/5 +32 K  9/5
459.67
Kelvin K C + 273.15 R  5/9 (F + 459.67)  5/9

1045
1046 Appendix A

TABLE A.3 Standard Units for Pressure

Bar bar 105 N/m2 Atmospheres atm 1.01325  105 N/m2

Pascal Pa 1 N/m2 Inches of mercury inHg 3.387 kPa

2
Pounds per square inch psi 1 lb/in Millimeters of mercury mmHg 0.1333 kPa
2
Pounds per square foot psf 1 lb/ft Torr torr 1.333224 Pa
Kilo psi ksi 1000.0 psi

TABLE A.4 Standard Units for Volume

Liter L 1/1000.0 m3 Barrel (petroleum) barrel 158.9873 L
Gallon gal 3.785412 L Fluid ounce fl oz 29.57353 ml

Pint (U.S. liquid) pint 1/8. gal Tablespoon tbl 1/32. pint
Quart (U.S. liquid) qt 2 pint Teaspoon tsp 1/3. tbl
Pint (U.S. dry) dpint 0.5506105 L Cup cup 16. tbl
Quart (U.S. dry) dqt 2 dpint

TABLE A.5 Standard Units for Mass

Gram g 0.001 kg Short Ton ton 2000 lbm
Pound mass lbm 0.45359237 kg Long Ton ton_l 2240 lbm
Tonne T 1000 kg Ounce oz 28.34952 g
Tonne T 2205 lb Grain gr 64.79891 mg
Troy pound lbt 0.3732417 kg Hundredweight cwt 112 lbs/4 quarter
Carat (metric) carat 0.2 g Pennyweight dwt 1.55174 g

TABLE A.6 Standard Units for Distance

Foot ft 0.3048 m Astronomical unit AU/au 1.49598  1011 m
Inch in 1.0/12.0 ft Angstrom Ang 10
10 m
Mile mile 5280.0 ft Angstrom \\AA 1 Ang
League league 3 mile furlong furlong 220 yd
milliinch mil 0.001 in. fathom fathom 6 ft
Parsec pc 3.085678  10 m 6
Rod rd 16.5 ft

Meter m 1.094 yd Meter m 106 mm

Meter m 3.281ft Nautical mile/h knot 6080 ft/s
1.853 km/s

Meter m 39.37 in.

 Appendix A 1047

TABLE A.7 Standard Units for Area

Square mile 640 acres 259 hectares Square meter 1.196 sq. yds 10.76 sq. ft

Acre 4840 sq. yds 0.405 hectares Square kilometer 100 hectares 0.3861 sq. mile
4
Square yds 9 sq. ft 0.836 sq. m Hectares (ha) 10 sq. m 2.471 acres

TABLE A.8 Standard Units for Force/Weight

Newton N 1 kg m/s2 Poundal poundal 1 lbm ft/s2
Dyne dyn 10
5 N Kilopound kip 1000 lbf
Pound force lb lbm G Kilogram force kgf kg G
Pound force lbf lbm G

TABLE A.9 Standard Units for Energy

Joule J 1Nm British Thermal Unit Btu 107.6 m kg
British Thermal Unit BTU/Btu 1055.056 J British Thermal Unit Btu 0.2520 kcal
Calorie cal 4.1868 J Erg erg 10
7 J
Calorie Cal 4.1868 kJ Ton of TNT TNT 4.184  109 J
British Thermal Unit Btu 778 ft-lb Electron volt eV 1.602177  10
12 erg

TABLE A.10 Standard Units for Power

Watt W 1 J/s Horse power hp 550 ft lb/s
Kilowatt kW 738 ft-lb/s Horse power hp 746 W
Kilowatt kW 102 m.kg/s Horse power hp 76 m kg/s

TABLE A.11 Standard Units for Density

Density Cu ft/lb 0.0624 Cu m/kg Concentration lb/Cu ft 16.02 kg/Cu m
Density Cu m/kg 16.02 Cu ft/lb

TABLE A.12 Standard Units for Electromagnetism

Coulomb Co 1 Amp s Oersted Oe 79.57747 Amp turn/m
Faraday faraday 96,485.31 Co Webber Wb Vs

Farad farad Co/V Tesla Tesla Wb/m2

Stokes stokes 10
4 m2/s Henry H Wb/A
1048 Appendix A

TABLE A.13 Standard Units for Viscosity

Dynamic pascal s 10 Poise (P) Kinematic m2/s 104 Stokes (St)

Dynamic pascal s 10 dyne s/cm2 Kinematic 1 cm2/s 1 cSt

A.3 FLANGE DIMENSIONS other standardization organization specifications. ASME/

ANSI B16.5 provides dimensions and tolerances for flanges
They are determined by the pipe size and the pressure class in pipe sizes from 1/200 through 2400 and in classes ranging
required for the application. Most of these dimensions have from 150 through 2500.
been standardized and published as ASME, MSS, API, or

TABLE A.14 Flange Dimensions: Class 150

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS; Diameter of Flange Number of Diameter of Bolts (in.) Bolt Circle
in.) (in.) Bolts (in.)
1/4 3-3/8 4 1/2 2-1/4

1/2 3-1/2 4 1/2 2-3/8

3/4 3-7/8 4 1/2 2-3/4
1 4-1/4 4 1/2 3-1/8
1-1/4 4-5/8 4 1/2 3-1/2
1-1/2 5 4 1/2 3-7/8
2 6 4 5/8 4-3/4
2-1/2 7 4 5/8 5-1/2

3 7-1/2 4 5/8 6
3-1/2 8-1/2 8 5/8 7
4 9 8 5/8 7-1/2
5 10 8 3/4 8-1/2
6 11 8 3/4 9-1/2
8 13-1/2 8 3/4 11-3/4

10 16 12 7/8 14-1/4
12 19 12 7/8 17
14 21 12 1 18-3/4
16 23-1/2 16 1 21-1/4
18 25 16 1-1/8 22-3/4
20 27-1/2 20 1-1/8 25

24 32 20 1-1/4 29-1/2
 Appendix A 1049

TABLE A.15 Flange Dimensions: Class 300

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS; Diameter of Flange Number of Diameter of Bolts (in.) Bolt Circle
in.) (in.) Bolts (in.)
1/4 3-3/8 4 ½ 2-1/4
1/2 3-3/4 4 ½ 2-5/8
3/4 4-5/8 4 5/8 3-1/4
1 4-7/8 4 5/8 3-1/2
1-1/4 5-1/4 4 5/8 3-7/8
1-1/2 6-1/8 4 ¾ 4-1/2

2 6-1/2 8 5/8 5
2-1/2 7-1/2 8 ¾ 5-7/8
3 8-1/4 8 ¾ 6-5/8
3-1/2 9 8 3/4 7-1/4
4 10 8 3/4 7-7/8
5 11 8 3/4 9-1/4

6 12-1/2 12 3/4 10-5/8

8 15 12 7/8 13
10 17-1/2 16 1 15-1/4
12 20-1/2 16 1-1/8 17-3/4
14 23 20 1-1/8 20-1/4
16 25-1/2 20 1-1/4 22-1/2

18 28 24 1-1/4 24-3/4
20 30-1/2 24 1-1/4 27
24 36 24 1-1/2 32

TABLE A.16 Flange Dimensions: Class 400

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS; Diameter of Flange Number of Diameter of Bolts (in.) Bolt Circle
in.) (in.) Bolts (in.)
1/4 3-3/8 4 1/2 2-1/4
1/2 3-3/4 4 1/2 2-5/8
3/4 4-5/8 4 5/8 3-1/4

1 4-7/8 4 5/8 3-1/2

1-1/4 5-1/4 4 5/8 3-7/8
1-1/2 6-1/8 4 3/4 4-1/2
2 6-1/2 8 5/8 5
2-1/2 7-1/2 8 3/4 5-7/8
3 8-1/4 8 3/4 6-5/8

3-1/2 9 8 7/8 7-1/4

Continued
1050 Appendix A

TABLE A.16 Flange Dimensions: Class 400—cont’d

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS; Diameter of Flange Number of Diameter of Bolts (in.) Bolt Circle
in.) (in.) Bolts (in.)
4 10 8 7/8 7-7/8
5 11 8 7/8 9-1/4
6 12-1/2 12 7/8 10-5/8
8 15 12 1 13

10 17-1/2 16 1-1/8 15-1/4

12 20-1/2 16 1-1/4 17-3/4
14 23 20 1-1/4 20-1/4
16 25-1/2 20 1-3/8 22-1/2
18 28 24 1-3/8 24-3/4
20 30-1/2 24 1-1/2 27

24 36 24 1-3/4 32

TABLE A.17 Flange Dimensions: Class 600

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS; Diameter of Flange Number of Diameter of Bolts (in.) Bolt Circle
in.) (in.) Bolts (in.)
1/4 3-3/8 4 1/2 2-1/4
1/2 3-3/4 4 1/2 2-5/8
3/4 4-5/8 4 5/8 3-1/4

1 4-7/8 4 5/8 3-1/2

1-1/4 5-1/4 4 5/8 3-7/8
1-1/2 6-1/8 4 3/4 4-1/2
2 6-1/2 8 5/8 5
2-1/2 7-1/2 8 3/4 5-7/8
3 8-1/4 8 3/4 6-5/8

3-1/2 9 8 7/8 7-1/4

4 10-3/4 8 7/8 8-1/2
5 13 8 1 10-1/2
6 14 12 1 11-1/2
8 16-1/2 12 1-1/8 13-3/4
10 20 16 1-1/4 17

12 22 20 1-1/4 19-1/4
14 23-3/4 20 1-3/8 20-3/4
16 27 20 1-1/2 23-3/4
18 29-1/4 20 1-5/8 25-3/4
20 32 24 1-5/8 28-1/2
24 37 24 1-7/8 33
 Appendix A 1051

TABLE A.18 Flange Dimensions: Class 900

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS; Diameter of Flange Number of Diameter of Bolts (in.) Bolt Circle
in.) (in.) Bolts (in.)
1/2 4-3/4 4 3/4 3-1/4
3/4 5-1/8 4 3/4 3-1/2
1 5-7/8 4 7/8 4
1-1/4 6-1/4 4 7/8 4-3/8
1-1/2 7 4 1 4-7/8
2 8-1/2 8 7/8 6-1/2

2-1/2 9-5/8 8 1 7-1/2

3 9-1/2 8 7/8 7-1/2
4 11-1/2 8 1-1/8 9-1/4
5 13-3/4 8 1-1/4 11
6 15 12 1-1/8 12-1/2
8 18-1/2 12 1-3/8 15-1/2

10 21-1/2 16 1-3/8 18-1/2

12 24 20 1-3/8 21
14 25-1/4 20 1-1/2 22
16 27-3/4 20 1-5/8 24-1/2
18 31 20 1-7/8 27
20 33-3/4 20 2 29-1/2

24 41 20 2-1/2 35-1/2

TABLE A.19 Flange Dimensions: Class 1500

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS; Diameter of Flange Number of Diameter of Bolts (in.) Bolt Circle
in.) (in.) Bolts (in.)
1/2 4-3/4 4 3/4 3-1/4
3/4 5-1/8 4 3/4 3-1/2
1 5-7/8 4 7/8 4

1-1/4 6-1/4 4 7/8 4-3/8

1-1/2 7 4 1 4-7/8
2 8-1/2 8 7/8 6-1/2
2-1/2 9-5/8 8 1 7-1/2
3 10-1/2 8 1-1/8 8
4 12-1/4 8 1-1/4 9-1/2

5 14-3/4 8 1-1/2 11-1/2

6 15-1/2 12 1-3/8 12-1/2
8 19 12 1-5/8 15-1/2
10 23 12 1-7/8 19
Continued
1052 Appendix A

TABLE A.19 Flange Dimensions: Class 1500—cont’d

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS; Diameter of Flange Number of Diameter of Bolts (in.) Bolt Circle
in.) (in.) Bolts (in.)
12 26-1/2 16 2 22-1/2
14 29-1/2 16 2-1/4 25
16 32-1/2 16 2-1/2 27-3/4
18 36 16 2-3/4 30-1/2

20 38-3/4 16 3 32-3/4
24 46 16 3-1/2 39

TABLE A.20 Flange Dimensions: Class 2500

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS; Diameter of Flange Number of Diameter of Bolts (in.) Bolt Circle
in.) (in.) Bolts (in.)
1/2 5-1/4 4 3/4 3-1/2
3/4 5-1/2 4 3/4 3-3/4
1 6-1/4 4 7/8 4-1/4

1-1/4 7-1/4 4 1 5-1/8

1-1/2 8 4 1-1/8 5-3/4
2 9-1/4 8 1 6-3/4
2-1/2 10-1/2 8 1-1/8 7-3/4
3 12 8 1-1/4 9
4 14 8 1-1/2 10-3/4

5 16-1/2 8 1-3/4 12-3/4

6 19 8 2 14-1/2
8 21-3/4 12 2 17-1/4
10 26-1/2 12 2-1/2 21-1/4
12 30 12 2-3/4 24-3/8

A.4 VISCOSITY
Dynamic viscosity of liquid water at different temperatures
up to the normal boiling point is listed below.

TABLE A.21 Dynamic Viscosity of Liquid Water

Temperature 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
in °C
Viscosity in 1.308 1.002 0.7978 0.6531 0.5471 0.4668 0.4044 0.3550 0.3150 0.2822
mPa s
 Appendix A 1053

Dynamic viscosities of some gases at 1 kg/cm2 are listed

below.

TABLE A.22 Dynamic Viscosity of Gas

Air Hydrogen Helium Argon Xenon Carbon Methane Ethane
dioxide
Temperature 0/27 0/27 27 27 0/27 27 27 27
in °C
Viscosity in 17.4/ 8.4/9 20 22.9 21.2/ 15 11.2 9.5
mPa s 18.6 23.2

TABLE A.23 Dynamic Viscosity of Differential Liquids

Acetone 0.306 Mercury 1.526
Benzene 0.604 Methanol 0.544
Castor oil 985 Nitrobenzene 1.863

Corn syrup 1380.6 Nitrogen (liquid) at
196°C 0.158

Ethanol 1.074 Propanol 1.945
Ethylene glycol 16.1 Olive oil 81
Glycerol (at 20°C) 1200 Pitch 2.3  1011
HFO 2022 Sulfuric acid 24.2

Viscosity (in cP) of liquids (at 25°C unless otherwise specified); 1 cP (centipoise) ¼ 1 mPa s. HFO, heavy fuel oil.

TABLE A.24 Dynamic Viscosity of Other Liquids

Blood (37°C) (3–4)  10
3 Molten chocolate 45–130
Honey 2–10 Ketchup 50–100
Molasses 5–10 Lard 100
Molten glass 10–1000 peanut butter 250
Chocolate syrup 10–25

Viscosity (in Pa s) of various fluids (at 25°C unless otherwise specified).

A.5 DYNAMIC VISCOSITY chemical engineers; Greek letter: Eta (
); used by
Definition: If a fluid with a viscosity of 1 Pa s is placed chemists, physicists.
between two plates, and one plate is pushed sideways SI unit: pascal (Pa), Pascal second (Pa s) or Newton
with a shear force of 1 Pa, it moves a distance equal second/sq. meter (N s/m2) or kg/(m s).
to the thickness of the layer between the plates in 1 s. Cgs unit: poise (P; named after Jean Louis Marie Poi-
Symbol: Greek letter mu (m); http://en.wikipedia.org/ seuille) or centipoise (cP).
wiki/Viscosity-cite_note-3 used by mechanical and Relations: 1 Pa s ¼ 10 P ¼ 1000 cP.
1054 Appendix A

A.6 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY A.7 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON

Definition: Ratio of viscosity and density or m/r.
Symbol: Greek letter nu (n).
SI unit: m2/s (no special name). The SI unit of r is kg/
m3.
Cgs unit: Stokes (St; named after Sir George Gabriel
Stokes) or centistokes (cSt).
Relations: 1 m2/s ¼ 10,000 St ¼ 106 cSt or 1 mm2/s ¼ 1
cSt. Water at 20°C has a kinematic viscosity of about
1 cSt.
Sometimes the ratio of the inertial force (resistant to change
or motion) to viscous (heavy and gluey) force is required
for calculation purposes, for example, Reynolds number
(Re ¼ mL/n).
Kinematic viscocity (cSt OR mm2/s)
VISCOSITY
The temperature and viscosity of liquids are inversely pro-
portional. To be more specific, when temperature increases,
viscosity decreases. For liquid services, kinematic viscosity
of liquid is defined at a set temperature (for example, 40°C
for oil as per the ISO standard). The curve is linear with vis-
cosity values in the logarithmic scale (vertical axis) and
temperature values in linear scale (horizontal axis). Each
viscosity-temperature characteristic line is plotted
according to their viscosity index, which is actually the gra-
dient of the line. The greater the value of the viscosity
index, the smaller the change in viscosity for a given change
in temperature and vice versa. A sample characteristic
curve is shown in Fig. A.1.

Temperature (°)
FIG. A.1 Typical kinematic viscosity-temperature graph of a liquid.
 Appendix A 1055

TABLE A.25 Combustion Equations and Heat Release

Combustible Molecular Weight Reaction Heat Release in Btu/lb

Carbon 12 C + O2 ¼> CO2 14,100
Hydrogen 2 2H2 + O2 ¼> 2H2O 61,000
Methane 16 CH4 + 2O2 ¼> CO2 + 2H2O 23,900
Ethane 30 2C2H6 + 7O2 ¼> 4CO2 + 6H2O 22,300
Propane 44 C3H8 + 5O2 ¼> 3CO2 + 4H2O 21,500

Butane 58 2C4H10 + 13O2 ¼> 8CO2 + 10H2O 21,300

Pentane 72 C5H12 + 8O2 ¼> 5CO2 + 6H2O 22,000
Sulfur 32 S + O2 ¼> SO2 4000
Hydrogen 34 2H2S + 3O2 ¼> 2SO2 + 2H2O 7100
Sulfide

The viscosity of gases, on the other hand, increases as BIBLIOGRAPHY

temperature increases and is approximately proportional
to the square root of the temperature. The viscosity-
temperature characteristic line is plotted with both param-
eters in linear scale, and the graph indicates a
hyperbolic curve.
[1] ASME/ANSI B16.5 for flange details.
[2] Viscosity of Hydraulic Oil: By Martin Cuthbert MEng (Hons), Webtec
Products Ltd, UK.
[3] Documents on Reynold’s Number: By National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Glen Research Centre.