Tigist Ketsela GC-2022 Hwy Project

Link Road Design from Dandi to Jaldu
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, greatest thanks from the depth of our heart is to the almighty GOD,
for endowing us with the courage, strength as well as health throughout our school time
and the full help provided by him for the successful accomplishment of this final project
for the partial fulfillment of the BSc Degree in Civil Engineering.
We would also like to express our gratitude to Rift Valley University, Labu-Lafto
Campus and department of Civil Engineering for allowing and helping on
commencement and proceeding of this road design project
Next, it is our deepest gratitude and respect to our project advisor Ebisa Adamu, (BSc in
civil engineering) for his valuable advice, sincerity, and very humble way of approach
throughout the working time for the successful completion of this project.
Finally, would like to express our sincere appreciation and heartfelt gratitude to our
families who are always keeping aside of us in contributing financial support and all the
way.
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ABSTRACT
Transportation deals with the movement of humans and materials from Place to place. In
the world, there are various types of transportations like Road, railway, air, water, etc.
For rapid economic, social and industrial growth of our country, Ethiopia, a good
system of transportation is very necessary. This road design project connects two
Woredas in Oromia region, namely Dandi to Jaldu town. The topography of this project
route corridor is flat and rolling. The climatic condition of the project area combines
semi – cold and partly warm climatic features.
The reason why the project designer chosen this project was to contribute to the
development of the country at large, as it is straightforward that the development of a
certain nation in various perspectives is dependent on the level of the network of roads.
The other stand point was that, the project designer was highly eager to be part of those
scholars who are highway road designers and believed that, through doing this project,
his knowledge and skills towards designing highway roads will be improved profoundly.
The general objective of this project was to design a rural Link road highway from
Dandi to Jaldu. Whereas, the specific objectives were designing:-the horizontal and
vertical alignment of link road, flexible pavement of Link road and surface and
subsurface drainage of Link road. Estimating the cost of the project and recommending
possible remedial measures for design defects and shortcomings were also the specific
objectives of this project.
While performing this project, in addition to manual computations, the project designer
used software’s like MXROAD for design and analysis of horizontal and vertical
alignments, pavement design and earth work calculations. AUTOCAD for displaying
different cross sections of the roadway and hence obtain the values required. EXCEL for
calculating earth work quantities, calculating both horizontal and vertical curve
elements and thereby offsets, drawing mass haul diagram and the like.
The results of this project were geometric design, pavement and drainage design. The
project designer, designed the tangent sections, both vertical and horizontal curve
alignments, transition curves, super elevations, sight distances both passing and
stopping, cross sectional elements, gradients, calculation of earth work quantities and
hence, mass haul diagram, pavement and drainage designs.
Key words: - Transportation, link road, geometric design, pavement design, drainage
design, earth work, MXROAD, AUTOCAD, EXCEL.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT....................................................................................................i
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................ii
ACRONYMS....................................................................................................................xiv
CHAPTER ONE..................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................1
1.1 Back Ground..............................................................................................................1
1.2 Project Description.....................................................................................................1
1.3 Project Questions.......................................................................................................3
1.4 Objective of the Study................................................................................................4
1.5 Significance of the Study...........................................................................................5
1.6 Route Selection..........................................................................................................5
1.7 Scope of the Study.....................................................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO.................................................................................................................6
LITERATURE REVIEW....................................................................................................6
2.1 Design Controls and Criteria......................................................................................6
2.1.1 Functional Classification of the Road.................................................................6
2.1.2 Terrain Classification..........................................................................................8
2.1.3 Design Vehicle....................................................................................................9
2.1.4 Character of Adjoining land use........................................................................10
2.1.5 Design Speed.....................................................................................................10
2.2 Horizontal Alignment..............................................................................................11
2.2.1 Tangents............................................................................................................12
2.2.2 Curve Alignment...............................................................................................12
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2.2.3 Simple Circular Curves.....................................................................................13
2.2.4 Elements of Horizontal Curve...........................................................................14
2.2.5 Horizontal curve calculation Parameters for different standard........................15
2.2.6 Setting out of Horizontal Curve........................................................................15
2.2.7 Spiral Curve.......................................................................................................15
2.2.7.1 Minimum Length of Spiral.............................................................................16
2.2.7.2 Maximum Length of Spiral............................................................................17
2.3 Super Elevation and Curve Widening......................................................................18
2.3.1 Super Elevation.................................................................................................19
2.3.2 Super Elevation Runoff and Run out................................................................23
2.3.3 Locating Super Elevation Runoff and Run out.................................................25
2.3.4 Widening...........................................................................................................25
2.3.4.1 Construction of Traveled Way Widening......................................................26
2.3.4.2 Application of Widening on Curves...............................................................26
2.3.4.3 Design Value of Widening.............................................................................27
2.3.4.4 Widening on Curves.......................................................................................28
2.4 Vertical Alignment...................................................................................................29
2.4.1 Profile................................................................................................................30
2.4.2 Gradients...........................................................................................................30
2.4.3 Climbing Lane...................................................................................................34
2.4.4 Vertical Curve..................................................................................................34
2.4.4.1 Crest Curves...................................................................................................35
2.4.4.2 Sag curves.......................................................................................................36
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2.4.5 Design of Vertical Curve...................................................................................37
2.4.6 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment.................................................39
2.4.6.1 Types of Mis-Phasing.....................................................................................39
2.5 Sight Distance..........................................................................................................41
2.5.1 Stopping Sight Distance....................................................................................42
2.5.1.1 Brake Reaction Distance................................................................................42
2.5.1.2 Braking Distance............................................................................................43
2.5.1.3 Effect of Grade on Stopping Sight Distance..................................................44
2.5.1.4 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves..............................................45
2.5.1.5 Stopping Sight Distance on Vertical Curves..................................................46
2.5.2 Passing Sight Distance......................................................................................47
2.5.2.1 Effect of Grade on Passing Sight Distance....................................................49
2.5.2.2 Passing Sight Distance on Crest Curve..........................................................50
2.6 Cross Section............................................................................................................51
2.6.1 Right-Of-Way....................................................................................................52
2.6.2 Travelled Way.............................................................................................54
2.6.3 Normal Cross Fall.............................................................................................54
2.6.4 Shoulder Width..................................................................................................55
2.6.5 Side Slopes and Back Slopes.............................................................................56
2.6.6 Road Side Ditches.............................................................................................57
2.7 Earth Work...............................................................................................................58
2.7.1 End Area Calculations.......................................................................................59
2.7.2 Calculating Earthwork.....................................................................................60
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2.7.3 Mass Haul Diagram.........................................................................................61
2.8 Pavement Design......................................................................................................63
2.8.1 Types of Pavement............................................................................................63
2.8.2 Layered Structure of Flexible Pavement...........................................................65
2.8.3 Traffic Loading Analysis for Highway Pavements...........................................66
2.8.4 Traffic Stream Composition..............................................................................67
2.8.5 Traffic Loading Computation............................................................................67
2.8.6 Directional Split and Design Lane Traffic Loading..........................................67
2.8.7 Design Period....................................................................................................68
2.8.8 Traffic Volumes................................................................................................69
2.8.8.1 Traffic Forecasting.........................................................................................70
2.8.8.2 Determination of Cumulative Traffic Volume...............................................70
2.8.8.3 Traffic Class of Flexible Pavement................................................................72
2.8.9 Determining the Sub grade Strength Class........................................................73
2.8.10 Design of Pavement Thickness.......................................................................74
2.9 Drainage Design.......................................................................................................74
2.9.1 Surface and Sub-surface Drainage....................................................................74
2.9.2 Factors Affecting Drainage...............................................................................76
2.9.3 Hydrologic Procedures......................................................................................76
2.9.3.1 Rational Method.............................................................................................77
2.9.3.2 Time of Concentration....................................................................................78
2.9.3.3 Rainfall Intensity............................................................................................79
2.9.3.4 Runoff Coefficient..........................................................................................79
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2.9.3.5 Hydrological Soil Group................................................................................79
2.9.4 Culvert...............................................................................................................80
2.9.4.1 Culvert Type Selection...................................................................................80
2.9.4.2 Culvert Length and Slope...............................................................................81
2.9.4.3 End Treatment for Culvert.............................................................................81
2.9.4.4 Culvert Design Details...................................................................................82
2.9.5 Longitudinal Drainage.......................................................................................82
2.10 Traffic Control and Markings................................................................................84
2.10.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................84
2.10.2 Traffic Signs....................................................................................................84
2.10.3 General Principles of Traffic Signing.............................................................87
2.10.4 Traffic Signals.................................................................................................88
2.10.5 Road Markings................................................................................................88
CHAPTER THREE...........................................................................................................93
PROJECT METHODOLOGY...........................................................................................93
3.1 .Study Area...............................................................................................................93
3.2.1 Dependent variables..........................................................................................93
3.2.2 Independent variables........................................................................................93
3.3 Methodology............................................................................................................94
3.4 Study Population......................................................................................................94
CHAPTER FOUR..............................................................................................................95
RESULT AND DISCUSSION..........................................................................................95
4.1 Route Selection........................................................................................................95
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4.2 Terrain classification................................................................................................95
4.3 Design Standard.......................................................................................................95
4.4 Horizontal Alignment Design..................................................................................96
4.4.1 Tangent..............................................................................................................96
4.4.2 Simple circular curves.......................................................................................97
4.4.3 Horizontal Curve Calculation Parameters for Different Standard....................97
4.4.4 Setting out of horizontal curve........................................................................100
4.4.5 Spiral curve......................................................................................................103
4.5 Vertical alignment Design.....................................................................................109
4.5.1 Computation of offsets....................................................................................112
4.5.2 Sight Distance Design.....................................................................................113
4.6 Cross Section..........................................................................................................122
4.7 Shoulder and Curve Widening...............................................................................123
4.8 Super Elevation......................................................................................................123
4.9 Pavement Design....................................................................................................125
4.10 Earth Work...........................................................................................................131
4.11 Drainage Design...................................................................................................132
4.12 Traffic control & markings..................................................................................139
CHAPTER FIVE.............................................................................................................142
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION...............................................................142
5.1 Conclusion.........…………………………………………………………………142
5.2 Recommendation...................................................................................................143
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References........................................................................................................................144
APPENDIX......................................................................................................................145
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Standards versus road classification...................................................................7
Table 2.2: Terrain type........................................................................................................9
Table 2.3: Design vehicle dimension and characteristics..................................................10
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Table 2.4: Table design speed versus terrain type.............................................................11
Table 2.5: Minimum Radii of Horizontal curves 8% Super elevation..............................13
Table 2.6: Widening of curves and high fills....................................................................27
Table 2.7: Maximum gradient vs. design standards..........................................................31
Table 2.8: Critical length of Gradient................................................................................33
Table 2.9: Minimum values for crest vertical curves........................................................38
Table 2.10: Minimum values for sag vertical curves........................................................38
Table 2.11: Sight distance..................................................................................................43
Table 2.12: Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance...........48
Table 2.13: Design speed versus average acceleration......................................................50
Table 2.14: Clearance distance(d3) Vs. Ambient Speeds..................................................51
Table 2.15: design speed vs. terrain classification............................................................53
Table 2.16: shoulder width versus DS...............................................................................55
Table 2.17: side slopes and back slopes............................................................................56
Table 2.18 Shrinkage factor...............................................................................................62
Table 2.19: Road classifications versus design period......................................................69
Table 2.20: Vehicle Classification.....................................................................................69
Table 2.21: Traffic Classes of Flexible pavement.............................................................72
Table 2.22: Sub-Grade Classes..........................................................................................73
Table 2.23: given data for drainage design........................................................................77
Table 2.24: Runoff coefficient for pervious surface..........................................................80
Table 2.25: Manning’s roughness coefficient and maximum velocity..............................83
Table 2.26: Run off coefficient..........................................................................................83
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Table 4.1: Terrain classification........................................................................................95
Table 4.2: Summary of Horizontal Curve Element...........................................................99
Table 4.3: Horizontal curve setting out for curve-1........................................................101
Table 4.4: offset of vertical alignment.............................................................................112
Table 4.5: Clearance distance(d3) Vs. Ambient Speeds..................................................120
Table 4.6: Traffic Forecasting.........................................................................................125
Table 4.7: One directional traffic flow............................................................................126
Table 4.8: One directional cumulative traffic flow.........................................................126
Table 4.9: Equivalency Factor for Track Trailer.............................................................127
Table 4.10: Equivalent standard axles (ESAs)................................................................128
Table 4.11: alternatives pavement thickness...................................................................128
Table 4.12: relative cost of possible alternative pavement structure...............................130
Table 4.13: Manning’s roughness coefficient and maximum velocity............................132
Table 4.14: Surface Run off Coefficient..........................................................................133
Table 4.15 Traffic sign....................................................................................................139
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Element of Horizontal Curve..........................................................................14
Figure 2.2: horizontal curve with transition......................................................................17
Figure 2.3: Super elevation perspective view....................................................................20
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Figure 2.4: Supper elevations without transition curve.....................................................22
Figure 2.5: Super elevation run out...................................................................................24
Figure 2.6: Curve widening...............................................................................................28
Figure 2.7: Vertical profile................................................................................................30
Figure 2.8: Crest Curve......................................................................................................36
Figure 2.9: Sag Curve........................................................................................................37
Figure 2.10: Sight distance for horizontal distance...........................................................45
Figure 2.11: Stopping sight distance at sag vertical curves...............................................46
Figure 2.12: Stopping Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves.......................................47
Figure 2.13: Passing Sight Distance..................................................................................49
Figure 2.14: Typical Section for DS3 Road in Rural Region............................................52
Figure 2.15: Designation of Roadside Regions Source.....................................................57
Figure 2.16: Road Side Ditches.........................................................................................58
Figure 2.17: Rigid Pavement structure..............................................................................65
Figure 2.18: Elements of a Flexible Pavement..................................................................66
Figure 2.19: Warning signs................................................................................................86
Figure 3.1 project location area.........................................................................................93
Figure 4.1: Fill cross section............................................................................................122
Figure 4.2: Cut cross section...........................................................................................122
Figure 4.3: Cut and fill cross section...............................................................................123
Figure 4.5: Provided Trapezoidal Cross Section.............................................................135
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ACRONYMS
AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
BVC Beginning of Vertical Curve
CBR California Bearing Ratio
DDM Drainage Design Manual
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DS Design standard
DV Design vehicle
ELH Economic Limit of Haul
ERA Ethiopian Roads Authority
ESA Equivalent Single Axle
EVC End of Vertical Curve
FH Free Haul
GDM Geometric Design Manual
HMA Hot Mixed Asphalt
PC Point of Curvature
PCC Portland cement Concrete
PDM Pavement Design Manual
PI Point of Intersection
PSD Passing Sight Distance
PT Point of Tangency
PVI Point of Vertical Intersection
RF Rational Formula
ROW Right-of-way
RPSD Reduced Passing Sight Distance
SCS Soil Conservation Service
SSD Stopping Sight Distance
WD Wheel Drive
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Back Ground
This two-lane highway project is located in west shawa part of Ethiopia in the region of
Oromia, connecting two woredas namely from Dandi to Jaldu towns. The project was
intended for the provision of well-designed and facilitated road for smooth and safe flow
of traffic. As a result, an increased socio-economic development between the two towns.
This project, namely Dandi to Jaldu road design, the part that the project designer was
provided with, to design is about 2.980 Km which starts at about 0+000 chainage from
the beginning of the whole project and ends at 2+980chainage.
1.2 Project Description

I. Location of the site
The Dandi to Jaldu road is found in west shawa part of Ethiopia in the region of Oromia.
It links two towns, Dandi and Jaldu, which are at high economic growth, where these
towns are the capital city of Ginch and Gojjo towns respectively.
Topography
Topography of the area is also an influence in the different aspects of designing and
construction process of the road, beginning from the report on the corridor selection to
the geometric alignment. The topography data associating with hydrology for instance,
can provide a detail of relief and general stream direction and drainage patterns of the
region.
Ethiopia has four main topographic regions.
 Low lands (mainly in the eastern regions, from below sea level to 500 meters
above sea level, with isolated hilly.
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 Broad nearly flat areas of inland drainage, including the swaps
 Plateau
 Mountainous
The topography of the project route corridor is flat and rolling.
II. Climatic Condition
Climatic condition of the zone has a strong influence on the designing of the road, soil
characteristics of the site, subgrade strength of the road and in general its construction
process and pavement performance.
This is particularly true for our country where a wide range of climatic zones are
encountered, From desert in the north – east triangle to temperate and mountainous
(subalpine) over a significant part of the country with annual rainfall up to 1600 mm.
The climate for instance, influences the subgrade moisture content and strength and
required precautions to ensure adequate drainage. A rainfall also influences the selection
of adequate materials of pavement, such as the allowable limits of materials properties
and is a potential incentive to use stabilized materials or borrowed fill materials as well as
the temperature influences the selection and design of bituminous surfacing.
Climatic condition also affects the nature of the soil and rocks encountered at subgrade
level. Soil forming processes are very active and the surface rocks are often deeply
weathered. The soils themselves occasionally display unusual properties which can pose
considerable problems for road designing.
Climatic condition, especially preparation, has of great influential role in drainage facility
of the road. The design of drainage which includes the designing of culverts, bridges, side
ditches is based on the rainfall data of the catchment area. This data enables to design

adequate cross-section of culverts, ditches and bridges. The design is based on
hydrological data of the site which is the run off discharge. Associating with the
characteristics of the site soil, there will be high drainage cross-section with high
intensity of rainfall.
This project consists part of Dandi to Jaldu road which lies in B2 or the rainfall regions.
The climatic condition of the project area combines semi – cold and partly warm climatic
features. The mean temperature varies between 7.5oc to 27.5° c . The mean annual rainfall
of the project area is between 200 – 2400 mm
1.3 Project Questions

1. How to design the horizontal and vertical alignment of the link rural road?
The design of horizontal and vertical alignment of a given road is influenced by the
following factors: the functional classification of the road; the nature of the terrain; the
design vehicle; the traffic volumes expected on the road; the design speed; the density
and character of the adjoining land use; and economic and environmental considerations.
So, for the proper design of both horizontal and vertical alignment, the aforementioned
criteria were examined and evaluated thoroughly.
2. How to design the hot mix asphalt pavement of the link rural road?
In the design of hot mix asphalt pavement, the two governing criteria are the traffic class
and the sub grade strength. After assessing both of them strictly, the economical section
was selected from the possible charts for pavement design that are available on the ERA
pavement design manual catalogue.
3. How to design the surface & sub surface Drainage of the rural road?
The drainage system is designed after a proper hydrologic analysis. Factors like: drainage
basin characteristics, stream channel characteristics, flood plain characteristics and

meteorological characteristics could be evaluated with due care. After all, design
discharge was computed and a sufficient channel was designed as a means of surface and
sub-surface drainage system.
4. How to estimate the cost of the project?
Estimating the overall cost of the project is not easy. But after computing both the costs
of earth work and the pavement either manually or by the help of software’s, the total
cost was obtained and estimated thereafter. In this project, designer computed only the
cost of earth work.
5. What are the remedial measures to improve the design defect rural road?
The project designer prioritized repairs and maintenance to ensure safe travel and steady
movement of traffic. The measures include:-
 Link road maintenance.
 Incident management and support.
 Clearing drainage ways to minimize the risk of potential obstruction.
1.4 Objective of the Study

1. General Objective
The general objective of this project was to design of link road highway from Dandi to
Jaldu
2. Specific Objectives
The specific objectives were:-
 To design the horizontal and vertical alignment of Link road.
 To design flexible pavement of Link road.
 To design surface and sub-surface drainage of Link road.
 To estimate cost of the project.

 To recommend possible remedial measures for design defects and shortcomings.

1.5 Significance of the Study
The significance or the importance of this project was to enables the designer increase his
or her practical knowledge and skill on road design and provide a clear and simplified
insight for the fellow students that means; they may use it as a sample while doing their
project. Hence, they will get a grasp of designing the geometric alignments, the pavement
and drainage design.
1.6 Route Selection

Route selection is the method of choosing the shortest and the best alignment which
connects two points bearing the following guidelines in mind:-
 The route of highway should be selected that it can handle the traffic sufficiently.
 The alignment should result in an overall economy.
 The route should involve the least impacts on the environment, etc.
In this project, the route was already selected and the project designer was provided with
the survey data.
1.7 Scope of the Study

The project covers about 2.980 Km of the overall project. In this project, the designed
parameters were: the horizontal and vertical alignments, cross- section, pavement and
drainage design. The cost of earth work was estimated also.
This project was undertaken by the help of MX road, AutoCAD and Excel software’s.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Design Controls and Criteria
Choice of design controls and criteria’s is influenced by the following factors.
 The functional classification of the road
 The nature of terrain
 The design vehicle
 The traffic volume expected on the road
 Character of adjoining land use
 Economic and environmental consideration
Due to the above factors, the design does not have to be constant for the whole length,
because those factors vary along the route of the road [3].
2.1.1 Functional Classification of the Road

Roads are classified in terms of their actual or intended uses within the network as a
whole. The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes. The
following are the functional classes with their description according to ERA GDM.
Trunk Roads (Class I): Centers of international importance and roads terminating at
international boundaries are linked with Addis Ababa by trunk roads. It have a
present AADT≥1000, although they can have volumes as low as 100 AADT.
Link Roads (Class II): Centers of national or international importance, such as
principal towns and urban centers must be linked between each other by link roads. A
typical link road has over 400 - 1000 first year AADT, although values can range
between 50-10,000 AADT.

Main Access Roads (Class III): Centers of provincial importance must be linked
between each other by main access roads. First year AADTs are between “30-1000”.
Collector Roads (Class IV): A collector road must link roads linking locally important
centers to each other, to a more important center, or to higher-class roads. First year
AADTs are between “25-400”.
Feeder Roads (Class V): Any road link to a minor center such as market and local
locations is served by a feeder road. First year AADTs are between 0-100.
Table 2.1: Standards versus road classification.
Road Functional Design Design Traffic Surface Width (m) Design Speed (km/hr.)
Classification Standard Flow (AADT)* Type
Carriageway Flat Rolling Mountaino
us
DS1 10000–**15000 Paved ***

Dual 2 x 7.3 120 100 85
DS2 5000–10000 Paved 7.3 120 100 85

T
R
U DS3 1000–5000 Paved 7.0 100 85 70
N
L K
M I
A N DS4 200–1000 Paved 6.7 85 70 60
I K
N
DS5 100– 200 Unpaved 7.0 70 60 50
C
O A
L C DS6 50–100 Unpaved 6.0 60 50 40
E C
C E
T S DS7 30–75 Unpaved 4.0 60 50 40
F O S
E R
E S
DS8 25–50 Unpaved 4.0 60 50 40
D
E
R
DS9 0–25 Unpaved 4.0 60 40 30
DS10 0–15 Unpaved 3.3 60 40 30

In this project based on AADT1 and design period the functional classification of the
road is given as Link Road [3]
2.1.2 Terrain Classification
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain through
which the road passes. Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes
as follows:
Flat: Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the construction of a
road, having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse
terrain slope up to 5 percent).
Rolling: Rolling, hilly or foothill country, where the slopes generally rise and fall
moderately, where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some
restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent).
Mountainous: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of
Terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often
involves long steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse terrain slope from 25
percent to 50 percent).
Escarpment: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is added to
cater to those situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above
terrain types cannot be met. We refer to escarpment situations inclusive of switchback
roadway sections, or side hill transverse sections where earthwork quantities are
considerable, with transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent [3].
No Terrain type Transverse Remark

slope (%)
1 Flat 0–5 Including gently rolling terrain
2 Rolling 5 – 25 Include rolling, hilly or foothill country and
occasional steep slope
3 Mountainou 25 – 50 Include hilly river and mountainous country
4 Escarpment >50 Inclusive of switch back roadway
sections, or side hill transverse sections
Table 2.2: Terrain type
2.1.3 Design Vehicle

The physical characteristics and the proportion of the vehicle of various sites are a major
controls in geometric design of highway. The road elements affected by design vehicle
include:
 Selection of maximum gradient
 Lane width and horizontal curve widening
The vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include: -
 Minimum turning radius and travel path during a turn.
 Vehicle height and width
According to ERA geometric manual there are four general designs vehicle include:-

Table 2.3: Design vehicle dimension and characteristics
Design Vehicle Design Overall (m) Overhang (m) Wheel Min.
Vehicle Height Width Length Front Rear base (m) Design
Designation Turning
Radius (m)
4x4 Utility DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3
Vehicle
Single Unit Truck DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8
Single Unit Bus DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8
Semi-Trailer DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4.8+8.4 13.7

Combination = 13.2
2.1.4 Character of Adjoining land use
A highway necessary has wide ranging effects in addition to providing traffic service to
uses it is essential that the highway considered as an elements of the total environment
that includes the human and plant communities. The highway can & should be located &
designed to complement its environment. Highway location and decision have an affect
the development of the adjacent areas it is important that environmental variable be
given full consideration [3].
2.1.5 Design Speed
The Design Speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and
terrain to the design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is
presented with a reasonably consistent speed environment. In practice, most roads will
only be constrained to minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific

geometric elements. Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal
radius, super elevation, sight distance and gradient are directly related to, and vary,
with design speed. Thus all of the geometric design parameters of a road are directly
related to the selected design speed. It is important to note that the design of a road in
accordance with a chosen design speed should ensure a safe design. The various design
elements have to be combined in a balanced way, avoiding the application of
minimum values for one or a few of the elements at a particular location when
the other elements are considerably above the minimum requirements. For this
project, the design speeds are as shown in the table below.
Table 2.4: Table design speed versus terrain type
Station Terrain type Design speed(KPH)
0+000 to 1+120 Rolling 85
1+120 to 2980 Flat 100
2.2 Horizontal Alignment

The horizontal alignment consists of straight road way sections (tangents) connected by
horizontal curves, which have normally circular curves with or without transition (spiral)
curves. The basic feature of horizontal alignment includes minimum radius, transition
curves, super elevation and sight distance [3]. Changes in direction are necessary in high
way alignment in order to:-
 Avoid softer swampy areas
 Provide good drainage
 Minimize earth work
 Avoid shortage of construction material

 Pass the path through town
In this sub topic tangents, minimum radius, design speed, horizontal curves and super
elevation which are considered while designing the horizontal alignment will be
presented.
2.2.1 Tangents
According to its geometric definition a tangent (straight) section is the shortest distance
between two points. Straight section is advantageous because it has no centrifugal force
on implementation of steering movement are needed and it is also economical. From an
aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in flat country but are
less so in rolling or mountainous terrain.
Even though straight sections have the above mentioned advantages, long tangent
sections increases the danger from head height glare and usually land to excessive
speeding. The length of a tangent section should not exceed 4.0 Kilometers. But due to
the land features of the project road, tangent with length greater than 4 Kilometers is not
encountered [3].
2.2.2 Curve Alignment

The design of roadway curves should be based on an appropriate relationship between
design speed and curvature and on their joint relationships with super elevation and side
friction. Curves are provided along the routes of highway where the change in direction is
encountered. Curve design parameters such as angle of deflection, radius of curve,
tangent distance, external distance, middle ordinate, cord length depends on the design
speed and terrain condition [3].
Type of horizontal curve
 Simple circular curve

 Reverse curve
 Compound curve
 Spiral curve
2.2.3 Simple Circular Curves

Horizontal curves are provided between tangents to provide smooth transition. In
horizontal alignment the use of compound curve, reverse, broken back and switch back
should be avoided except where very unusual topographic or right-way condition dictates
the use of these curves. When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radially
outward by centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is counterbalanced by super elevation
of the roadway land or the side friction developed between the tires and the road surface.
For calculation of the minimum horizontal radius, R min, for a particular design speed,
the following equation shall be used [3].
R min=VD2/127(e + f)
Where: VD = Design Speed (km/h)
e = Maximum super elevation (%/100)
f = Side friction coefficient (given in Tables)
Table 2.5: Minimum Radii of Horizontal curves 8% Super elevation [3]

Design speed Vd. (km/h) 20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
Min. horizontal radius (m) 15 30 50 85 125 175 270 395 630
Side friction factor (f) 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.10

2.2.4 Elements of Horizontal Curve
Figure 2.1: Element of Horizontal Curve [3]
1. Δ: Deflection angle by arc definition (in degrees)
2. R: Radius of curve by arc definition ECC
3. T: Tangent distance T = R tan Δ/2
4. E: External distance = R (sec Δ/2-1)
5. L: Curve Length L = Δ*2RΠ/360
6. M: Middle Ordinate M = R (1-cosΔ/2)
7. C: Chord from P.C to P.T = 2RsinΔ/2
8. Point of Curvature (P.C) station PC = P.I-T
9. Point of Tangency (P.T) station PT = P.C+LC

2.2.5 Horizontal curve calculation Parameters for different standard

Those parameters that are required for calculation of horizontal curve for different
standards are:-
 Deflation angle
 Curve length
 Radius of curve
 Design speed
2.2.6 Setting out of Horizontal Curve

There are different techniques of setting out a horizontal curve on the ground. The
methods of setting a curve on the field depend on the type of the curve. For this particular
project, since all the circular curves are provided with transition, there are two options to
set the curves on the fields:
1. Offset Method
2. Method of deflection angles
In this project all the parameters required to set the horizontal curves are prepared using
the method of deflection angles. This method is used because while designing the
horizontal curves Euler spiral formula was used and the offset method is not applicable
for this method [2].
2.2.7 Spiral Curve

The spiral curve is a curve with a constantly increasing curvature in the same direction. It
is provided to avoid immediate transition from straight line to simple curve. In other
words, it avoids the discontinuity in the curvature value, which is unsatisfactory for the
demand of a constant route development. Here curvature value linearly increases from

zero at the beginning of spiral curve to the constant value at the end of the spiral (i.e. at
entrance to simple curve offsite)
Further reasons for using spiral curve are [1]:-
 Larger traffic security
 Features of the driving psychology
 Better solution for landscape-aesthetic
 Structurally simpler transition
Spiral curves are also advantageous because they fit the transition length needed to
develop the full design super elevation without the need to develop any transition on
adjacent tangent section.
A more practical control for the length of spiral is that it should equal the length needed
for super elevation transition runoff.
2.2.7.1 Minimum Length of Spiral

1. Criteria based on consideration of driver comfort and are intended to provide spiral
length that allows for a comfortable increase in lateral acceleration as a vehicle enters a
curve [2].
Ls,min= √(24R*Pmin)
Where: Pmin= minimum lateral offset between the tangent and circular curve (0.20m)
2. Criteria based on lateral shift are intended to ensure that a spiral curve is sufficiently
long to provide a shift in a vehicles lateral position within its lane that is consistent with
that provided by the vehicles natural spiral path.
Ls,min= 0.0214V3/RC where ;( c= 1.2 m/s3)

The use of lower values of ‘C’ will yield longer, more comfortable spiral curve lengths.
However, such lengths would not represent the minimum length consistent with driver
comfort.
2.2.7.2 Maximum Length of Spiral

Safety problems have been found to occur on spiral curves that are long to the length of
the circular curve. Such problems occur when the spiral is so long as to mislead the driver
about the sharpness of the approaching curve. A conservative maximum length of spiral
that should minimize the likelihood of such problems can be computed as [1]:-
L s, max=√ (24*P max *R, Where: - maximum lateral offset between the tangent and
circular curve (1.0m).
P
Δ
T L S
P
P
l
φs R R
φs
Δ-
Figure 2.2: horizontal curve with transition

2. Shift: - circular curve shifted inward towards the center to make space for additional
spirals.
S=Ls2/24R
Where: - Ls= spiral length, m
S= shift, m
R= Radius, m
3. Tangent length: - from PI to TS
TL=(R+S) tan ∆ /2 + LS/2
Where; ∆= angel of deflection
4. Length of the Circular Portion of the Curve
The central angel subtended by the circular portion of the curve is:
∆C = ∆-2θS
LC=R* ∆C =R [∆-2θS]
Where; θS =28.65LS/R ………………….in degree.
5. Offsets from tangent
The length X being offset from tangent to curve can be used to locate points on the
transition curve. Calculated from:-y=x3/6LR at 10m intervals
Where: L is the length of a point on the transition curve
2.3 Super Elevation and Curve Widening

Super elevation transition is the tangent to the curve transition done only by super
elevation runoff and super elevation run out without in cooperating the transition curves
in the horizontal alignment. In other words it considers only transition the roadway
tangent directly adjoins the main circular curves. Super elevation runoff and run out
section first the super elevation and normal crown slope should be determined [3].

2.3.1 Super Elevation

The super elevation is the vertical difference between the outer and inner edge of the road
at the horizontal curve. Its main purpose is to counterbalance the centrifugal force and it
contributes safety and comfort feeling to the passenger while passing along changed
direction. It is controlled type of area and speed of moving vehicles.
There are two forces acting on the vehicle that passes through the horizontal curve [1].
1. Centrifugal forces: Force acting outward in radial direction. It depends on the moving
vehicle speed and radius of the curve.
Mathematically F=mv2/r
Where F=centrifugal force
m= mass of moving vehicle
v= speed
r= radius of curve
2. Weight of the vehicle: The weight of the vehicle act downward on moving vehicle it
related to the road way super elevation and side friction developed between the tires and
the pavement acts to balance the centrifugal force.
Mathematically
e + f = v2/127R
Where e= rate of super elevation
f= side friction
v= velocity (km/hr.)
R= radius of the curvature
The maximum super elevation rate applied on highways controlled by climate condition,
terrain condition, type of area and frequency of very slow moving vehicles.

Figure 2.3: Super elevation perspective view
To decide the amount of super elevation we use ERA geometric design manual and
AASHTO jointly. ERA provides Super elevation with maximum Super elevation of 8%.

Table 2.6: Super elevation rates and length of run off: 8%
In design of curves without spirals the super elevation runoff is considered to be that
length beyond the tangent run out. Empirical methods are employed to locate the super
elevation runoff length with respect to the point of curvature (PC). Current design
practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the tangent approach and
one-third on the curve. [3].

Figure 2.4: Supper elevations without transition curve
In providing of run out length, at the same time there is a calculated designed speed value
from the two we provide the lesser value.
When a fast moving vehicle enters a horizontal curve, it will experience out ward force
(centrifugal). If the value of this force exceeds the lateral resistance like friction between
wheel and road surface, skidding of vehicle may happen.
Therefore, drivers are advised to reduce their speed before entering the curve. Designers
give transversal slope tilt the road on horizontal curves to reduce vehicle skidding. This
lateral inclination of the road is supper elevation designated as e.
The value of supper elevation depends on
 Design speed
 Radius of the horizontal curve
 Frictional resistance/lateral/ between wheel and road surface
Super elevation can be introduced by rotating about
 The centerline
 The inside
 The outside

2.3.2 Super Elevation Runoff and Run out

I. Super elevation runoff
It consists of the length of the road way needed to accomplish a change in outside-lane
cross slope from zero (flat) to full super elevation length or vice versa.
The minimum of the runoff [1]:-
Where; Lr = minimum length of SE runoff, m;
= maximum relative gradient, percent;
n= number of lanes rotated;
bw = adjusted factor for number of lanes rotated.
w= width of one traffic lane, m
ed =design supper elevation rate, %
II. Super elevation run out
The length of tangent run out is determined by the amount of adverse cross slope to be
removed and the rate at which it is removed. To effect smooth edge of pavement profile,
the rate of removal should equal the relative gradient used to define the super elevation
runoff length [1]
Where; 𝐿𝑡 = minimum length of tangent run out, m;
Nc = normal cross slope rate; percent;
ed =design super elevation rate;%
Lr= design super elevation rate, %
Lr= minimum length of SE runoff, m;

Figure 2.5: Super elevation run out
III. Super elevation and normal crown drawing
Super elevation drawing should be done after determining the super elevation rate, super
elevation run out. This drawing is used during phasing of horizontal and vertical
alignment.
To draw super elevation and normal crown the following procedure was followed:
 Select an appropriate scale for drawing which make super elevation visible.
 Draw a datum for super elevation and normal crown.
 Mark the point PC and PT of horizontal curve along the station under profile.
Write the necessary parameter: Super elevation rate and angel of deflection, Δ.
If ∆ is to the right, curve is to the right and the outer side has positive super elevation and
the inner side has negative super elevation.
Normal crown height

2.3.3 Locating Super Elevation Runoff and Run out

Locating a portion of the runoff on the tangent, in advance of the PC, is preferable, since
this minimize the peak lateral acceleration and the resulting side friction demand and a
spiral path results from a driver’s natural steering behavior during curve entry or exit.
This natural spiral usually begins on the tangent and ends beyond the beginning of the
circular curve. One third portion length of the runoff length is placed on the tangent and
two third on the curve as calculated above.
In the alignment design with spirals, the super elevation runoff is affected over the whole
the transition curve. The length of the super elevation runoff is almost equal to the spiral
length for the tangent to spiral (TS) transition at the beginning and the spiral to curve
(SC) transition at the end of circular curve. The change in the cross slope began with
removing the adverse cross slope from the lane or lane on the outside of the curve on the
length of tangent just ahead of TS (the tangent run out).
Between TS and SC, spiral curve and the super elevation run out are coincide and
travelled way is rotated to reach the full super elevation at SC. This arrangement reversed
on leveling the curve. In the alignment transition, the whole of the circular curve portion
as full super elevation [3].
2.3.4 Widening
The traveled way on horizontal curve is widened to make operating conditions on curves
comparable to those on tangents. The amount of widening needed increases with the size
of the design vehicle and decreases with increasing radius of curvature. For some
conditions of speed, curvature, and width it remains appropriate to widen traveled ways.
Widening is needed on certain curves for one of the following reasons;

1. The design vehicle occupies a greater width because the rear wheels generally
track inside front wheels in negotiating curves, or
2. Drivers experience difficulty in steering their vehicles in the center of the lane.
The effect of variation in lateral placement of the rear wheels with respect to the front
wheels and the resultant difficulty of steering should be accommodated by widening on
curves but the appropriate amount of widening cannot be determined since it depends on
different factors and engineering judgment for conditions on hand.
The width elements of the design vehicle used in determining the appropriate roadway
widening on curves include the track width of the design vehicles that may meet or pass
on the curves [3].
2.3.4.1 Construction of Traveled Way Widening

To determine width on widened section it is necessary to select an appropriate design
vehicle. The design vehicle should usually be a truck because off tracking is much greater
for trucks than for passenger cars. Widening is costly and it is not appropriate to provide
for all curves. The amount of widening to be provided for curves is specified only by
considering the radius of the curve [3]
2.3.4.2 Application of Widening on Curves

Widening should transition gradually on the approaches to the curve to ensure a
reasonably smooth alignment of the edge of the traveled way and to fit the paths of
vehicles entering or leaving the curve [1].
 On simple (not spiraled) curves, widening should be applied on the inside edge of
the traveled way only.
 On curves designed with spirals, widening may be applied on the inside edge or
divided equally on either side of the centerline. In the latter method, extension of

the outer edge tangent avoids a slight reverse curve on the outer edge.
 Curve widening should transition gradually over a length sufficient to make
whole of the traveled way fully usable.
 Preferably, widening should transition over the super elevation runoff length, but
shorter lengths are sometimes used.
 From the stand point of usefulness and appearance, the widening should be
smooth.
2.3.4.3 Design Value of Widening

For the psychological comfort of the driver, widening is also required for DS1 through
DS5 at high fill. Since, the project road is DS3, widening for fill should be provided. The
height of fill in the table below is measured from the edge of the shoulder to the toe of the
slope. [3].
Table 2.6: Widening of curves and high fills
Radius of Curve Widening: Curve Widening: Fill Widening
Curve (m) Single Lane (m) Two Lanes (m) Height of fill (m) Amount (m)
>250 0.0 0.0 0.0-3.0 0.0
120- 250 0.0 0.6 3.0- 6.0 0.3
60-120 0.0 0.9 6.0 - 9.0 0.6
40-60 0.6 1.2 Over 9.0 0.9
20-40 0.6 1.5 Over 9.0 0.9
<20 Switchbacks
Note; in this project we have not designed curve widening because all of our radiuses are
greater than 250.

2.3.4.4 Widening on Curves

The use of long curves of tight radii should be avoided where possible, as drivers
following the design speed will find it difficult to remain in the traffic lane. Curve
widening reduces such problems. Curve widening shall generally be applied to both sides
of the roadway. It should start at the beginning of the transition curve and be fully
widened at the start of the circular curve [3]
Figure 2.6: Curve widening

2.4 Vertical Alignment

The vertical alignment consists of straight roadway section (grade or tangent) connected
by vertical curves. The basic design features of vertical alignment include vertical
profiles, grades, critical length of grades, climbing lane, and vertical curve length. Since
the vertical alignments are the most critical elements in the determination of the project
cost and impacts, it should be designed precisely as much as possible.
The characteristics of vertical alignments are greatly influenced by basic controls related
to design speed, traffic volumes and composition, road classification, sight distance,
natural and cultural resources, and terrain. Due to these basic controls, vertical alignment
parameters should be designed in conformity to the above design controls [3].
In this road project, we have considered the following criteria’s in the selection of
vertical alignments.
 Gradient of the route are between the allowable maximum and minimum.
 Critical length is within limits.
 Cut and fill volumes are balanced.
 Adequate sight distance over all curves is provided.
 Avoiding of very short sag vertical curve is applied.
 Avoiding of short grade between two vertical curves.
 Avoiding of combination of two vertical curves in the same direction, i.e. they
should be replaced by single vertical curve.
 Avoidance of short grade between two vertical curves
 Avoidance of short drop immediately before a long up grade

2.4.1 Profile
It is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag and the straight grades
connecting them.
Profile is a drawing showing the original ground level as it is plotted using the elevation
data calculated from the contour data. Profile is drawn longitudinally along the centerline
of the road using the centerline elevation obtained from the contour at each interval
(station). Once the natural ground level is plotted, vertical alignment parameters are
determined by considering natural terrain condition to minimize the cost of excavation,
addition of climbing lane, addition of emergency escape ramps and provide sufficient
sight distance.
Figure 2.7: Vertical profile
2.4.2 Gradients
One of the important considerations in designing a high way is the gradient. The cost of
operation vehicles, the speed of vehicles, and the capacity of high way are largely
affected by grades provided. The grade should be selected so as to encourage uniform
operation as far as possible for the given terrain and vertical profile should be as smooth
as economical. Due to the above controls desirable gradient are appropriate for design
purpose. But, the limiting gradient may be used where the topography of the area

complies this or where the adoption of gentler gradient enormously adds with the cost.
Sometimes exceptional gradient can be used in very exceptional situations and for short
lengths the selection of ruling (desirable) gradient and limiting gradient are based on
terrain type on which it fall [3].
Table 2.7: Maximum gradient vs. design standards
Topography Maximum Gradient (%), for Design Standard
DS1to DS3 DS4 & DS5 DS6 to DS9 DS10
DS8
D A D A D A D A D A
Flat 3 5 4 6 6 8 6 8 6 8
Rolling 4 6 5 7 7 9 7 9 7 9
Mountainous 6 8 7 9 10 12 13 15 14 16
Escarpment 6 8 7 9 10 12 13 15 14 16
Urban 6 8 7 9 7 9 7 9 7 9
Based on the above values grade can be determined from the plotted vertical profile by
1
considering the natural ground or profile. This profile drawing is used as guide to decide
a grade or longitudinal slope from which amount of the earth work is computed. In
determining grade from the plotted profile the straight line is drawn which best fits the
natural ground and the slope the line between two points is calculated by:-
levation 2−Elevation 1
Slope=
Station 2−station 1
The value obtained is compared with the value on the ERA manual and it should conform
to the desirable gradient as much as possible, we have to consider the following when we

design vertical curve:-
I. Maximum gradient
Vehicle operation on gradients depends on number of factors, severity and length of the
gradient, level and composition of the traffic and number of overtaking opportunities on
the gradients and its vicinity. Therefore, due to the above factors, the maximum gradient
should not exceed in design of the high way because the traffic is unable to ascend the
grade above the maximum limited grade. Although it adds cost to develop the road
infrastructure, ERA finds it in the position where it has no choice than the limiting
gradient based on the design vehicle of existing fleet.
Standards for desirable maximum gradient were set to assure user comfort and to avoid
severe reduction in the design speed but if occasional terrain is encountered that requires
excessive earth work to reduce the vertical alignment to desirable standard on absolute
maximum gradient can be used. See table 2.8 above the desirable and maximum gradient
for each terrain type [3].
II. Minimum gradient
Where the drainage of the road is to be effected by means of longitudinal ditches, as in
cut section or hill roads, or along curbed edge of pavement, a certain minimum
longitudinal gradient is necessary for efficient drainage however, flat grades can be
typically used without the problem on uncurbed high way where the cross slope is
adequate to drain the pavement surface laterally. But, with the curbed high way or street
longitudinal grades should be provided to facilitate surface drainage. For this purpose the
appropriate minimum grade is typically 0.5%, but grade of 0.3% may be used where
there is light type pavement accurately sloped and supported on firm sub grade [3].

III. Critical length of gradient

Critical length may be defined at the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed or the
point at which it has lost a certain amount of speed. Critical length of gradient is
considered to be the maximum length of a designated upgrade upon which a loaded truck
can operate without unreasonable reduction in speed.
Critical length of gradient is, to some extent, dependent on the gradient of the approach; a
downhill approach will allow vehicles to gain momentum and increase the critical length.
In general, the critical length of gradient decreases as gradient increases. This is shown in
table below [3]
Table 2.8: Critical length of Gradient
Design Gradient Critical Length of Gradient above Maximum Desirable
Class (%) which a climbing Lane is required (m) length of gradient(m)
DS2 & 3 4 300 900
DS2 ,3 & 4 5 240 800
DS2,3 & 4 6 200 700
DS2,3 & 4 7 170 600
DS2,3& 4 8 150 500
DS2,3& 4 9 130 400
DS2,3 & 4 10 Required 400
DS4 11 Required 400
DS4 12 Required 400

2.4.3 Climbing Lane

A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing the impact of a steep gradient. A
climbing lane is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes and has the effect
of reducing congestion in the through lanes by removing slower moving vehicles from
the traffic stream. It also enhances road safety by reducing the speed differential in the
through lane. The requirements for climbing lanes are therefore based on road standard,
speed and traffic volume. Benefits from the provision of a climbing lane accrue because
faster vehicles are able to overtake more easily, resulting in shorter average journey
times, reduced vehicle-operating costs, and increased safety. Benefits will increase with
increases in gradient, length of gradient, traffic flow, the proportion of trucks, and
reductions in overtaking opportunities. The effect of a climbing lane in breaking up
queues of vehicles held up by a slow moving truck will continue for some distance along
the road [3]. On this project the length of the gradient and the maximum gradient is not
greater than the critical length of the gradient and the maximum gradient given on ERA
manual. So it is not need to provide climbing lanes.
2.4.4 Vertical Curve

In vertical alignment, vertical curve is used to effect gradual changes between tangent
grades .It is normally provided at points of change in grades. Vertical curve provision is
used for the following purpose;
 They serve as a gradual transition from one gradient to another without
discomfort to the riders
 To eliminate sudden humps and trough
 To provide adequate visibility for stopping and aver taking

vertical curve can be either crest vertical curve or sag vertical curve depending on
position of points of vertical intersection ,in either case vertical curve should be simple in
application and result in design that is safe and comfort in operation, pleasing in
appearance and adequate for drainage the major control for safe operation on crest
vertical curve is the provision of adequate sight distance once for design speed because
vertical curve with limited sight distance recommended that all vertical curve should be
designed to provide at least the stopping sight distance.
There are two types of curves. Summit (crest) and sag (valley) curves, which are
introduced in this vertical curve design at vertical grade changes [3].
2.4.4.1 Crest Curves

Crest curves are provided where a rising-falling gradient encountered or more falling
gradient occurs. The minimum length of vertical curves can be calculated using a formula
based on comfort and stopping sight distance requirement and the governing one can be
used. In determining the length of the curve the following points are taken in to account
 sight distance (both stopping and passing )
 class of highway (DS3)
 topography (mountainous & rolling in our case)
 Curvature
 general appurtenance

Figure 2.8: Crest Curve
2.4.4.2 Sag curves

Sag curves are provided where rising-falling grades encountered or raising a more rising
gradient. The minimum values for sag vertical curves are determined by the required
head light sight distances, drainage requirements and the level of driver’s comfort
expected. Short sag vertical curves and short grades between two vertical curves have to
be avoided.
The length of the curve is determined by taking the following criteria’s in to account:-
 headlight sight distance
 passengers comfort
 drainage control
 general appearance
In the design of the vertical curves we have tried to avoid short sag vertical curves and
short grades between two vertical curves.

Figure 2.9: Sag Curve
2.4.5 Design of Vertical Curve

In the design of the road way alignment in this project, there are number of vertical curve
of which both crest vertical curves and sag vertical curves are incorporated. The type of
curve and the grade in which those curve are incorporated are listed as below:
Determination of Length of Curve
As ERA design manual specification the minimum length requirement for vertical and
sag curves have been designed to provide sufficient stopping sight distance. The design is
based on allowable K-value for different design speed and algebraic difference in grades
they provide.
L=KA
Where K=limiting value horizontal distance required to achieve 1% change in grades
A = Algebraic difference in approach grades and exit grades
L = Length of vertical curve
The minimum value for crest vertical curves and sag vertical are provided by [3].

Table 2.9: Minimum values for crest vertical curves
Design Speed Rate of Vertical Curvature, K K, For Passing
(Km/h) for Stopping Sight Distance Sight Distance
20 2 10
30 3 50
40 5 90
50 10 130
60 18 180
70 31 250
85 60 350
100 105 480
120 210 680
Table 2.10: Minimum values for sag vertical curves
Design Speed Rate of Vertical Curvature, K K, For Passing
(km/h) for Stopping Sight Distance Sight Distance
20 2 10
30 4 50
40 8 90
50 12 130
60 18 180
70 25 250
85 36 350

100 51 480
120 74 680
Using the above K-value from the table, the minimum length of vertical curve is
calculated.
2.4.6 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so that
the line of the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards
and visual defects. It is particularly important in the design of high-speed roads on which
a driver must be able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment well
within the safe stopping distance. It becomes more important with small radius curves
than with large [3].
2.4.6.1 Types of Mis-Phasing

When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are
coincident, no phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is required. Where
defects occur, phasing may be achieved either by separating the curves or by adjusting
their lengths such that vertical and horizontal curves begin at a common station and end
at a common station. In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only
one end of each of the curves is at a common station. Cases of mis-phasing fall into
several types.
Mis-phasing 1-Vertical curve overlaps one end of the horizontal curve
If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a
driver’s perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be
delayed because his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve.

Corrective action-The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating
the curves. If this is uneconomic, the curves must be adjusted so that they are coincident
at both ends, if the horizontal curve is of short radius, or they need be coincident at only
one end, if the horizontal curve is of longer radius.in our project vertical and horizontal
alignment coincide at their beginning on station 0+256.453.
Mis-phasing 2-Insufficient separation between the curves
If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical curves, a
false reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the horizontal
curve. This is a visual defect.
Corrective action -Can be corrected by increasing the separation between the curves; or
making the curves concurrent.
Mis-phasing 3-both ends of the vertical curve lie on the horizontal curve
If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal
curve may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If
the vertical curve is a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to
increase.
Corrective action -make both ends of the curves coincident, or to separate them.
Mis-phasing 4-vertical curve overlaps both ends of the horizontal curve
-If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be
created because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the passage
of the vertical curve while sight distance is reduced
Corrective action- make both ends of the curves coincident.

If the horizontal curve is less sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest occurs off
the horizontal curve. This is because the change of direction at the beginning of the
horizontal curve will then occur on a downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where
vehicles may be increasing speed.
Corrective action-make the curves coincident at one end so as to bring the crest on to the
horizontal curve.
If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip, depending on the “hand” of
the horizontal curve will appear in the road alignment.
Corrective action-Make both ends of the curves coincident or to separate them.
Other mis-phasing
A sag curve occurs between two horizontal curves in the same direction.
A double sag curve occurs at one horizontal curve.
Corrective action-Avoid broken back curves in design
2.5 Sight Distance

Sight distance is the continuous length of highway ahead visible to the driver. A driver’s
ability to see ahead is of the utmost importance in the safe and efficient operation of a
vehicle on a highway. For safety on highways, sight distance of sufficient length that
drivers can control the operation of their vehicles to avoid striking an unexpected object
in the traveled way should be provided. Two lanes high way should also have sufficient
sight distance to enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing other
vehicles without risk of a crash. In general two-lane rural highways should provide such
passing sight distance at frequent intervals and for substantial portions of their length.
There are four aspects of sight distance [1]
1. The sight distances needed for stopping, which are applicable on all highways;

2. The sight distances needed for the passing of overtaken vehicles, applicable on all
highways;
3. The sight distances needed for decisions at complex locations;
4. The criteria for measuring these sight distances for use in design.
2.5.1 Stopping Sight Distance

The stopping sight distance is the minimum sight distance required by a driver of a
vehicle, traveling at a given speed, to bring his vehicle to a stop after an object on the
road becomes visible. In other words, the available sight distance on roadway should be
sufficiently long to enable a vehicle traveling at or near the design speed to stop before
reaching a stationary object on its path. Although greater length of visible roadway are
desirable, the sight distance at every point along a roadway should be at least that needed
for below-average driver or vehicle to stop. Stopping sight distance is the sum of brake
reaction distance and braking distance [3].
2.5.1.1 Brake Reaction Distance

Brake reaction distance is the distance in the interval from the instant that the driver
recognizes the existence of an obstacle on the roadway a head that necessitates braking to
the instant that the driver actually applies the brakes. Such determination take time and
the amount of time needed varies considerably with the distance to the object, the visual
acuity of the driver, the natural rapidity with which the driver reacts, the atmospheric
visibility, the type and the condition of the roadway, and nature of the obstacle [1].
Vehicle speed and roadway environment probably also influence reaction time and a
2.5sec brake reaction time for stopping sight situations encompasses the capabilities of
most drivers.

Brake reaction distance is given by [3]:-
d1=0.278Vt
Where: d1 – Brake reaction distance (m)
V - Design speed (km/hr.)
t – Brake reaction time > 2.5sec.
2.5.1.2 Braking Distance

Braking distance is the distance from the time the brakes are applied to the time that the
vehicle comes to stop. The approximate braking distance of a vehicle on a level roadway
traveling at the design speed of the roadway is given by [3].
d2 = V2/254f ; where: d2 – Braking distance (m)
V – Design speed (km/hr.)
f – Coefficient of friction between tires and roadway.
Stopping sight distance = Brake reaction distance + Braking distance
d=d1+d2
2
v
d=0.728Vt +
254 f
Table 2.11: Sight distance
Design Speed Coefficient of Stopping Passing Sight Reduced Passing
(km/h) Friction (f) Sight Distance (m) Sight Distance
Distance (m) from formulae for design (m)

20 .42 20 160 50
30 .40 30 217 75
40 .38 45 285 125
50 .35 55 345 175
60 .33 85 407 225
70 .31 110 482 275
85 .30 155 573 340
100 .29 205 670 375
120 .28 285 792 425
2.5.1.3 Effect of Grade on Stopping Sight Distance

The sight distance available on downgrades is larger than on upgrades, more or less
providing the appropriate corrections for grade.
When a highway is on a grade, the equation of braking distance is modified to take the
effect of grade in to account and it is given by [1].
d2= V2⁄254 (f±0.01G)
Where; G – is the percentage of grade divided by 100. And the other terms are as
previously stated.
The stopping sight distances needed on upgrades are shorter than on level roadways and
those on down grades are longer.
The positive sign is used inside the brackets, if the gradient is upgrade and negative is
used when it is down grade. In this case the stopping sight distance is given by:
d = 0.278Vt + V2/254(f±0.01G) : Effect of grade is considered if G≥3%

2.5.1.4 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

Another element of horizontal alignment is the sight distance across the inside of curves
with sight distance for the design speed as a control the actual conditions on each curve
should be checked and if required an appropriate adjustment should be made to provide
sight distance.
On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove sight obstructions or
widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance [3].
Figure 2.10: Sight distance for horizontal distance
Using radius of curvature and sight distance for the design speed, gives the middle
ordinate (M) which is the clear distance from centerline of inside lane to the obstruction.
 Sight distance or line(s) =2Rsin (∆/2)
 Middle ordinate (M) =R (1-cos(∆/2))
During construction this clear distance should be attained on the field.

2.5.1.5 Stopping Sight Distance on Vertical Curves

In vertical alignment to determine the length of the vertical curve stopping sight distance
on sag and crest vertical curve should be considered [1]
a) Stopping sight distance at sag vertical curves

For sag curves, the headlight and comfort.
Headlight Sight Distance:
Case1: S < L; L = S2 G/ (1.22+0.035*S)
Case2: S > L; L = 2S – {(1.22+0.035*S)/G}
Comfort: L = 0.038(GV3)1/2
Where; L- length of the curve
S – Stopping sight distance
G – Algebraic difference in grade (%)
V – Design speed (km/hr)
Figure 2.11: Stopping sight distance at sag vertical curves
b) Stopping Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves

Case1: S < L; L = GS2 /100(√ 2 h1 +√ 2 h2 ) 2
Case2: S > L; L = 2*S – {2(√ h 1 +√ h 2) 2×100/G}
Where; h1 = 1.07 & h2 = 0.15m

Figure 2.12: Stopping Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves
2.5.2 Passing Sight Distance

Passing sight distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads
that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely
without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the
roadway. If passing is to be accomplished safely, the passing driver should be able to see
a sufficient distance ahead, clear of traffic, to complete the passing maneuver without
cutting off the passed vehicle that appears during the maneuver. When appropriate, the
driver can return to the right lane without completing the pass if the driver sees opposing
traffic too close when the maneuver is only partially completed.
Sight distance should be determined for a single vehicle passing a single vehicle. Longer
sight distances occur in design and such locations can accommodate an occasional
multiple passing. Sight distance records also are useful on two-lane highways for
determining the percentage of length of highway on which sight distance is restricted to
less than the minimum needed for passing. This is important in evaluating capacity and it

is a simple process to determine the percentage of length of highway with a given sight
distance or greater [3].
Table 2.12: Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance
Percent Passing opportunity vs. Terrain
Design Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban/Peri-Urban
standard
DS2 50% 50% 25% 0% 20%
DS3 50% 33% 25% 0% 20%
DS4 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%
DS5 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%
DS6 20% 20% 15% 0% 20%
DS7 20% 20% 15% 0% 20%
The passing sight distance is determined by a formula with four components, as follows:
PSD = d1 + d2 +d3 + d4
Where: PSD – passing sight distance
d1_ initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction
d2 – distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane.
d3 – clearance distance between vehicles at the end of maneuver
d4 – distance traveled by the opposing vehicle.
ERA geometric design manual provides the PSD for different speed. For our project we
used that value which is correspondent to our design speed.

Figure 2.13: Passing Sight Distance
2.5.2.1 Effect of Grade on Passing Sight Distance

Appreciable grades affect the sight distance needed passing. Passing is easier for the
vehicle traveling downgrade because the overtaking vehicle can accelerate more rapidly
than on the level and thus can reduce the time of passing. However, the over taken
vehicle can also accelerate easily so that a situation akin to a racing contest may result.
The sight distance needed to permit vehicles traveling upgrade to pass safely are greater
than those needed on level roads because of reduced acceleration of the passing vehicle
which increases the time of passing and the likelihood that opposing traffic may speed up
which increases the distance traveled by an opposing vehicle during the passing
maneuver [1].
In this project while vertical alignment is done all the above consideration was taken in to
account on choosing the grade and the vertical length of the grade in order to make
operation simple and safe.

2.5.2.2 Passing Sight Distance on Crest Curve

Passing sight distance is also considered while deciding the length of crest curves. It is
calculated by the formula described in stopping sight distance with value of h 1=1.07 and
h2=1.30m [3].
Passing Sight Distance on horizontal curve
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction`
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:
d1=0.278tı (v-m+atı/2)
Table 2.13: Design speed versus average acceleration
Design speed (km/hr) 25 30 40 50 65 80 100
Acceleration(km/hr/sec) 5 4.8 4.45 4.0 3.28 2.56 1.92
Where t1 = the initial time of maneuver (3.7 - 4.3) sec [1].
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, is taken to be 85Km/hr. for safety out of the
two alternatives design speeds.
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, assumed to be 15Km/hr.
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent on
ambient speeds as per

Table 2.14: Clearance distance(d3) Vs. Ambient Speeds [3]
Speed Group(km/hr) 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120
d3(m) 30 50 80 100
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 or
Less the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane.
Estimated at:
d4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1+ d2 + d3 + d4
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d 2 or
less the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane.
Estimated at:
d4 = 2d2/3
Passing Sight Distance on Crest Curve
It is calculated with the same formula for stopping sight distance. But h 1=1.07m &
h2=1.30m [3]
Crest curve1: S=155m; h1=1.07m, h2=1.30m, G=3.806%

2
GS
Case1: S < L; L=
100¿ ¿
Case2: S > L; L = 2S – 2 ¿ ¿*100
2.6 Cross Section

The road cross section should be designed depending on the terrain characteristics
and traffic requirements. Even though the cross section may vary over a particular

route because of varying controlling factors, the section should be designed in such a
way that it can fulfill the basic requirements. The basic requirements include:-
 Changes in cross section standards shall be uniform within each subsection of
the route.
 Any changes of a cross section shall be affected gradually & logically over
a transition length. An abrupt or isolated change in cross section leads to
increased hazards, reduced traffic capacity & complicated traffic operation.
Sometimes, we are enforced to accept isolated reductions in cross section
standards, for example, when an existing narrow structure has to be retained
because it will not be feasible to replace it. Here traffic sings & road markings are
required to warn drivers.
Road cross section normally consists right of way, lane width, carriage way, shoulder
width, normal cross fall, side slope and back slope, and road side ditch will be discussed
[3].
Figure 2.14: Typical Section for DS3 Road in Rural Region
2.6.1 Right-Of-Way
Right of way provided in order to accommodate road width and to enhance the safety,
operation and appearance of the roads. The width of right-of-way depends on the

cross section elements of the highway, topography, and other physical controls
together with economic considerations. Although it is desirable to acquire sufficient
right-of-way to accommodate all elements of the cross section and appropriate border
areas, right-of-way widths should be limited to a practical minimum in both rural and
developed areas affecting the economy of the inhabitants. Right of ways will be
equidistant from the centerline of the road to the left and to the right of the carriageway.
In case of our project, right of way for DS3 is 50m [3].
Table 2.15: design speed vs. terrain classification
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
Design Speed km/h 100 85 70 60
Min. SSD m 205 155 110 85
Min. PSD m 375 340 275 225
% Passing Opportunity % 50 33 25 0
Min. Horizontal Curve Radius m 395 270 175 125
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes No No
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 4 6 6
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 6 8 8
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Maximum Super elevation % 8 8 8 8
Crest Vertical Curve k 105 60 31 18
Sag Vertical Curve k 51 36 25 18
Normal Cross fall % 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Shoulder Cross fall % 4 4 4 4

Right of Way m 50 50 50 50
2.6.2 Travelled Way

Travelled way is the portion of the road way provided for the movement of vehicles,
exclusive of shoulders. For link roads of design standard, DS3 7m wide paved travel way
is provided. The traveled way width at a horizontal curve section is larger due to the
widening applied for the curve. The travelled way width is varied from the beginning of
the start of transition runoff to the point of full super elevation is attained. Travelled way
on curves at a fully super elevated section is: -
 Travelled way on curves = Travelled way on straight section+ Widening
 Wc=W+ widening = (7.0+ Widening) in m`
For this project the lane width considered based on the design standard adopted which is
DS3 Link road is 7.0 m since no widening for curve is not provided [3].
2.6.3 Normal Cross Fall

Cross slope enable surface water to drain from the shoulder as quickly as possible. The
normal cross fall should be 2.5 percent on paved roads and 4 percent on unpaved roads
as shown on table above. Shoulders having the same surface as the roadway should
have the same normal cross fall. Cross fall of the roadway. Normal cross-fall of 2.5%
and shoulder cross-fall Normal cross fall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to
provide adequate surface drainage whilst not being so great as to make steering
difficult. The ability of a surface to shed water varies with its smoothness and
integrity [3].

2.6.4 Shoulder Width

The determination of shoulder width ultimately depends on the traffic volume of the high
way. In contiguous with the travelled way, it is used for accommodation of stopped
vehicles for emergency use, for lateral support of the base and surface courses. For DS3
ERA recommends shoulder width of 1.50m-3.00m for both flat and rolling terrain. Since
project road is rural road way and there will not be large number of non-motorized traffic,
as a result we adopted 1.50m shoulder width of the entire road for economical reason [3].
Some important advantages of shoulder are:-
 Provide a space for emergency stopping (temporary parking) of vehicle
 Maintenance operation and design
 Improving sight distance and highway capacity
 Provide structural support for the pavement
Table 2.16: shoulder width versus DS

Design Rural Terrain/Shoulder Width (m)
Standard Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
DS1 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5
DS2 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5
DS3 1.5 - 3.0++ 1.5 - 3.0++ 0.5 – 1.5 0.5 – 1.5
DS4 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5
DS5* 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
DS6** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
DS7 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth)
DS8** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
DS9** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
DS10** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2.6.5 Side Slopes and Back Slopes

Side slope and back slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway
and to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of the traffic may be defined as
recoverable or non-recoverable or, critical.
Recoverable slopes: 1:4 or flatter slopes are categorized under this category. A driver
who encroaches on this kind of slope can easily stop or return to the roadway easily.
Non-recoverable slopes: slopes between 1:3 to1:4 generally fall into this category. A
driver will be unable to stop and return the vehicle easily to the roadway.
Critical slopes: slopes on which a vehicle is likely to overturn, Slopes steeper than
1:3 generally falls in to this category. The selection of aside slope & aback slope

dependent on four factors: safety consideration, height of cut or fills, Type of material
and economic consideration. Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability
of the roadway and to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-
control vehicle [3].
Table 2.17: side slopes and back slopes
Material Height of Slope Side Slope Back Slope Zone Description
Cut Fill
Earth or Soil 0.0 - 1.0m 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
1.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock Any height See Standard Details Critical
Black Cotton Soil* 0.0 - 2.0m - 1:6 - Recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:4
Figure 2.15: Designation of Roadside Regions Source [1]
2.6.6 Road Side Ditches

Road side ditches should be low enough to drain the water from under the pavement.
When using a “V-ditch” configuration minimum depth of ditch should be 0.6m in
mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m elsewhere. Side drains should be
avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as black cotton soils. Where this is not

possible, they shall be kept at a minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe of the
embankment, dependent on functional classification (6m for trunk roads), as shown in
Figure 2.17. The ditch in this instance should have a trapezoidal, flat-bottom
configuration [3].
Figure 2.16: Road Side Ditches
2.7 Earth Work

The careful attentions to limiting earthwork quantities through the preparation of a mass
haul diagram are essential elements in providing the best-combined horizontal, vertical,
and cross-sectional design. This is especially true when the design includes
consideration of the least cost in relation to earthworks. Key terms associated with this
process, as listed in Definitions, include:
Borrow- material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening
cuts, flattening back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the
right-of-way, or from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans.
Waste- material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the
embankment.
Free Haul (FH) - the maximum distance through which excavated material may

be transported without the added cost above the unit bid price.
Overhaul- excavated material transported to a distance beyond the free haul distance.
Economic Limit of Haul (EHL) - distance through which, it is more economical
to haul excavated material than to waste and borrow.
The steps involved in the computation of earthwork quantities and the development of
the optimal mass haul diagram are:-
 End area calculations
 Earthwork calculations
 Preparation of mass haul diagram
 Balancing earthworks using the mass haul diagram
These steps are presented in the following text. Of note is the fact that most current
highway design computer programs, including MX (MOSS), will produce the mass
haul diagram as part of the output when typical sections and horizontal and vertical
alignments are inputs. A final stage of geometric design is then usually to make
adjustments to the alignments in the interests of balancing or minimizing the earthwork
quantities [3].
2.7.1 End Area Calculations

End area calculations are usually made by one of the following methods:
1. Planimeter Method - The original ground line and template section (cross
section) must be plotted on grid paper. Centerline profile grade must first be
calculated for each cross section station to determine the centerline reference of each
template plot. Areas of cut and fill quantities are calculated using a planimeter,
converted to square meters, and tabulated for each section.

2. Electronic Computer Method - This method is widely used due to its versatility
and speed of calculations. The end area calculation on modern computer programs is
an integral part of the alignment design program and shown on output listings
along with the geometric of each section [3].
2.7.2 Calculating Earthwork

There are several ways of calculating earthwork but the most common is the "average
end area" method. This method consists of averaging the cut and fill quantities of
adjacent stations and multiplying by the distance between stations to produce
cubic meters of excavation and embankment between the two stations. This
procedure is followed when manual methods are used. Projects designed by computer
will be tabulated on the mass plot listing and these calculations are integral parts of the
alignment design program. Compaction factors of excavated material must be
determined or estimated in order to determine earthwork quantities of excavation and
embankment. When common material is excavated from natural ground and
compacted in an embankment, it loses volume. When solid rock is broken up and
compacted in an embankment, it usually swells. Although adjustment factors can be
applied to either embankment or excavation quantities, it is general practice to apply the
compaction factor to the excavation so that a compaction factor of –25 percent would
result in 100 cubic meters of excavation required for an embankment of 75 cubic
meters. Likewise, a 10 percent swell factor would result in 100 cubic meters of rock
excavation required for an embankment of 110 cubic meters. Compaction factors
should be determined or estimated for each project taking into consideration the
various types of soils and depth of proposed cuts and fills. Accumulation totals of cut and
fill can now be calculated as follows:

 Total accumulated cut is the total of adjusted cuts (excavation volume x
adjustment factor) added from station to station.
 Total accumulated fill is the sum of the embankments from station to station
( no adjustment)
The mass ordinate can now be calculated by taking the algebraic sum of adjusted
excavation and unadjusted embankment from station to station, using "+" for
excavation and "-" for embankment [3].
2.7.3 Mass Haul Diagram

The mass haul diagram is a curve in which the abscissas represent the stations of the
survey and the ordinates represent the algebraic sum of excavation and embankment
quantities from some point of beginning on the profile. The plot can be to any scale,
depending on the quantities involved. Project designed by computer will list, tabulate,
and plot all of the data shown above including a mass haul diagram and balance points.
The mass haul diagram shows excavation (adjusted) and embankment quantities from
some point of beginning on the profile, considering cut volumes positive and fill
volumes negative. At the beginning of the curve the ordinate is zero, and ordinates
are calculated continuously from the initial station to the end of the project. The mass
haul diagram is shown on appendix D-4.
The mass haul diagram can be used to determine:-
 Proper distribution of excavated material
 Amount and location of waste
 Amount and location of borrow
 Amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters
 Direction of haul.

Note that properties of mass haul diagrams are as follows:
a) An upward slope on the mass curve indicates excavation, and conversely, a
downward slope indicates embankment. The steeper the slope of the mass curve, the
greater the cubic meters of excavation or embankment.
b) The maximum ordinate of the mass curve occurs at the point where excavation ends
and embankment starts. Similarly, the minimum ordinate occurs at the point where
embankment ends and excavation starts.
c) Cut and fill quantities between the points at which any horizontal line cuts off a loop
of the mass curve will exactly balance. Such horizontal lines are called balance lines
and the points at which these lines intersect the mass curve are called balance points.
d) Areas below the balance line indicate that hauling of excavation to embankment is
from right to left, whereas areas above the balance line indicate that the haul is from
left to right.
e) The area between a balance line and its corresponding loop of the mass curve is a
measure of haul (product of the volume and distance in station-meters).
f) The ordinate at any station represents the accumulated amount of surplus or deficit of
material at the station. It does not indicate the amount of cut or fill volume at that
station. Shrinkage and swelling should be included in estimating the quantities.
According to ERA 2002 there is a recommended shrinkage and swelling factor therefore
the following tables show the recommended values of Shrinkage factors [3].
For this project shrinkage factor 25% is assumed.
Table 2.18 Shrinkage factor

Type of soil Shrinkage factor
Light soil (ordinary ground) 10-25%
Light soil(swamp ground) 20-40%
Heavy soil up to10%
2.8 Pavement Design

Pavements are designed and constructed to provide durable, all weather travelling
surfaces for safe and speedy movement of people and goods with an acceptable level of
comfort to users. The basic idea in building a pavement for all-weather use by vehicles
is to prepare a suitable subgrade, provide necessary drainage and construct a pavement
that will:-
 Have sufficient total thickness and internal strength to carry expected traffic.
 Have adequate properties to prevent or minimize the penetration or
internal accumulation of moisture, and
 Have a surface that is reasonably smooth and skid resistant at the same time, as
well as reasonably resistant to wear, distortion and deterioration by weather.
The two major considerations in structural design of high way pavements are:-
 Material design and
 Thickness design
Therefore, the structural function of a pavement is to support a wheel load on the
pavement surface, and transfer and spread that load to the sub grade without
exceeding either the strength of the subgrade or the internal strength of the pavement
itself [3].
2.8.1 Types of Pavement

There are three types of pavement, and each of them is described below.

1. Flexible pavement.
Flexible pavement provides sufficient thickness for the load distribution through a
multilayer structure so that the stresses and strains in the subgrade soil layers are within
the required limit. It is expected that the strength of subgrade soil would have a direct
bearing on the total thickness of the flexible pavement. The layered structure is designed
to take the advantage of the decreasing magnitude of stresses with depth [3].
2. Rigid pavements
Rigid pavements (also called concrete pavements), as the name implies, are rigid and
very strong in compression. The strength of the pavement is contributed mainly by a
concrete slab, unlike flexible pavements where successive layers of the pavement
contribute cumulatively [3].
This constitution implies the following advantages:
 It is feasible to design rigid pavements for longer design lives, up to 60 years.
 Little maintenance is generally required
 Rigid pavement do not deform under traffic
 A relatively thin pavement slab distributes the load over a wide area due to its
high rigidity. Localized low strength subgrade materials can be overcome due to
this wider distribution area.
 Concrete is very resistant to abrasion making the anti-skidding surface texture
last longer.
 In the absence of deleterious materials (either in the aggregate or entering the
concrete in solution from an external source), unlike with flexible pavements,
concrete does not suffer deterioration from weathering. Neither its strength nor
its stiffness is materially affected by temperature changes.

The main disadvantages compared to flexible pavements are as follows:
 The initial investment is often more costly.
 If badly designed or not properly constructed, they tend to be more troublesome
and reconstruction or repair is more difficult.
Concrete Slab
Rigid
Sub base
Capping Layer
(If required)
Subgrade
Natural ground or
Embankment
Figure 2.17: Rigid Pavement structure
3. Composite pavements
A composite pavement is composed of both HMA and PCC. The use of PCC as a bottom
layer and HMA as top layer results in an ideal pavement with the most desirable
characteristics. The PCC provides a strong base and the HMA provides smooth and non-
reflective surface. However, this type of pavement is very expensive and is rarely used as
a new construction [1].
2.8.2 Layered Structure of Flexible Pavement

Flexible pavement is constructed by laying different layers of pavement materials
for the purpose of decreasing the load distribution to the sub grade and to limit the
deflection of pavement structure. These layers are as bellow:

Surface Course: - Consists of bituminous layers to provide durable, water tight,
smooth riding and skid resistant travelled surface.
Base Course: - Base and sub base layers of the flexible pavement make up
larger proportion of the total pavement thickness needed to distribute the stresses
imposed by traffic loading. Crushed stone is commonly used for this purpose.
Sub-base Course: - is lower quality than the base material in strength, plasticity
and gradation but superior to sub grade material. It can be compacted granular
material or stabilized soil.
Subgrade: - it is a natural soil forming the road bed for pavement construction. Depth of
compaction and compacted density requirement depends on the type of soil, and
magnitudes of wheel loads and tire pressure [1].
Elements of flexible pavement
Figure 2.18: Elements of a Flexible Pavement
2.8.3 Traffic Loading Analysis for Highway Pavements

Although it is convenient to describe the design life of the pavement in years, it is the
total traffic loading during service that determines the actual design life of the pavement.
It is thus more appropriate to associate the design traffic loading is for pavement design.

The ultimate aim of traffic analysis for pavement design is to determine the magnitude of
wheel loads and the number of times each of these loads will be applied on the pavement
during its design life. For highway pavement the computation of design traffic loading
involves the following steps: -
 Estimation of expected initial year traffic volume.
 Estimation of expected annual traffic growth rate.
 Estimation of traffic stream composition.
 Computation of traffic loads.
 Estimation of directional split of design traffic loads.
 Estimation of design lane traffic loads.
2.8.4 Traffic Stream Composition

The number of different types of vehicles such as cars, buses, single unit trucks and
multiple unit trucks expected to use the high way must be estimated.
2.8.5 Traffic Loading Computation

Two aspects of traffic loading are of concern in the design of highway pavement, namely
number of application and magnitude of each load type.
In this project, the traffic load computation factor is taken from ERA design manual,
since there is no available data for axle load survey. Using this factor and data from
traffic counts, the equivalent standard axle load (ESA) is computed to classify the road
according to its traffic class.
2.8.6 Directional Split and Design Lane Traffic Loading

It is common practice to report traffic volume of high way to include flows for all lanes
in both directions. To determine the design traffic loading on the design lane, one must
split the traffic by direction and distribute the directional traffic by lanes. An even split

assigning 50% of the traffic to each direction appears to be the norm. If an even split
occurs, pavements are designed based on the heavier directional traffic loading. The
directional split for this purpose is 50%. The design lane for pavement structural design is
usually the slow lane (lane next to the shoulder in most cases) in which a large proportion
of directional heavy vehicle traffic is expected to travel. This principle is used to design a
highway which has more than two travel lanes. But since the highway which has more
than two lane, the design lane is the one with large number of traffic composition or the
design lane is the one with large number of traffic composition or. If the directional split
is 50%, either of the lanes is used as design lane [3].
2.8.7 Design Period

Determining an appropriate design period is the first step towards pavement design.
Many factors may influence this decision, including budget constraints. However, the
designer should follow certain guidelines in choosing an appropriate design period,
taking into account the conditions governing the project. Some of the points to be
considered include:
 Functional importance of the road
 Traffic volume
 Location and terrain of the project
 Financial constraints
 Difficulty in forecasting traffic
It generally appears economical to construct roads with longer design periods, especially
for important roads and for roads with high traffic volume. Where rehabilitation would
cause major inconvenience to road users, a longer period may be recommended. For
roads in difficult locations and terrain where regular maintenance proves to be costly and

time consuming because of poor access and non-availability of nearby construction
material sources, a longer design period is also appropriate [3].
Table 2.19: Road classifications versus design period
Road Classification Design Period (years)
Trunk Road 20
Link Road 20
Main Access Road 15
Other Roads 10
2.8.8 Traffic Volumes

Vehicle classification is an essential aspect of traffic volume evaluation and evaluation of
equivalent axle loads. The types of vehicles are defined according to the breakdown
adopted by ERA for traffic counts: cars; pick-ups and 4-wheel drive vehicles such as
Land Rovers and Land Cruisers; small buses; medium and large size buses; small trucks;
medium trucks; heavy trucks; and trucks and trailers. This breakdown is further
simplified, for reporting purposes, and expressed in the five classes of vehicles (with
vehicle codes 1 to 5) listed in the table below [3].
Table 2.20: Vehicle Classification
Vehicle Type of Vehicle Description
Code
1 Small car Passenger cars, minibuses (up to 24-passenger seats), taxis,

pick-ups, and Land Cruisers, Land Rovers, etc.
2 Bus Medium and large size buses above 24 passenger seats
3 Medium Truck Small and medium sized trucks including tankers up to 7
tons load
4 Heavy Truck Trucks above 7 tons load
5 Articulated Trucks with trailer or semi-trailer and Tanker Trailers
Truck
2.8.8.1 Traffic Forecasting

In order to forecast traffic growth it is necessary to separate traffic into the following
categories [3].
Normal Traffic: - traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if new
pavement was provided.
Diverted Traffic: - traffic that changes from another route or made of transport to the
project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels between the same origin
and destination.
Generated Traffic: - Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or
improvement of the road.
2.8.8.2 Determination of Cumulative Traffic Volume

In order to determine the cumulative number of vehicles over the design period of the
road, the following procedure should be followed:-
1. Determine the initial traffic volume (AADT0) using the results of the traffic survey
and any other recent traffic count information that is available. For paved roads, detail the
AADT in terms of car, bus, truck, and truck-trailer.

2. Estimate the annual growth rate “i” expressed as a decimal fraction, and the anticipated
number of years “x” between the traffic survey and the opening of the road.
3. Determine AADT1 the traffic volume in both directions on the year of the road
opening by: AADT1 = AADT0 (1+i) x
For paved roads, also determine the corresponding daily one-directional traffic volume
for each type of vehicle.
4. Determine the average daily one directional traffic flow on the year of opening for
each class of vehicle by multiplying AADT by directional distribution factor (L).
5. Make forecast of cumulative one directional traffic flow for each class of vehicle to
determine the total traffic in each class that will travel over the design lane using the lane
distribution factor, L during the design life.
6. Determine the EALF for each class of vehicle and for each direction from the results of
axle load survey.
7. The product of the cumulative one directional traffic flow and the mean EALF is the
cumulative equivalent standard axle (ESA) for one direction.
Determine the cumulative number of ESA
Cumulative number of ESA = cumulative number of vehicle *equivalent factor.
The base year is 2015 when the collected data is for analysis.
In paved roads, determine the corresponding one-directional traffic volume for each type
of vehicle. Then the cumulative number of vehicles, T over the chosen design period N
(in years) is
Ti = 365 AADT1i [(1+i) N– 1] / (i)

 Ti = cumulative volume of traffic for the ith commercial vehicle class in the design
lane over the design period (adjusted for lane distribution and direction).
 i = annual growth rate for the ith commercial vehicle class
 N = Design Period in years
Axle Equivalency:-The damage that vehicles do to a paved road is highly dependent on
the axle loads of the vehicles. For pavement design purposes the damaging power of
axles is related to a “standard” axle of 8.16 metric tons using empirical equivalency
factors. In order to determine the cumulative axle load damage that a pavement will
sustain during its design life, it is necessary to express the total number of heavy vehicles
that will use the road over this period in terms of the cumulative number of equivalent
standard axles (ESAs). Axle loads can be converted and compared using standard factors
to determine the damaging power of different vehicle types. A vehicle’s damaging power,
or Equivalency Factor (EF), can be expressed as the number of equivalent standard axles
(ESAs), in units of 80kN. The design lives of pavements are expressed in terms of the
ESAs they are designed to carry [3].

n
Axle load
EF=( ) , n = 4.5
8160
2.8.8.3 Traffic Class of Flexible Pavement

The traffic class for a given highway is determined by the magnitude of total ESAs.
The following table shows traffic classes with their range of ESAs [3].
Table 2.21: Traffic Classes of Flexible pavement

Traffic class Range of ESA (106)
T1 <0.3
T2 0.3-0.7
T3 0.7-1.5
T4 1.5-3
T5 3-6
T6 6-10
T7 10-17
T8 17-30
Based on the computation performed in the above table total ESAs equals to
8.613x 106. Accordingly the corresponding traffic class is T6.
2.8.9 Determining the Sub grade Strength Class

In highway engineering, sub grade is the finished grade line which is ready to accept sub
base, base course and pavement. Sub grades are commonly compacted before the
Construction of a pavement. It is the foundation of the pavement structure, on which the
sub base is laid. The types and strength of sub grades are largely determined by the
location of the road. The soil within the corridor of the road usually varies significantly
in strength from place to place thus, strength of road sub grade should be determined
&the determination of sub grade strength is assessed in terms of CBR which depends
on the types of soil, its density and moisture content [3].
For this project CBR value is given which is equal to 10%
Table 2.22: Sub-Grade Classes
Classes Ranges (CBR %)
S1 2
S2 3-4
S3 5-7
S4 8-14
S5 15-29
S6 30+

For this project sub grade class=S4
2.8.10 Design of Pavement Thickness

The purpose of structural design is to limit the stresses induced in the sub grade by traffic
to a safe level at which sub grade deformation is insignificant whilst at the same time
ensuring that the road pavement layers themselves do not deteriorate to any serious
extent within a specified period of time.
The thickness of the pavement is selected from the structural catalogue chart. The
selection of chart depends on variety of factors but should minimize total cost. Given
alternatives are alternative from catalogue 1, 2, 3, 4,5,6,7 and 8 [3].
2.9 Drainage Design

Highway drainage structures are an essential component in the design development of a
highway. For a highway to serve its function properly, it should be provided with
drainage facility. It is aimed at the protection of the road through the prevention of
damage due to water to achieve a chosen level of service without major rehabilitation at
the end of the selected design period, as economically as possible. The design procedures
take in to account factors such as rainfall intensity, catchment areas, ground cover and
run-out.
The water flows considered in this project was the flows generated by the run off of the
rain water falling on the carriageway and it is surrounding [3].
2.9.1 Surface and Sub-surface Drainage

I. Surface Drainage
When rain falls on a sloped pavement surface, it forms a thin film of water that increases
in thickness as it flows to the edge of the pavement. Factors which influence the depth of

water on the pavement are the length of flow path, surface texture, surface slope, and
rainfall intensity. As the depth of water on the pavement increases, the potential for
vehicular hydroplaning increases. For the purposes of road drainage, a discussion of
hydroplaning is presented and design guidance for the following drainage elements is
presented:-
 Longitudinal pavement slope;
 Cross or transverse pavement slope;
 Curb and gutter design;
 Roadside and median ditches;
 Bridge decks.
II. Sub-Surface Drainage

Aspects of sub-surface drainage that require special consideration for drainage design
include:
 Location and capacity of sub-soil drains;
 Location of outlets and cleanout points to allow for ultimate shape; and
Paved and unpaved roads are subjected to problems associated with excess water within
the foundation structure of the roadway. This excess water originates from water
infiltrating along the roadway surface, groundwater seeping in from upslope areas, high
water in roadway ditches or groundwater rising up from beneath the roadway.
The excessive wetness of the road foundation leads to a weakening of the road foundation
and, eventually, failure of the surface, whether it is paved or unpaved. The national
economic cost of pavement damage as a result of excess water can be estimated in tens of
millions of Birr annually. While surface drainage practices do help to alleviate some of
the problems associated with excess water conditions, the principal way of handling the

problem is to use subsurface drainage. Sub-surface drainage of highway pavements
comprises the measures incorporated in the design in order to control levels of
groundwater, and drain the road foundation. Subsurface drainage is normally necessary in
order to remove any water which may permeate through the pavement layers of roads in
both cut and fill situations.
Sub-surface drainage in cuttings must provide not only for the necessary drainage of
pavement layers, but also for the removal, to an adequate depth, of any groundwater,
which may be present in the cutting. Changes to the water table and groundwater flows
[3].
2.9.2 Factors Affecting Drainage

In the hydrologic analysis for a drainage structure, there are many factors affecting
floods. Some of the factors that need to be considered are:-
 Rainfall amount and storm distribution
 Catchment area, size, shape and orientation.
 Ground cover
 Type of soil
 Slope of the terrain and stream(s) etc.
2.9.3 Hydrologic Procedures

Flow measurements for determining a flood frequency relationship at a site are usually
unavailable. In this case, it is an accepted practice to estimate peak runoff rates using
empirical methods.
There are two methods available for calculating the discharge that best reflects local
project conditions. These are:

I. Ration al method: - Provides peak runoff rates for small urban and rural catchment
areas, less than 50 hectares, but is best suited to urban storm drain systems and rural
ditches. Here, rainfall is a necessary input.
II. SCS method: - SCS method is based on an analysis of a large number of natural unit
hydrographs from a broad cross section of geographic locations and hydrologic regions.
For this project, rational method was used because our catchment is less than 50 hectares
Which is 32.45hectares.
2.9.3.1 Rational Method

Rational method is most accurate for estimating the design storm peak runoff for areas up
to 50 hectares (0.5km2). Some precautions shall be considered when applying the rational
method:
 The first step in applying the rational method is to obtain a good topographic map
and define the boundaries of the catchment area in hand.
 In determining the runoff coefficient C value for the catchment area, thought shall
be given to future changes in land use.
The rate of runoff resulting from any rainfall intensity is a maximum when the rainfall
intensity lasts as long as or longer than the time of concentration. That is the entire
catchment area does not contribute to the peak discharge until the time of concentration
has elapsed. Frequencies antecedent moisture conditions in the catchment area and the
response characteristics of the drainage system.
The rational method formula estimates the peak rate of runoff at any location in
catchment area as a function of the catchment area, runoff coefficient, and means rainfall
intensity for duration equal to the time of concentration (the time required for water to
flow from the most remote point of the basin to the location being analyzed) [3].

Table 2.23: given data for drainage design
Parameter Values
Intensity 45mm/hr.
Return period 25yr
Coefficient of run off 0.7
Area 32.45hectares
The rational formula is expressed as:
Q=0.00278CIA
Where: Q – maximum rate of runoff, m3/sec
C – Runoff coefficient representing a ratio of runoff to rainfall
I – Average rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of
concentration for a sealed return period, mm/hr
A – Catchment area tributary to the design Location, in ha
2.9.3.2 Time of Concentration

Time of concentration is the time required for water to flow from the hydraulically most
remote point of the catchment area to the point under investigation. Use of the rational
method requires the time of concentration (tc) for each design point within the catchment
area [3]. Using Kirpich equation:

1.5
1 L
Tc=
52 H 0.38

Where: Tc – time of concentration (minute)
L – Length of steam
H – Level difference in meters between the origin of the stream and the crossing site.
2.9.3.3 Rainfall Intensity

The rainfall intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate in mm/hr for duration equal to the
time of concentration for a selected return period. Once a particular return period has
been selected for design and a time of concentration calculated for the catchment area,
the rainfall intensity can be determined from rainfall-intensity-duration curves of [3].
The project area from Dandi to Jaldu rainfall intensity is given 45mm/hr.
2.9.3.4 Runoff Coefficient

The runoff coefficient (C) is the variable of the rational method least susceptible to
precise determination and requires judgment and understanding. A typical coefficient
represents the integrated effects of many drainage basin parameters. To determine the
runoff coefficient, first the type of surface, hydrologic soil group and slope of the project
area should be determined. Once this parameters are determined the composite runoff
coefficient were taken from [3] recommendation.
2.9.3.5 Hydrological Soil Group

Soil properties influence the relationship between runoff and rainfall since soils have
differing rates of infiltration. Permeability and infiltration are the principal data required
to classify soils in to hydrologic soil groups. Based on infiltration rates, the soil
conservation service has divided soils in to four hydrologic soil groups.
Among those groups the soil type of our project area falls under soil group B. Group B
soil is soils having a moderately low runoff potential due to moderate infiltration rates.

These soils primarily consist of moderately deep to deep, moderately well to well drained
soils with moderately fine to moderately coarse textures [3].
Soil Type
Terrain Type A B C D
Flat, <2% 0.04-0.09 0.07-0.12 0.11-0.16 0.15-0.20
Rolling, 2-6% 0.09-0.14 0.12-0.17 0.16-0.21 0.20-0.25
Mountain, 6-15% 0.13-0.18 0.18-0.24 0.23-0.31 0.28-0.38
Escarpment, >15% 0.18-0.22 0.24-0.30 0.30-0.40 0.38-0.48
Table 2.24: Runoff coefficient for pervious surface
2.9.4 Culvert
Culvert is a structure that is designed hydraulically to take advantage of submergence to
increase hydraulic capacity. It is also a structure used to convey surface runoff through
embankments. A culvert is a structure that is usually covered with embankment and is
composed of structural material around the entire perimeter [3].
2.9.4.1 Culvert Type Selection

The type of drainage structure specified for a particular location is often determined
based on economic considerations. Culverts are used where bridges are not hydraulically
required, where debris is tolerable, and where they are more economical than abridge.
Culverts can be concrete box culverts, reinforced concrete pipe culverts, or corrugated
metal culverts. For highway in this project concrete pipe culvert was chosen based on the

site condition, amount of discharge, availability, durability, from economic point of view,
construction and maintenance [3].
2.9.4.2 Culvert Length and Slope

The culvert length and slope should be chosen to approximate existing topography, and to
the degree practicable. The culvert invert was aligned with the channel bottom and the
skew angle of the stream. Also the culvert entrance shall match the geometry of the
roadway. The culvert size and shape selected was to be based on engineering and
economic criteria related to site condition.
The slope for the culvert alignment was chosen depending on the terrain condition at the
location of the culvert. The culvert should be aligned with skew of not exceeding 45
degrees as measured from a line perpendicular to the roadway centerline [3].
2.9.4.3 End Treatment for Culvert

For the culvert to serve its function properly, end treatments, such as Inlets, Outlets, end
walls and apron should be provided.
 Projecting inlets or outlets: - These are culvert extensions beyond the
embankment of the roadway. They have low construction cost, eliminating
headwalls and wing walls.
 End walls: - They provide embankment stability, embankment erosion protection,
and protection from buoyancy. They shorten the required structure length, and
reduce the maintenance damage.
Type A: - conveys the flow away and perpendicular to the roadway.
Type B: - conveys the flow in to longitudinal drains parallel to the roadway.
 Aprons: - They are used to reduce scour from high head water depths or from
approach velocity in the channel. They should extend at least 1.5m pipe diameters

upstream, and should not protrude above the normal stream bed elevation. An
apron is depicted in the type a drawing.
For the culvert designed here end treatments were selected from standard details provided
by [3]. As such Inlet, Outlet and end wall of type A were provided.
2.9.4.4 Culvert Design Details

Important information for design of culvert are:
 The surrounding soils are active.
 Annual rainfall
 Mean temperature
But, in our project we have not designed culvert because the elevation decrease smoothly
all over sag curve. So, the water can easily flow without providing cross drainage.
2.9.5 Longitudinal Drainage

A roadside ditch is defined as an open channel paralleling the highway embankment
within the limits of the highway right-of-way. Its primary function is to collect runoff
from the highway and areas adjacent to the right-of-way and to transport this
accumulated water to an acceptable outlet point. A secondary function of a roadside ditch
is to drain the base of the roadway to prevent saturation and loss of support for the
pavement .Ditches can be classified depending on their shapes.
The three main types of x- sections for roadside ditches are trapezoidal, triangular and
parabolic. Of the three shapes, the parabolic section is hydraulically the best and most
resistant to erosion, even though not as easy in construction as the trapezoidal and
triangular shapes.
The triangular section although easy to construct is very much susceptible to erosion and
gets easily blocked with debris and is generally not recommended.

The most commonly used cross section is the trapezoidal section as it is accepted from
both consideration, hydraulic as well as ease of construction [3].
For this project, trapezoidal side ditch has been chosen because it is more economical and
will reduce erosion compared to the others.
Discharge calculation.
Using manning’s equation: -
1
Q = A R2/3 S ½
n
Table 2.25: Manning’s roughness coefficient and maximum velocity
Ditch surface N Permissible velocity
Rock 0.0035-0.0045 4.5-6.1
Soil 0.022-0.025 0.3-2.4
Glass 0.03-0.07 0.9-1.5
Glass/dense surface 0.04-0.02 1.2-2.4
Paved channel 0.012-0.033 2.4-6.1
Table 2.26: Run off coefficient
Surface Run off Coefficient
Carriage way(asphalt) 0.7-0.95

Ditch
Shoulder 0.75- 0.85
assumed to
Cultivated land 0.94
be laid in
Ditch (concrete) 0.8-0.95
easily

eroded soil type manning coefficient ranges from 0.02 to 0.05 in our case we take
n=0.022 [3] velocity in this range will be 2.4m/s.
Using manning equation, V=
2.10 Traffic Control and Markings

2.10.1 Introduction
The various aids and devices used to control, regulate, guide and facilitate traffic
operations are called Road furniture. The general requirement of these are attention,
meaning, time of response and respect of the road user. Traffic signs provide essential
information to drivers for their safe and efficient maneuvering on the road. Marker posts
assist in a timely perception of the alignment ahead and, when equipped with reflectors,
provide good optical guidance at night.
For the safe traffic operation on highways adequate regulation and controls have to be
imposed. The most commonly used control measures are
 Traffic signs
 Road marking
 Traffic signals
2.10.2 Traffic Signs

Traffic sign is a measure to convey specific information to driver quite in advance, so that
he/she may become careful. To list few important traffic signs: -
 Give timely warning of hazardous situations when they are not self-evident.
 They give information as to highway routes, directions and points of interest.
 Regulating of traffic by imparting messages to the drivers about the need to
stop, give way and limit their speeds etc.

Types of Traffic Sign:-According to the U.N. protocol (United Nations publication) the
international system of traffic sign comprises of the following classes: -
 Danger sign/ Warning sign
 Regulatory sign
 Information signs
A) Warning sign
These sign convey to the drivers, the conditions ahead that some caution is required.
The UN protocol recommends an equilateral triangle with one point upwards.
Some examples of warning sign include.
 Zig zag
 Right turn
 Left turn
 Dead end
 Cross-road
 Steep slopes
 Narrow bridge etc.

Right and Left turn Zig zag
Side road Steep slope
Narrow bridge Round about
Cross-road T-intersection
Y-intersection
Figure 2.19: Warning signs

b) Regulatory Sign
Regulatory signs are also called Mandatory signs. They indicate to the traffic an
obligation to comply with statutory regulations and non-compliance of which is
considered an offence. These signs also convey to the driver not to exceed specific speed
limit or not to park his vehicle. No parking, speed limit, dead slow, weight limit
overtaking prohibited etc. is classified as regulatory sign.
In this case we have recommended the use of speed limit and overtaking prohibited on
the approach of both side of the reverse curves and along the road. It will be better if a
design speed as a speed limit is posted at a specific interval.
c) Information Sign
It provides information and guidance to drivers. End of speed limit sign, parking sign,
parking limits, road junction approach etc. are examples of informatory sign.
2.10.3 General Principles of Traffic Signing

The traffic signs which are installed can be best achieved if some general principles are
observed in their installation. These are:
 Traffic signs should be installed efficiently or by authority of law
 For imparting and sense of respect towards signs, proper enforcement should be
taken.
 A conservative use of signs is recommended, not excessive.
 The sign should be designed so that they will be fully seen.
 It should be legible and can be understood in time to produce proper response.
 High visibility both in night and day time.
 Simple and uniformity in design, position and application.
 Should be of standard size.

2.10.4 Traffic Signals

Traffic signals are key elements for the efficient functioning of many urban roads and for
some rural junctions. Traffic signals are not used in this project because the road is found
in rural area and there are no junctions.
2.10.5 Road Markings

In order to achieve a high degree of self-discipline by road users, it is desirable to use line
markings through the length of modern highways. Traffic marking may be in the form of
line, words, symbols or reflectors on the pavement. Traffic marking may be considered as
special sign used to assist in controlling and regulating traffic.
Type of Road Marking
Road markings are basically of two types
1. Carriage way marking
2. Object marking
Carriage way markings are markings which are applied on the roadway and object
markings are such as abutment, piers, kerbs, etc. categories of Carriages way are :-
 Center line marking
 Traffic lane line
 Non-over taking zone marking
 Pavement edge line
 Pedestrian crossings
 Parking zone etc.
Object markings are as follow:
1. Objects within the carriage way
2. Objects adjacent to the carriage way

Road markings are classified as follows [1]:-
1. Longitudinal markings – dividing lines, lane lines and edge lines
2. Transverse markings – stop line, give way line and pedestrian crossings
3. Other markings – arrows, restricted areas, text and symbols
Longitudinal markings
Dividing (center) lines
Continuous dividing line
100 mm wide yellow line
Double continuous dividing line
Two 100 mm wide yellow lines with 150-180 mm separation
M03 Broken dividing line
100 mm wide yellow line.
Urban areas: 3 m mark with 6 m gap. Rural areas: 4 m mark with 8 m gap

Warning line
Combination of continuous and broken dividing line
M01 and M03 with 150-180 mm separation
Zig-Zag dividing line
Urban areas: 2 m mark with 150 mm gap
Lane lines
Continuous lane line
100 mm wide white line
Broken lane line

100 mm wide white line.
Edge lines
Standard edge line
100 mm wide white line
Continuity line
100 mm / 200 mm wide white line.
Urban areas and rural areas: 1 m mark with 1 m gap
No parking line
100 mm wide yellow line
Transverse markings
Stop line Give way line

Uncontrolled pedestrian crossing Signal-controlled pedestrian
crossing
Hump
General Guide Line of Pavement Marking
 Solid lines are restrictive in nature and it is an offence to cross such line
 Broken line can be crossed provided that it can be done safely
 Double line indicates maximum restrictions.
In our project, we recommend longitudinal marking for the whole length of the road.
This includes:
 Dividing line
 Lane lines and
 Edge lines.

CHAPTER THREE
PROJECT METHODOLOGY
3.1 .Study Area
The Dandi to Jaldu road is found in west shawa part of Ethiopia in the region of Oromia.
It links two towns, Ginchi to Gojjo, which are at high economic growth. This project lies
in B2 or the rainfall regions. The climatic condition of the project area combines semi –
cold and partly warm climatic features. The mean temperature varies between 7.5 0c to
27.50c. The mean annual rainfall of the project area is between 200 – 2400 mm.
Project area
Figure 3.1 project location area
3.2.1 Dependent variables

 Rural Link road design.
3.2.2 Independent variables

 Geometric design

 Pavement design
 Drainage design
 Cost estimation
3.3 Methodology
While performing this project, in addition to manual computations, the project designer
used software’s like MXROAD for design and analysis of horizontal and vertical
alignments, pavement and earth work design. AUTOCAD for displaying different cross
sections of the roadway and as a result, read necessary values. EXCEL for calculating
earth work quantities, calculating both horizontal and vertical curve elements and thereby
offsets, drawing mass haul diagram and the like.
3.4 Study Population

This project covers about 2.980 km. The project designer, designed a number of study
population including :- five horizontal curves, six transition curves, five super elevations,
five vertical curves of which one is crest curve and the remaining four are sag curves,
three pavement layers.

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Route Selection
Basically, we used the selected route for designing of the road that means a surveying
data has been given for us. Depending on this survey data we have tried to set our
horizontal alignment along the center line of the given data as possible as we can.
4.2 Terrain classification
Table 4.1: Terrain classification
No Station Govern terrain
1 0+000 – 0+250 Rolling
2 0+250 – 0+530 Flat
3 0+530 – 1+610 Rolling
4 1+610 – 1+900 Flat
5 1+900 – 2+220 Rolling
6 2+220 – 2+270 Flat
7 2+270 – 2+980 Flat
For the left station refer appendix A-4

4.3 Design Standard
The anticipated traffic growth is a constant 5%, and the opening of the road is scheduled
for 2022E.C. To make more accurate we use 2015 traffic data as seven days count and we
estimate AADT0 for the counting time. The projected AADTs 2022 for both directions
can be calculated as;
AADT 1= AADT o ¿

Where: i=growth rate = 5%
x=the anticipated number of years between traffic survey & the opening of the road
Sample Calculation at year 2022:
We make next lower integer rounding
AADT 1= AADT o ¿
AADT 1 for Car=20∗¿
AADT 1 for 4 WD=100∗¿
AADT 1 for Small bus=80∗¿
AADT 1 for Large bus=70∗¿
AADT 1 for Small truck=102∗¿
AADT 1 for Medium truck=208∗¿
AADT 1 for Heavy truck =130∗¿
AADT 1 for Truck ∧Trailer=120∗¿
Σ AADT1=27+134+107+94+137+279+174+161
Σ AADT1 =1112
So, the design standard is DS3.
4.4 Horizontal Alignment Design

4.4.1 Tangent
In case of this project since the terrain condition is mostly flat and rolling it allows
favorable condition for providing sufficient tangent section its length is to such extents
that doesn’t causes danger from head light and excessive speeding
 Tangent length up to PC1= 234-0=234m
 Tangent length between curve-1 and curve-2 =1616.217-527.713=1088.504m
 Tangent length between curve-2 &curve-3= 1941.043-1889.257=51.789m

All tangent length provided is much less than 4km which is the maximum limit provided.
4.4.2 Simple circular curves

In our project case, we have used design speed of 85Km/hr. and 100Km/hr.
2
85
So, R min ¿ =258.59m (for vd =85km/hr.).
127(0.14+ 0.08)
2
100
R min ¿ =397.30m (for vd =100km/hr.)
127(0.12+0.08)
In our case the radius of all the curves are already specified in alignment.
4.4.3 Horizontal Curve Calculation Parameters for Different Standard

Horizontal curve -1
PI1=0+392.29
ΔRT = 07046'15.73"
R taken =2000m
1. Tangent distance
T1= R*tan Δ/2= 2000*tan (07046'15.73"/2) = 135.838m
2. Length of curve
R∗Π∗Δ
L= =2000∗3.14∗07 °0 46 ' 15.73} over {180 ¿ =271.26m
180
3. Point of curvature
PC1 = PI1 – T = 0+392.29-135.838 = 0+256.453
4. Point of tangency
PT1 = PC1+L = 0+256.453+271.26 = 0+527.713
5. External distance
E = R [sec (Δ /2) -1] = 2000*[sec (07046'15.73"/2)-1] = 4.608m
6. Middle ordinate

M =R ¿] M =2000 ¿ = 4.597m
7. Chord length
C=2Rsin (Δ/2) =2*2000*sin (07046'15.73"/2) = 271.052m
Horizontal curve -2
PI2, ΔRT = 07005'51.41"
R taken =1300m
1. Tangent distance
T2= R*tan Δ/2= 1300*tan (07005'51.41"/2) =80.623m
2. Length of curve
R∗Π∗Δ
L= =1300∗3.14∗07 ° 0 5 ' 51.41 } over {180 ¿ =161.041m
180
PC2 = PI2 – T = 1+752.84-80.623 =1+672.217
PT1 = PC2+L =1+672.217+161.04=1+833.257
E = R [sec (Δ /2) -1] =1300*[sec (07005'51.41"/2)-1] = 2.498m
6. Middle ordinate
[
M =R ¿]¿ 1300 1−cos
2 ]
07 ° 05 ΄ 51.41”
= 2.493m
7. Chord length
C=2Rsin (Δ/2) =2*1300*sin ("07005'51.41"/2) =160.937m
Horizontal curve – 3
PI3=2+079.059

ΔRT = 10024'49.612"
R taken =900m
1. Tangent distance
T3= R*tan Δ/2= 900*tan (10024'49.612"/2) = 82.016m
2. Length of curve
R∗Π∗Δ
L= =900∗3.14∗10 0 24 ' 49.612 } over {180 ¿ =163.579m
180
PC3 = PI3 – T = 2+079.059-82.016 = 1+997.043m
PT3 = PC3+L = 1+997.043+163.579 = 2+160.623m
E = R [sec (Δ /2) -1] = 900*[sec (10024'49.612"/2)-1] = 3.729m
6. Middle ordinate
M =R ¿] M =900 ¿ = 3.714m
7. Chord length
C=2Rsin (Δ/2) = 2*900*sin (10024'49.612"/2) = 163.354m
Table 4.2: Summary of Horizontal Curve Element
Curve. Chainage Chainage Chainage R Rpro. ∆ T L
No. PC PI PT min
1 0+256.453 0+392.29 0+527.713 270 2000 07°46'15.73" 135.84 271.26
2 1+672.217 1+752.84 1+833.257 270 1300 07°05'51.41" 80.623 161.04
3 1+997.043 2+079.059 2+160.623 270 900 10°24'49.61" 82.01 163.58
4 3+277.329 3+433.639 3+589.316 395 2000 08°56'15.98" 156.31 311.98

5 3+867.092 4+096.346 4+320.142 395 1200 21°37'53.57" 229.25 453.05
For the other parameter horizontal curve refer appendix B-2
4.4.4 Setting out of horizontal curve

Setting out of horizontal curve -1
R1=2000,
PC1=0+256.453,
PT1=0+527.713
The next full station on the curve at 20 interval is equal to 0+260; Therefore the length of
initial sub chord is:-
C1=0+260-0+256.453=3.547
The last full station on 20 interval =0+520
C2=527.713-520=7.713
Calculation of deflection angle
1718.873C
δ=
R
1718.873∗20
δ= =17.19΄
2000
1718.873∗3.547
δ1 = =3.04΄
2000
1718.873∗7.713
δ2 = =6.62΄
2000

Table 4.3: Horizontal curve setting out for curve-1
Total deflection Total deflection angle on
Chainage Chord (m) Deflection angle angle 20 theodolite
0+256.453 0 0 00000’00’’ 00000’00’
0+260 3.547 3.04΄ 00003’2.4’’ 00003’00’’
0+280 20 17.19’ 00020’13.80’’ 00020’20’’
0+300 20 17.19’ 00037’25.2’’ 00037’20’’
0+320 20 17.19’ 00054’36.6’’ 00054’40’’
0+340 20 17.19’ 01011’48’’ 01011’40’’
0+360 20 17.19’ 01028’59.4” 01029’00”
0+380 20 17.19’ 01046’10.8’’ 01046’20’’
0+400 20 17.19’ 02003’22.2’’ 02003’20’’
0+420 20 17.19’ 02020’33.6’’ 02020’40’’
0+440 20 17.19’ 02037’45’’ 02037’40’’
0+460 20 17.19’ 02054’56.4’’ 02055’00’’
0+480 20 17.19’ 03012’7.8’’ 03012’00’’
0+500 20 17.19’ 03029’19.2’’ 03029’20’’
0+520 20 17.19’ 03046’30.6’’ 03046’40’’
0+527.713 7.713 6.62’ 03053’7.8’’ 03053’00’’
Checked = Δ/2

Setting out of horizontal curve-2
Taken
R2=1300,
PC2=1+672.217,
PT2=1+833.257
The next full station on the curve at 20 interval is equal to 1+680; therefore the length of
initial sub chord is:
C1=1+680-1+672.217=7.783
C2=1+833.257-1+820=13.257
1718.873C
δ=
R
1718.873∗20
δ= =26.44΄
1300
1718.873∗7.783
δ1 = =10.29΄
1300
1718.873∗13.257
δ2 = =17.53΄
1300
Refer appendix B-3 for horizontal curve setting curve -2
Setting out of horizontal curve-
Taken
R3=900,
PC3=1+997.043,

PT3=2+160.623
The next full station on the curve at 20 interval is equal to 2+000; Therefore the length of
initial sub chord is:-
C1=2+000-1+997.043=2.957
C2=2+160.623-2+160=0.623
1718.873C
δ=
R
1718.873∗20
δ= =38.20΄
900
1718.873∗2.957
δ1 = =5.65΄
900
1718.873∗0.623
δ2 = =1.19΄
900
Refer appendix-4 for horizontal curve setting curve -3
4.4.5 Spiral curve

Spiral Curve -1
Chainage of PI=1+752.84
Δ= 07005'51.41"
R taken =1300
V=85Kph
1. Rate of increase of lateral acceleration
C=80 / (75 + V) = 80/ (75+85) = 0.5 m/s3
2. Length of spiral
Ls= V3/46.66CR853/ (46.66*0.5*1300) = 20.25

3. Shift
S= Ls2/24R=20.252/ (24*1300) = 0.013
4. Tangent length
Ts,calculated= (R+S) tan Δ/2 + Ls/2= (1300+0.013) tan (07005'51.41"/2) +20.25/2
=90.74m
5. Central angle subtended by circular portion of the curve
θS =28.65LS/R = 28.65*20.25/1300 = 0.446°
∆C = ∆-2θS = 7.097°-2*0.446° = 6.205°
6. Length of the circular portion of the curve
LC=R* ∆C*Π/180 =R [∆-2θS]*Π/180=1300*6.205°*3.14/180 =140.716m
Check for Adequacy of spiral length
Ls, calculated=20.25m
Case 1: Based on driver comfort
Ls, min= √ (24R*P min), where P min=0.2
=√ (24*1300*0.2)
=78.993m
Case 2: Based lateral shift
Ls, min= V3/46.66CR, where C max=1.2m/se3
Ls = 853/46.66*1.2*1300 = 8.436m
Case 3: Maximum for comfort
Ls, max=√ (24*P max*R), where P max=1
Ls, max =√ (24*1*1300) =176.635m

The calculated Ls = 78.993m < Ls max=176.635m so that for driver comfort take Ls =
78.993m
Therefore, use Ls=78.993m for design of spiral curve
Offset from tangent
Y=x3/6LR at 10m intervals
At x=0, Y=03/6*78.993*1300, Y=0…………….at TS
At x=10, Y=0.00162
At x=20, Y=0.0129
At x=30, Y=0.043
At x=39.5, Y=0.099
Layout of the curve station
Station TS=Station PI – Ts = 1+752.84-90.74 =1+662.1
Station SC=Station TS + Ls =1+662.1+78.993 =1+741.093
Station CS = Station SC + Lc =1+741.093+140.716 =1+881.809
Station ST= Station CS +Ls =1+881.809+78.993=1+960.802
Total curve length = 2Ls +Lc=2*78.993+140.716=298.702m
Spiral Curve -2
Δ=10024'49.612"
R taken =900
V=85Kph
C=80 / (75 + V) = 80/ (75+85) = 0.5 m/s3
2. Length of spiral

Ls= V3/46.66CR = 853/ (46.66*0.5*900) = 29.25m
3. Shift
S= Ls2/24R=20.252/ (24*900) = 0.0396m
4. Tangent of length
Ts, calculated=(R+S) tan Δ/2 + Ls/2= (900+0.0396) tan (10024'49.612"/2)+29.25/2
= 96.644m
θS =28.65LS/R=28.65*29.25/900=0.931°
∆C = ∆-2θS=10.414°-2*0.931° = 8.551°
LC=R* ∆C*Π/180 =R [∆-2θS]*Π/180=900*8.551°*3.14/180=134.25m
=√ (24*900*0.2)
= 65.726m
Ls, min= V3/46.66CR, where C max=1.2m/se3
Ls=853/46.66*1.2*900 =12.186m
Ls, max =√ (24*1*900) =146.969m

The calculated Ls= 65.726m < Ls max=146.969m so that for driver comfort take Ls =
65.726m
Therefore, use Ls = 65.726m for design of spiral curve
Offset from tangent
At x=0, Y=03/6*65.726*900, Y=0…………….at TS
At x=10, Y=0.0028
At x=20, Y=0.0225
At x=30, Y=0.076
At x=32.86, Y=0.0999
Layout of the curve station
Station TS=Station PI – Ts = 2+079.059-96.644=1+982.415
Station SC=Station TS + Ls =1+982.415+65.726=2+048.141
Station CS = Station SC + Lc =2+048.141+134.25=2+182.391
Station ST= Station CS +Ls =2+182.391+65.726=2+248.117
Total curve length = 2Ls +Lc=2*65.726+140.7=272.14m
Spiral Curve -3
Δ= 21037'53.576"
R taken =1200
V=100Kph
C=80 / (75 + V) =80/ (75+100) = 0.457m/s3
2. Length of spiral

Ls= V3/46.66CR=1003/ (46.66*0.457*1200) = 39.068m
3. Shift
S= Ls2/24R=39.0682/ (24*1200) = 0.053m
4. Tangent lenght
Ts, calculated= (R+S) tan Δ/2 + Ls/2
= (1200+0.053) tan (/21037'53.576"2) +39.068/2
=248.798m
θS =28.65LS/R=28.65*39.068/1200=0.933°
∆C = ∆-2θS = 21.631°-2*0.933° = 19.766°
LC=R* ∆C*Π/180 =R [∆-2θS]*Π/180=1200*19.766°*3.14/180= 413.768m
=√ (24*1200*0.2)
=75.895m
Ls, min= V3/46.66CR where C max=1.2m/se3
=1003/46.66*1.2*1200 =14.883m

Ls, max =√ (24*1*1200) =169.706m
The calculated Ls= 75.895m < Ls max=169.706m so that for driver comfort take
Ls=75.895m, therefore, use Ls=75.895m for design of spiral curve
Offset from tangent
At x=0, Y=03/6*75.895*1200, Y=0…………….at TS
At x=10, Y=0.00173
At x=20, Y=0.0141
At x=30, Y=0.0476
At x= 37.95 Y=0.0961
4.5 Vertical alignment Design

In this road design we have determined the length of sag and crest vertical curves
based on the above formula. The following table summarizes the calculation done and
results obtained. The vertical curve alignment output is shown on appendix C-1.
Curve -1 (crest curve)
g1= -0.817
g2= -4.623
A=|g1-g2| = 3.806
Length of curve L = Ak
K for crust curve and stopping sight distance (SSD) is given;
K= 60 from table
L= 60*3.806=228.36m
L provided= 250m
Chainage of PVI=0+379.385

Chainage of BVC=PVI-L/2 = 0+379.385-125
= 0+256.453
Elevation of BVC=Elevation of PVI+g1*L/2
=1429.755+1.021=1430.776m
EVC=PVI+L/2
=0+379.385+125=0+504.385
Elevation of EVC=Elevation of PVI-g2*L/2
=1429.755-5.779=1423.977m
Curve -2 (sag curve)
g1= - 4.623
g2= - 3.795
A=|g1-g2| = 0.828
Length of curve L = AK
K for sag curve and stopping sight distance (SSD) is given;
K=36 from table
L=36*0.828 = 29.808m
L provided = 300m
PVI=0+940
BVC=PVI-L/2
=0+940-150=0+790
=1403.839+6.935=1410.773m
EVC=PVI+L/2

=0+940+150 =1+090
Elevation of EVC=Elevation of PVI-g2*L/2
=1403.839 – 5.693=1398.147m
g1 = - 3.795
g2 = - 2.274
A=|g1-g2| = 1.521
Length of curve L=AK
K=36 from table
L = 36*1.521= 54.756m
L provided = 250m
PVI=1+460
BVC=PVI-L/2
=1+460-125=1+335m
=1384.105+4.744=1388.849m
EVC=PVI+L/2
=1+460+125 =1+585m
PVI=2+448.78
BVC=PVI-L/2
=2+448.78-150=2+298.78m
= 1361.625+3.411= 1365.035m

EVC=PVI+L/2
= 2+448.78+150 = 2+598.78m
4.5.1 Computation of offsets

Setting of vertical curve is the process of calculating and putting of coordinates of the
corves in the longitudinal profile and then set vertical curves at the filed [2]. Sample
calculation for vertical alignment of setting is done for curve -1 the others are found on
appendixC-3
Table 4.4: offset of vertical alignment
A (%) Elev. Offset
Cur Elev. of =(g1- BVC =(AX2/ Elev. on Rem
no station X BVC g2) +g1x 200L) curve(Y) ark
1430.7 - BV
0+256.453 0.000 76 3.806 1430.776 0.000 1430.776 C
1430.7 -
0+260 3.547 76 3.806 1430.747 -0.001 1430.746
1430.7 -
0+280 23.547 76 3.806 1430.584 -0.042 1430.541
1430.7 -
0+300 43.547 76 3.806 1430.420 -0.144 1430.276
1430.7 -
0+320 63.547 76 3.806 1430.257 -0.307 1429.949
1430.7 -
0+340 83.547 76 3.806 1430.093 -0.531 1429.562
0+360 103.547 1430.7 - 1429.930 -0.816 1429.114

76 3.806
1430.7 -
1 0+379.385 125.000 76 3.806 1429.755 -1.189 1428.565 PVI
4.5.2 Sight Distance Design

Design Calculation for Sight Distance
1. Stopping sight distance on horizontal curves
For horizontal curve -1
vd 2
 SSD=0.278vt+
254 f
 V=85km/hr.
 f=0.30
 t=2.5sec
2
85
SSD=0.278*85*2.5+ =153.891m
254∗0.30
So, Lc>SSD, 271.26m>153.891m…………ok!!!

2
vd
SSD=0.278vt+
254 f
 V=85km/hr
 f=0.30
 t=2.5sec
2
85
SSD=0.278*85*2.5+ =153.891m
254∗0.30
So, Lc>SSD, 161.04m>153.891m…………ok!!!

vd 2
SSD=0.278vt+
254 f
 V=85km/hr.
 f=0.30
 t=2.5sec
2
85
SSD=0.278*85*2.5+ =153.891m
254∗0.30
So, Lc>SSD, 163.579m>153.891m…………ok!!!
vd 2
SSD=0.278vt+
254 f
 V=100km/hr.
 f=0.29
 t=2.5sec
2
100
SSD=0.278*100*2.5+ =205.259m
254∗0.29
So, Lc>SSD, 311.987m>205.259m…………ok!!

2
vd
SSD=0.278vt+
254 f
 V=100km/hr.
 f=0.29
 t=2.5sec
2
100
SSD=0.278*100*2.5+ =205.259m
254∗0.29

So, Lc>SSD, 453.05m>205.259m…………ok!!!
2. Stopping sight distance on crest
Curve -1(crest curve)
L = AK
g1 = -0.817 %
g2= -4.623%
A =g1-g2 = /-0.817+4.623/= 3.806%
For Design speed=85Km/hr. K=60 [3]
L=3.806*60=228.36m
Vertical sight distance
Design speed = 85km/hr.
Coefficient of friction = 0.3 [3]
Sight distance = 155m
-Minimum length of vertical curve for sight distance requirement.
-Curve type – crest curve
S= 155m
H1 = 1.070m
H2 = 0.15m
Assume ssd>L
[ ]
2
100 ( √ h 1+ √h 2 )
L=2 S− =2 S−¿
A
=2*155-(658/3.806) = 137.115m
Length required for passengers comfort

V d 2∗A
L c=
389
=852*3.806/ (389) = 70.69m
The curve length which is 228.36m is safe for sight distance
And L provided is 250m
L=AK
g1= -4.623%
g2= -3.795%
A =/g2-g1/ = /-4.623+3.795= 0.828%
For Design speed=85Km/hr., K=36 [3]
L=36*0.828=29.81m
Coefficient of friction = 0.3 [3]
Minimum length of vertical curve for sight distance requirement.
Curve type – sag curve
S= 155m
H1 = 1.070m
H2 = 0.15m
Assume ssd>L
2
AS AS
2
L= 2 =
100 ( √ 2∗h 1+ √ 2∗h 2 ¿ ¿ ) 658

=0.828*1552/658=30.232m
V d 2∗A
L c=
389
=852*0.828/ (389) =15.786m
The curve length 29.81m is safe for sight distance
And L provided is 300 m
Curve length
L=AK
g1= -3.795% A= g2-g1 = /-3.795+2.274/= 1.521%
g2=-2.274% K=36
L= 1.521*36=54.756 m
Length provided is 250m
Coefficient of friction = 0.3
Curve type – sag curve
1. Assume ssd>L
A S2 A S2
L= 2 =
100 ( √ 2∗h 1+ √ 2∗h 2 ¿ ¿ ) 658
=1.521*1552/658=55.535m

2. Length required for passengers comfort
V d 2∗A
L c=
389
=852*1.521/ (389) =28.25m
Hence length 54.756 m< 55.535m which is a little bit unsafe for sight distances. So, it
should be improved to a length of 55.535m.
The provided length, L=250.
Curve -4(sag curve)
L=AK
g1= -2.274%
g2= -1.218%
A =/g1-g2/ = /-2.27+1.218/= 1.055%
For Design speed=100Km/hr. K=51 from Era manual
L=1.055*=99.10m
Coefficient of friction = 0.3
Curve type – crest curve
S= 205m
H1 = 1.070m
H2 = 0.15m
Assume ssd>L

2
AS AS
2
L= 2 =
100 ( √ 2∗h 1+ √ 2∗h 2 ¿ ¿ ) 658
=1.055*2052/658=67.381m
V d 2∗A
L c=
389
=1002*1.055/ (389) =27.121m
The curve length 99.1m>67.381m which is safe for sight distance and L provided is
300m
3. Stopping Sight Distance Considering Grade
It was considered for those grades which have value greater than or equal to 3%.
For grade1; g1 = -0.817%, Not considered!
For grade2; g2 = -4.623%, considered!
d = 0.278Vt + V2/254(f±0.01*G)
V=85km/hr. & f=0.30
SSD=0.278*85*2.5 + 852/254(0.30-0.01*4.623)
=171.164m
Here, it can be noted that SSD downgrade is less than that of the level road by comparing
SSD = 171.164m and the previously calculated value SSD=155m.
For grade3; g3 =-3.795%, considered!
d = 0.278Vt + V2/254(f±0.01*G)
V=85km/hr. & f=0.30
SSD=0.278*85*2.5 + 852/254(0.30-0.01*3.795)
=167.622m

Here, it can be noted that SSD downgrade is greater than that of the level road by
comparing
SSD = 167.622m and the previously calculated value SSD=155m.
For grade4; g4=-2.274%, Not considered!
For grade5; g5=-1.218%, Not considered!
Passing Sight Distance on horizontal curve
For design speed of 85km/hr.
d1=0.278*4(85-15+2.4*4/2), since a=2.4Km/hr./sec at V=85Km/hr.
=83.1776m
d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, taken to be 10sec.
v = average speed of passing vehicle, 85 km/h
d2=0.278*85*10
=236.3m
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent on
ambient speeds as per table below.
Table 4.5: Clearance distance(d3) Vs. Ambient Speeds [3]
Speed Group(km/hr) 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120
d3(m) 30 50 80 100
d3=80m ;for design speed of 85Km/hr
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d 2 or
Less the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane.
d4 = 2d2/3

d4=2*236.3/3=157.53m
PSD = d1+ d2 + d3 + d4
=83.18+236.3+80+157.53
=557.01 m
For design speed of 100km/hr.
d1=0.278*4(100-15+1.92*4/2) Hence a=1.92Km/hr./sec at V=100Km/hr.
=51.53m
d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, taken to be 10sec.
v = average speed of passing vehicle, 100 km/h
d2=0.278*100*10
=278m
d3=80m;for design speed of 100Km/hr
d4 = 2d2/3
d4=2*278/3=185.333m
PSD = d1+ d2 + d3 + d4
=51.53+278+80+185.333
=594.863m
Passing Sight Distance on Crest Curve
It is calculated with the same formula for stopping sight distance. But h 1=1.07m &
h2=1.30m [ERA, GDM]

Crest curve1: S=155m; h1=1.07m, h2=1.30m, G=3.806%
G S2 G S2
Case1: S < L; L= =
100¿ ¿ 945.76 m
3.806∗155 2
L= =96.683m
945.76
Case2: S > L; L = 2S – 2 ¿ ¿*100 = 2*155– 2 ¿ ¿*100
Case1 governs; Lmin=61.507m
Among the calculated above, L provided is governs!
4.6 Cross Section

A cross section will normally consist of the carriage way, shoulders, or curbs, drainage
features and earth work profiles.
Figure 4.1: Fill cross section

Figure 4.2: Cut cross section
Figure 4.3: Cut and fill cross section
The other are shown on appendix D-3
4.7 Shoulder and Curve Widening

For the psychological comfort of the driver, widening on curve is also required for DS1
through DS5 at high fill.

Note; in this project we have not designed curve widening because all of our radiuses
provided was greater than 250m.
4.8 Super Elevation

For curve -1
R=2000m, Vd =85km/hr. and ed=2.2%, width of lane, w=3.5m
Nc =2.5%; ∆=0.485%, nı =1, bw =1, Length of run off provided, L prov. =47m
1. Minimum of length run off
Lr= (w*nı) ed (bw)/Δ, ed< Nc, Hence, use ed=Nc= 2.5%
Lr= (3.5*1*2.5)*1/0.485=18.04m < L prov., so, use Lr= L prov. = 47m
2. Minimum length of run out
Lt = Nc/ed*(Lr) =2.5%/2.5%*47=47m
Lr, curve=1/3 Lr =1/3*47m=15.67m
Lr, on tangent=2/3 Lr= 2/3*47m=31.33m
For curve -2
R= 1300m, Vd = 85km/hr., ed= 2.8%, width of lane, w=3.5m
Nc =2.5%; ∆=0.485%, nı=1, bw=1 Length of run off provided, L prov. =47m
Lr= (w*nı) ed (bw)/Δ= (3.5*1*2.8)*1/0.485=20.21m < L prov.
So, use Lr= L prov. = 47m
Lt = Nc/ed*(Lr) =2.5%/2.8%*47=41.96m
Lr, curve=1/3 Lr =1/3*47m=15.67m
For curve-3

R= 900m, Vd = 85km/hr., ed = 4.2% width of lane, w=3.5m
NC=2.5%; ∆=0.485%, Ni=1, bw =1, Length of run off provided, L prov. =47m
Lr= (w*nı) ed (bw)/Δ= (3.5*1*2.8)*1/0.485=30.31m < L prov.
So, use Lr= L prov. = 47m
Lt = Nc/ed*(Lr) = 2.5%/4.2%*47=27.98m
Lr, curve=1/3 Lr =1/3*47m=15.67m
For curve 1: e=2.5%
Super elevation height=0.5*7.0*0.025=0.0875m
For curve 2: e=2.8%
Super elevation height =0.5*7*0.028 = 0.098m
For curve 3: e=4.2%
4.9 Pavement Design

In order to determine the likely traffic volume at road opening year, the current traffic
(base year 2022) will be forecasted with the growth rate shown below. Traffic and soil
data for the proposed road.
Table 4.6: Traffic Forecasting
Vehicle Cars 4WD Small Large Large Medium Heavy Truck &
classification bus bus bus truck truck trailer

AADTo(2000) 20 100 80 70 102 208 130 120
 Opening of the road = 2022, Surveying year = 2015
 The anticipated traffic growth is constant 5% and
 The directional flow is assumed 50/50.
 Paved road with design period of 20 years
 The value of CBR is 10%.
 Rainfall Intensity 45 mm/hr.
For this project opening of the road is at starting of 2022. So, X= (2022-2015)-1=6
Table 4.7: One directional traffic flow
No Vehicle One directional

AADTo (2015)
classification AADT1( 2022) AADT1 (50%)
1 Cars 20.00 26.802 13.401
2 4WD 100.00 134.010 67.005
3 Small bus 80.00 107.208 53.604
4 Large bus 70.00 93.807 46.903
5 Small truck 102.00 136.690 68.345
6 Medium truck 208.00 278.740 139.370
7 Heavy truck 130.00 174.212 87.106
8 Truck & trailer 120.00 160.811 80.406
Total 1112.279 556.140
Then the cumulative number of vehicles, T over the chosen design period N (in years) is

Ti = 365 AADT1i [(1+i) N– 1] / (i)
For link road, a design period of 20 years, the cumulative number of vehicles in one
direction over the design period is calculated as:
Table 4.8: One directional cumulative traffic flow
Type of Vehicle Cumulative no. of vehicles in one direction
Cars 365x13.401[(1.05)20-1]/0.05= 161737.124
4WD 365x67.005[(1.05)20-1]/0.05= 808685.622
Small bus 365x53.604[(1.05)20-1]/0.05= 646948.498
Large bus 365x2946.903[(1.05)20-1]/0.5 =566079.936
Small truck 365x68.345[(1.05)20-1]/0.05 = 824859.335
Medium truck 365x139.370 [(1.05)20-1]/0.05 =1682066.094
Heavy truck 365x87.106[(1.05)20-1]/0.05 =1051291.309
Truck & trailer 365x80.406.5[(1.05)20-1]/0.05 =970422.747
Axle equivalency:-A vehicle’s damaging power, or Equivalency Factor (EF), can be
expressed as the number of equivalent standard axles (ESAs), in units of 80kN [3].
Axle load n
EF=( ) , n = 4.5
8160
Sample EF for Truck trailer is calculated here, where other are on appendix E-2 and E-3
Table 4.9: Equivalency Factor for Track Trailer
T/Trailer
Axle EF1 Axle EF2 Axle 3 EF3 Axle 4 EF4 TOTA
1 2 L

EF
5465 0.165 12036 5.749 7323 0.614 7623 0.736 7.264
5645 0.190 10405 2.985 7305 0.608 7418 0.651 4.435
5148 0.126 10372 2.943 6964 0.490 8699 1.334 4.892
5635 0.189 11955 5.577 8206 1.026 7550 0.705 7.496
5046 0.115 9397 1.887 7208 0.572 6660 0.401 2.975
5787 0.213 8154 0.997 8892 1.472 9704 2.181 4.863
5669 0.194 12279 6.290 7889 0.859 9138 1.664 9.007
5941 0.240 9940 2.430 7368 0.632 9435 1.922 5.223
5137 0.125 12523 6.872 6005 0.252 9481 1.964 9.213
5835 0.221 11497 4.678 6385 0.332 6718 0.417 5.647
5348 0.149 8825 1.423 8197 1.021 7776 0.805 3.398
Total equivalent factor 64.413
Mea equivalent factor 5.856
Table 4.10: Equivalent standard axles (ESAs)
Vehicle
One directional Cumulative equivalent
classification
2007(AADT1) traffic volume factor ESLA*10^6
Cars 13.401 161737.124 0.000 0.000
4WD 67.005 808685.622 0.000 0.000
Small bus 53.604 646948.498 0.013 0.008
Large bus 46.903 566079.936 0.166 0.094
Small truck 68.345 824859.335 0.000 0.000

Medium truck 139.370 1682066.094 1.681 2.828
Heavy truck 87.106 1051291.309 0 0.000
Truck & trailer 80.406 970422.747 5.856 5.683
Total 556.140 6712090.665 8.613
Equivalent standard axles (ESAs) = EF*T, T = 365 AADT1 [(1+i) N –1] / (i)
TOTAL ESA = 8.613x 106
Based on Sub grade class S4 and Traffic class T6 there are eight alternatives [3]
Table 4.11: alternatives pavement thickness [3]
Chart Pavement component Thickness

Surface dressing (SD) 50
No. (mm)
1 Granular road base, GB - GB3 225
Granular sub-base, GS 250
Granular capping layer, GC 100
Granular road base, GB - GB3 150
2 Granular capping layer, GC 125
Cement or lime-stabilized road base 2, 125
CB2
Flexible bituminous surface 50

Granular road base, GB - GB3 150


4 Granular capping layer, GC 150
CB2
Bituminous surface(usually WC and BC) 100

Bituminous surface(usually WC and BC) 100

CB2
7 Bituminous road base ,RB 150

Granular sub base, GS 275
8 Cement or lime-stabilized road base 2, 200

Cement or lime-stabilized sub base 2, CS 225
CB2
As pre ERA PDM for economic comparison in accordance with relative unit cost of each
material is listed and for each alternatives of pavement structure should be economically
evaluated.
Table 4.12: relative cost of possible alternative pavement structure
NO. Pavement component Relative Total relative

Alternative 1 Surface dressing (SD) 0.54
Unit Cost Unit Cost
Granular road base, GB - GB3 0.815 2.345
Granular sub-base, GS 0.86
Granular capping layer, GC 0.13


Cement or lime-stabilized road base 2, 0.73

CB2
Flexible bituminous surface 0.25
Alternative 3 Flexible bituminous surface 0.64

Granular capping layer or selected 0.13
subgrade fill, GC

CB2
Alternative 5 Bituminous surface 0.64

Alternative 6 Bituminous surface 0.64

CB2
Bituminous road base ,RB 0.99 2.44

Granular capping layer or selected 0.13
subgrade fill, GC
Cement or lime-stabilized road base 2, 0.865 2.775
CB2
Bituminous road base ,RB 0.81
Granular capping layer ,GC 0.56

Based on the above economic comparison, 2.23 (alternative 5) is the list total relative unit
cost. Finally we have provided Alternative 5 for this highway project.
Alternative 5
Bituminous surface
Granular road base, GB - GB3
Granular sub-base, GS
The final pavement design is shown on appendix E-4
4.10 Earth Work

Shrinkage and swelling should be included in estimating the quantities.
For this project we assumed shrinkage factor 25%
Sample calculation for earth work from station 0+000 to 0+0100
From station 0+000 to 0+020
L=0+020-0+000=20m
A1=6.486m2 and A2=1.1m2 (cut section)
A1=0m2 and A2=0.857m2 (fill section)
( A 1+ A 2) (6.487+ 1.1)
V 12= ∗L =V 12= ∗20
2 2
V12 =75.86m2(cut)
( A 1+ A 2) (0+ 0.857)
V12=V 12= ∗L = ∗20
2 2
V12=8.57m2
A2=1.1m2 and A3=0 m2 (cut section)
A2=0.857m2 and A3=6.045m2(fill section)

( A 1+ A 2) (1.1+0)
V 23= ∗L= ∗20
2 2
V23 =10.999m2(cut)
( A 1+ A 2) (0.857+ 6.045)
V23=V 12= ∗L = ∗20 =69.019m2
2 2
The earth work cross section are shown on appendix D-2
4.11 Drainage Design

For this project, trapezoidal side ditch has been chosen because it is more economical and
will reduce erosion compared to the others.
Discharge calculation.
Using manning’s equation: -
1
Q = A R2/3 S ½
n
Table 4.13: Manning’s roughness coefficient and maximum velocity.
Ditch surface N Permissible velocity
Rock 0.0035-0.0045 4.5-6.1
Soil 0.022-0.025 0.3-2.4
Glass 0.03-0.07 0.9-1.5
Glass/dense surface 0.04-0.02 1.2-2.4
Paved channel 0.012-0.033 2.4-6.1
Sample calculation: From station 0+000 to 0+379.385
Intensity=45mm/hr
Length=379.385m
Pavement width=7m

Shoulder=1.5*2m
Cultivated land area assumed =100m
Side slope is taken as 1V:2H,
Table 4.14: Surface Run off Coefficient
Surface Run off Coefficient
Carriage way(asphalt) 0.7-0.95
Shoulder 0.75- 0.85
Cultivated land 0.94
Ditch (concrete) 0.8-0.1
1. Carriageway area
L =379.385m W=3.5m
A1=379.385*3.5=1327.8 m2=0.133ha
C=0.825
Q=0.00278*C*I*A=0.00278*0.825*45*0.133=0.014m3/s
2. Shoulder area
L=379.385m W=1.5m
A2=379.385*1.5= 569.08 m2=0.0569ha
C=0.8
Q=0.00278*C*I*A=0.00278*0.8*45*0.0569=0.0057m3/s
3. Cultivated land
L=379.385 W= (50-3.5-1.5) m=45m

A=379.385*45= 17072.3m2=1.71ha
C=0.7
Q=0.00278*C*I*A=0.00278*0.7*45*1.71=0.15m3/s
Total discharge, Qt= (0.014+0.0057+0.15) m3/s =0.17 m3/s
For economical trapezoidal section B=2d
Ditch assumed to be laid in easily eroded soil type manning coefficient ranges from 0.02
to 0.05 in our case we take n=0.022 from [3] maximum velocity in this range will be
2.4m/s.
Using manning equation
V= , A=Bd+zd2
A=2d*d+2*d2=4d2 and P=2d+2d√ ¿2+1) =6.472d
R=A/P=4d2/6.472d=0.618d
V=1/0.022*(0.618d) 2/3*(S) 0.5, S=0.817%
V=1/0.022*(0.618d) 2/3*(0.00817)0.5
V=2.98d2/3
Q=AV=4d2*2.98d2/3 = 11.92d8/3
0.17=11.92d8/3
d=0.203m, use d=0.25m and B=2d=0.5m. Then take free board of 0.3m.
Top width, T=B+2dz=0.5+2*0.25*2=1.5m
Area, A=4d2=4*0.252=0.25m2
Perimeter, P=6.472*0.25=1.618m
R=A/P=0.25/1.618=0.155m
Q=1/0.022*0.25* (0.155)2/3*(0.00817)0.5=0.3m3/s

The maximum capacity of the ditch is greater than the maximum discharge in its design
life.
Q max < Q max capacity………..ok!
Permissible velocity, V = Q/A=0.3/0.25=1.2m/s……..ok!
0.5 0.
55
d=0.55 55 1
55
552
55
B=0.5 55
. 55
Figure 4.5: Provided Trapezoidal Cross55
Section
55
From station 0+379.385 to 0+940.00 55
55
Length=560.615m 55
5Y
1. Carriageway area
L =560.615m W=3.5m
A1=560.615*3.5=1962 m2=0.1962ha
C=0.825
Q=0.00278*C*I*A=0.00278*0.825*45*0.1962=0.02m3/s
2. Shoulder area
L=560.615 W=1.5m
A2=560.615*1.5= 796m2=0.0796ha
C=0.8
Q=0.00278*C*I*A=0.00278*0.8*45*0.0796=0.00796m3/s
3. Cultivated land
L=560.615 W= (50-3.5-1.5) m=45m
A=560.615*45= 23880m2=2.388ha

C=0.7
Q=0.00278*C*I*A=0.00278*0.7*45*2.388=0.21m3/s
Total discharge, Qt= (0.02+0.00796+0.21) m3/s =0.237 m3/s
V=1/0.022*(0.618d) 2/3*(S) 0.5, S=4.623%
V=1/0.022*(0.618d) 2/3*(0.04623)0.5
V=7.09d2/3
Q=AV= 4d2*7.09d2/3 = 28.36d8/3
0.25=28.36d8/3
d=0.17m, use depth of 0.25m. So, d=0.25m and B=2d=0.5m. Then take free board of
0.3m.
From station 0+940.00 to 1+460
For this station it is not necessary to design longitudinal ditch because it is fill section.
From station 1+460 to 2+448.78
Length=988.78m
1. Carriageway area
L =988.78m W=3.5m
A1=988.78*3.5=3460 m2=0.346ha
C=0.825
Q=0.00278*C*I*A=0.00278*0.825*45*0.346=0.0356m3/s
2. Shoulder area
L=988.78m W=1.5m
A2=988.78*1.5= 1483m2=0.148ha

C=0.8
Q=0.00278*C*I*A=0.00278*0.8*45*0.148=0.0148m3/s
3. Cultivated land
L=988.78m W= (50-3.5-1.5) m=45m
A=988.78*45=44495 m2=4.45ha
C=0.7
Q=0.00278*C*I*A=0.00278*0.7*45*4.45=0.389m3/s
Total discharge
Qt= (0.0356+0.0148+0.389) m3/s =0.439 m3/s
V=1/0.022*(0.618d) 2/3*(S) 0.5, S=2.274%
V=1/0.022*(0.618d) 2/3*(0.02274)0.5
V=4.97d2/3
Q=AV=4d2*4.97d2/3 = 19.88d8/3
0.194=19.88d8/3
d=0.18m, use depth of 0.25m. So, d=0.25m and B=2d=0.5m. Take free board 0.3m.
From station 2+448.78 to 2+780
Length=331.22m
1. Carriageway area
L =331.22m W=3.5m
A1=331.22*3.5=1159.27m2=0.12ha
C=0.825
Q=0.00278*C*I*A=0.00278*0.825*45*0.12=0.012m3/s

2. Shoulder area
L=331.22m W=1.5m
A2=331.22*1.5=496.8m2=0.05ha
C=0.8
Q=0.00278*C*I*A=0.00278*0.8*45*0.05=0.005m3/s
3. Cultivated land
L=331.22m W= (50-3.5-1.5) m=45m
A=331.22*45= 14904.9m2=1.49ha
C=0.7
Q=0.00278*C*I*A=0.00278*0.7*45*1.49=0.13m3/s
Total discharge
Qt= (0.012+0.005+0.13) m3/s =0.147 m3/s
V=1/0.022*(0.618d) 2/3*(S) 0.5, S=1.218%
V=1/0.022*(0.618d) 2/3*(0.01218)0.5
V=3.63d2/3
Q=AV=4d2*3.63d2/3 = 14.52d8/3
0.147=14.52d8/3
d=0.18m, use depth of 0.25m. So, d=0.25m and B=2d=0.5m. Then take free board of
0.3m.
For this station it is not necessary to design longitudinal ditch because it is fill section.
4.12 Traffic control & markings

Table 4.15 Traffic sign

Case1
Stations Traffic Signs
0+970
2+260 from station 0+000
to 2+980
0+320
1+960
0+020
0+540
85
KPH

0+230
60
KPH
2+275
100
KPH

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
 The designer provides both horizontal alignment, with tangents, having lengths
of; 256.453m, 1088.504m, 51.789m, 1060.706m, 221.776m and 238.858m
respectively starting from 0+000 station and horizontal curves, curve1,
L=271.26m, R=2000m curve2, L=161.041m, R=1300m, curve3, L=163.579m,
R=900m, and vertical alignment with four vertical curves having respective
lengths of; 250m, 300m, and 250m have been designed.
 For this project, depending on the calculated traffic class, T 6 and subgrade
strength S4, the most economical section, which has three layers namely;
Bituminous surface with 10 cm thickness, Granular road base,GB-GB 3 with 20
cm thickness and Granular sub-base, GS with 25 cm was selected and the flexible
pavement has been designed.
 The discharge was computed using rational formula (RF) based on the total
catchment area obtained, A=32.325hectares and the trapezoidal ditch having
depth d=0.55m, top width T=1.5m and bed width B=0.5m that accommodates this
discharge, being non- silting and non-scoring has been designed.

5.2 Recommendation
 The project designer recommends that, this designed project should be
implemented to the real practical work to provide transportation facilities thereby
reducing problems between the two localities namely: Dandi and Jaldu.
 The contractor should adopt three layers of pavement during the construction of
flexible pavement from Dandi to Jaldu; these are bituminous surface with
thickness of 10cm, Granular road base with thickness of 20cm and Granular sub-
base with thickness of 25cm.
 The project designer also recommends that, fellow students should use MXROAD
software instead of using other software’s like EAGLE POINT, INROAD and
others while doing their project. This is owing to MXROAD software will not
allow any mistakes that means one cannot go any further without correcting a
mistake once she/he has made it.
 The other recommendation is that, the width of the shoulder should be up graded
in the future; it should be as per D S3 from 1.5-3m as necessary as required. But
now the shoulder width is set 1.5m to be economical.
 The traffic signs should be installed wherever necessarily required with due care
so that the potential accidents will be minimized.

References
[1] American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(2004).Geometric design of highways and streets.
[2] Engineering surveying by W. Schofield Butterworth- Heinemann Ltd, London, 4 th
edition.
[3] Ethiopian Road Authority (2002).

APPENDIX
Table of sample survey data, Figure of contour lines and slope band and
Table Terrain classification
Appendix A-1 Sample survey Data
EASTING Northing Height Code
932076.330 544182.113 1346.010 BLD
928924.043 541423.748 1436.764 BLD
928891.970 541427.891 1436.853 BM1
931220.623 543360.788 1349.211 BM4
931515.472 543536.324 1348.847 BM5
931892.946 543833.708 1347.515 BM6
928718.586 541336.890 1431.911 CL
928756.854 541359.302 1432.361 CL
928791.599 541380.154 1432.933 CL
929795.894 542129.189 1384.875 CL
928711.063 541319.568 1432.302 ELP
928689.407 541298.685 1431.724 EP
928642.438 541336.598 1430.311 EP
928650.229 541358.222 1429.482 EP
928661.039 541196.531 1434.534 EP TO SOD

Appendix A - 2 Contour line
Appendix A – 4 Terrain classifications
Chainage Road Left Side Road Right Side Right Of Way Transverse Terrain
Elevation Elevation Width (M) Slope (%) Type
0+000 1432.50 1432.40 50.00 0.20 Flat
0+020 1432.20 1431.40 50.00 1.60 Flat
0+040 1430.40 1431.70 50.00 2.60 Flat
0+060 1429.80 1432.60 50.00 5.60 Rolling
0+080 1430.10 1433.40 50.00 6.60 Rolling
0+100 1430.00 1433.60 50.00 7.20 Rolling

0+120 1429.50 1433.20 50.00 7.40 Rolling
0+140 1429.40 1433.00 50.00 7.20 Rolling
0+160 1429.60 1432.80 50.00 6.40 Rolling
0+180 1430.60 1432.90 50.00 4.60 Flat
0+200 1432.60 1433.10 50.00 1.00 Flat
0+220 1435.40 1433.40 50.00 4.00 Flat
0+240 1437.80 1434.10 50.00 7.40 Rolling
0+250 1438.20 1434.35 50.00 7.70 Rolling
0+260 1438.20 1434.60 50.00 7.20 Rolling
0+270 1438.20 1434.82 50.00 6.76 Rolling
0+280 1437.90 1435.10 50.00 5.60 Rolling
0+290 1437.18 1435.40 50.00 3.56 Flat
0+300 1436.70 1436.00 50.00 1.40 Flat
0+310 1436.30 1436.43 50.00 0.26 Flat
0+320 1435.80 1436.60 50.00 1.60 Flat
0+330 1435.30 1436.60 50.00 2.60 Flat
0+340 1434.70 1436.30 50.00 3.20 Flat
0+350 1434.10 1435.93 50.00 3.66 Flat
0+360 1433.50 1435.50 50.00 4.00 Flat
0+370 1432.97 1435.15 50.00 4.36 Flat
0+380 1432.40 1434.80 50.00 4.80 Flat

0+390 1431.90 1434.30 50.00 4.80 Flat
0+400 1431.40 1433.80 50.00 4.80 Flat
0+410 1430.90 1433.35 50.00 4.90 Flat
0+420 1430.50 1432.90 50.00 4.80 Flat
0+430 1429.90 1432.33 50.00 4.86 Flat
0+440 1429.30 1431.70 50.00 4.80 Flat
0+450 1428.70 1431.20 50.00 5.00 Flat
0+460 1428.10 1430.90 50.00 5.60 Rolling
0+470 1427.40 1430.55 50.00 6.30 Rolling
0+480 1426.80 1430.10 50.00 6.60 Rolling
0+490 1426.38 1429.52 50.00 6.28 Rolling
0+500 1425.60 1428.90 50.00 6.60 Rolling
0+510 1425.07 1428.50 50.00 6.86 Rolling
0+520 1424.50 1428.90 50.00 8.80 Rolling
0+530 1424.10 1428.00 50.00 7.80 Rolling
0+540 1423.60 1427.90 50.00 8.60 Rolling
0+560 1422.20 1426.60 50.00 8.80 Rolling
0+580 1421.30 1425.00 50.00 7.40 Rolling
0+600 1420.20 1423.40 50.00 6.40 Rolling
0+620 1419.10 1422.10 50.00 6.00 Rolling
0+640 1418.30 1420.90 50.00 5.20 Rolling
0+660 1417.50 1420.00 50.00 5.00 Flat

0+680 1416.70 1419.20 50.00 5.00 Flat
0+700 1415.80 1418.40 50.00 5.20 Rolling
0+720 1414.80 1417.60 50.00 5.60 Rolling
0+740 1413.90 1416.80 50.00 5.80 Rolling
0+760 1413.00 1415.90 50.00 5.80 Rolling
0+780 1412.20 1415.90 50.00 7.40 Rolling
0+800 1411.40 1414.20 50.00 5.60 Rolling
0+820 1410.40 1413.20 50.00 5.60 Rolling
0+840 1409.40 1412.30 50.00 5.80 Rolling
0+860 1408.20 1410.80 50.00 5.20 Rolling
0+880 1407.90 1409.10 50.00 2.40 Flat
0+900 1405.60 1407.00 50.00 2.80 Flat
0+920 1404.30 1405.10 50.00 1.60 Flat
0+940 1402.70 1403.60 50.00 1.80 Flat
0+960 1400.90 1402.40 50.00 3.00 Flat
0+980 1399.60 1401.20 50.00 3.20 Flat
1+000 1398.50 1400.10 50.00 3.20 Flat
1+020 1397.48 1399.13 50.00 3.30 Flat
1+040 1396.42 1395.20 50.00 2.44 Flat
1+060 1395.20 1397.25 50.00 4.10 Flat
1+080 1393.70 1395.90 50.00 4.40 Flat
1+100 1392.27 1394.50 50.00 4.46 Flat

1+120 1390.82 1393.10 50.00 4.56 Flat
1+140 1389.43 1391.73 50.00 4.60 Flat
1+160 1388.08 1390.54 50.00 4.92 Flat
1+180 1386.75 1389.46 50.00 5.42 Rolling
1+200 1385.74 1388.60 50.00 5.72 Rolling
1+220 1385.90 1388.60 50.00 5.40 Rolling
1+240 1387.00 1389.10 50.00 4.20 Flat
1+260 1387.00 1388.30 50.00 2.60 Flat
1+280 1386.40 1386.94 50.00 1.08 Flat
1+300 1385.30 1385.56 50.00 0.52 Flat
1+320 1384.80 1384.67 50.00 0.26 Flat
1+340 1384.80 1384.40 50.00 0.80 Flat
1+360 1384.63 1384.40 50.00 0.46 Flat
1+380 1384.07 1384.40 50.00 0.66 Flat
1+400 1382.93 1384.83 50.00 3.80 Flat
1+420 1381.85 1385.40 50.00 7.10 Rolling
1+440 1381.40 1386.00 50.00 9.20 Rolling
1+460 1381.59 1386.20 50.00 9.22 Rolling
1+480 1381.92 1386.50 50.00 9.16 Rolling
1+500 1382.33 1386.85 50.00 9.04 Rolling
1+520 1382.80 1387.30 50.00 9.00 Rolling
1+540 1383.05 1387.66 50.00 9.22 Rolling

1+560 1383.80 1387.30 50.00 7.00 Rolling
1+580 1384.80 1388.30 50.00 7.00 Rolling
1+600 1384.80 1387.10 50.00 4.60 Flat
1+610 1384.72 1387.10 50.00 4.76 Flat
1+620 1384.87 1387.20 50.00 4.66 Flat
1+630 1384.53 1387.27 50.00 5.48 Rolling
1+640 1384.24 1387.26 50.00 6.04 Rolling
1+650 1383.90 1386.18 50.00 4.56 Flat
1+660 1383.50 1386.67 50.00 6.34 Rolling
1+670 1383.17 1386.38 50.00 6.42 Rolling
1+680 1382.77 1386.00 50.00 6.46 Rolling
1+690 1382.40 1385.77 50.00 6.74 Rolling
1+700 1382.40 1385.44 50.00 6.08 Rolling
1+710 1382.70 1385.06 50.00 4.72 Flat
1+720 1382.80 1384.62 50.00 3.64 Flat
1+730 1382.60 1384.40 50.00 3.60 Flat
1+740 1382.20 1384.25 50.00 4.10 Flat
1+750 1381.38 1383.96 50.00 5.16 Flat
1+760 1380.99 1383.42 50.00 4.86 Flat
1+770 1380.64 1382.80 50.00 4.32 Flat
1+780 1380.30 1381.90 50.00 3.20 Flat
1+790 1379.96 1381.10 50.00 2.28 Flat

1+800 1379.50 1380.65 50.00 2.30 Flat
1+810 1378.90 1380.60 50.00 3.40 Flat
1+820 1378.23 1380.50 50.00 4.54 Flat
1+830 1377.60 1380.80 50.00 6.40 Rolling
1+840 1377.00 1380.50 50.00 7.00 Rolling
1+850 1376.50 1379.40 50.00 5.80 Rolling
1+860 1376.20 1377.90 50.00 3.40 Flat
1+870 1376.15 1376.70 50.00 1.10 Flat
1+880 1376.10 1375.55 50.00 1.10 Flat
1+890 1375.80 1375.00 50.00 1.60 Flat
1+900 1374.80 1375.00 50.00 0.40 Flat
1+920 1372.40 1375.00 50.00 5.20 Rolling
1+940 1370.60 1374.90 50.00 8.60 Rolling
1+960 1370.60 1374.38 50.00 7.56 Rolling
1+970 1370.30 1373.90 50.00 7.20 Rolling
1+980 1370.38 1373.35 50.00 5.94 Rolling
1+990 1370.20 1372.50 50.00 4.60 Flat
2+000 1370.05 1372.40 50.00 4.70 Flat
2+010 1369.57 1372.40 50.00 5.66 Rolling
2+020 1369.05 1372.40 50.00 6.70 Rolling
2+030 1368.34 1372.40 50.00 8.12 Rolling
2+040 1367.72 1372.37 50.00 9.30 Rolling

2+050 1367.38 1371.63 50.00 8.50 Rolling
2+060 1367.58 1371.00 50.00 6.84 Rolling
2+070 1367.80 1370.90 50.00 6.20 Rolling
2+080 1368.07 1370.90 50.00 5.66 Rolling
2+090 1367.82 1371.30 50.00 6.96 Rolling
2+100 1367.70 1371.90 50.00 8.40 Rolling
2+110 1367.80 1371.90 50.00 8.20 Rolling
2+120 1367.70 1371.85 50.00 8.30 Rolling
2+130 1367.77 1371.80 50.00 8.06 Rolling
2+140 1367.50 1371.68 50.00 8.36 Rolling
2+150 1366.90 1371.52 50.00 9.24 Rolling
2+160 1366.30 1366.30 50.00 0.00 Flat
2+170 1366.00 1371.08 50.00 10.16 Rolling
2+180 1366.00 1366.00 50.00 0.00 Flat
2+190 1366.00 1370.62 50.00 9.24 Rolling
2+200 1366.00 1366.00 50.00 0.00 Flat
2+210 1366.60 1370.37 50.00 7.54 Rolling
2+220 1367.23 1370.15 50.00 5.84 Rolling
2+230 1367.80 1369.90 50.00 4.20 Flat
2+240 1368.22 1369.60 50.00 2.76 Flat
2+250 1368.20 1369.30 50.00 2.20 Flat
2+260 1368.01 1369.03 50.00 2.04 Flat

2+270 1367.72 1368.80 50.00 2.16 Flat
2+280 1367.40 1368.55 50.00 2.30 Flat
2+290 1367.23 1367.70 50.00 0.94 Flat
2+300 1367.20 1367.85 50.00 1.30 Flat
2+310 1367.37 1367.38 50.00 0.02 Flat
2+320 1367.60 1366.90 50.00 1.40 Flat
2+330 1367.30 1366.50 50.00 1.60 Flat
2+340 1366.58 1366.08 50.00 1.00 Flat
2+360 1364.90 1365.45 50.00 1.10 Flat
2+380 1363.90 1365.10 50.00 2.40 Flat
2+400 1363.40 1365.10 50.00 3.40 Flat
2+420 1363.60 1365.00 50.00 2.80 Flat
2+440 1363.58 1364.90 50.00 2.64 Flat
2+460 1363.47 1364.48 50.00 2.02 Flat
2+480 1363.14 1363.40 50.00 0.52 Flat
2+500 1362.40 1362.70 50.00 0.60 Flat
2+520 1361.85 1362.78 50.00 1.86 Flat
2+540 1361.30 1362.50 50.00 2.40 Flat
2+560 1360.70 1360.90 50.00 0.40 Flat
2+580 1360.02 1359.20 50.00 1.64 Flat
2+600 1359.40 1358.60 50.00 1.60 Flat
2+620 1359.10 1358.88 50.00 0.44 Flat

2+640 1358.77 1359.00 50.00 0.46 Flat
2+660 1358.46 1358.60 50.00 0.28 Flat
2+680 1358.00 1357.38 50.00 1.24 Flat
2+700 1357.56 1356.60 50.00 1.92 Flat
2+720 1357.40 1356.60 50.00 1.60 Flat
2+740 1357.08 1356.60 50.00 0.96 Flat
2+760 1356.75 1356.60 50.00 0.30 Flat
2+780 1356.47 1357.40 50.00 1.86 Flat
2+800 1356.10 1357.47 50.00 2.74 Flat
2+820 1355.37 1356.40 50.00 2.06 Flat
2+840 1354.43 1355.00 50.00 1.14 Flat
2+860 1353.70 1354.25 50.00 1.10 Flat
2+880 1353.63 1354.35 50.00 1.44 Flat
2+980 1353.74 1354.75 50.00 2.02 Flat
Horizontal alignment, Tables of horizontal curve parameters output by
MX ROAD and setting out of horizontal curve
Appendix B-1 Horizontal alignment

Appendix B- 2 output of horizontal curve parameter by MX ROAD
curve no parameters value
Intersection Point Chainage 0+392.292
Tangent 135.838
Arc Length 271.26
External 4.608
1 Middle Ordinate 4.597
Chord Length 271.052
Arc Start Chainage 0+256.453
Arc End Chainage 0+527.713
Radius 2000
Hand of Arc Left
Included Angle 07 46 15.730
Tangent 80.623
Arc Length 161.04
External 2.498
Radius 1300
Hand of Arc Right

Tangent 82.016
Arc Length 163.579
External 3.729
Radius 900
Hand of Arc Left
Appendix B - 3 setting out horizontal curve for curve 2
Total deflection Total deflection angle
Chainage Chord (m) Deflection angle angle on 20 theodolite
1+672.217 0 0 00000’00’’ 00000’00’
1+680 7.783 10.29’ 00010’17.4’’ 00010’20’’
1+700 20 26.44’ 00036’43.8’’ 0036’40’’
1+720 20 26.44’ 01003’10.2’’ 01003’20’’
1+740 20 26.44’ 01029’36.6’’ 01029’40’’
1+760 20 26.44’ 01056’03’’ 01056’00’’
1+780 20 26.44’ 02022’29.4” 02022’20”

1+800 20 26.44’ 02048’55.8’’ 02049’00’’
1+820 20 26.44’ 03015’22.2’’ 03015’20’’
1+833.257 20 17.54’ 03032’54.6’’ 03033’00’’
Appendix B - 4 setting out Horizontal Curve for curve-3
Total deflection Total deflection angle
Chainage Chord (m) Deflection angle angle on 20 theodolite
1+997.043 0 0 00000’00’’ 00000’00’
2+000 2.957 5.65’ 00005’39’’ 00005’40’’
2+020 20 38.20’ 00043’51’’ 00044’00’’
2+040 20 38.20’ 01022’03’’ 01022’00’’
2+060 20 38.20’ 02000’15’’ 02000’20’’
2+080 20 38.20’ 02038’27’’ 02038’20’’
2+100 20 38.20’ 03016’39” 03016’40”
2+120 20 38.20’ 03054’51’’ 03055’00’’
2+140 20 38.20’ 04033’03’’ 04033’00’’
2+160 20 38.20΄ 05011’15’’ 05011’20’’
2+160.623 0.623 1.19’ 05012’16.4’’ 05012’20’’

Figure of Vertical alignment, table vertical curve parameters output by
MX ROAD and setting out of vertical curve
Appendix C - 2 output of vertical curve parameters by MX ROAD Software
curve no parameters value
IP Chainage 0+379.385
IP Level 1429.755
Middle Ordinate -1.189
Algebraic Difference -3.806
1 Curve Start Gradient -0.817
Curve End Gradient -4.623
Curve Length 250
M Value -1.522
K Value 65.687
Curve Type Hog
Curve Start Chainage 0+254.385
Curve Start Level 1430.776
Curve End Chainage 0+504.385
Curve End Level 1423.977
IP Level 1403.839
Middle Ordinate 0.31
Algebraic Difference 0.828
Curve Start Gradient -4.623
Curve Length 300

M Value 0.276
K Value 362.415
2 Curve Type Sag
IP Level 1384.105
Middle Ordinate 0.475
Algebraic Difference 1.521
Curve Start Gradient -3.795
Curve Length 250
M Value 0.609
3 K Value 164.312
Curve Type Sag

Appendix C - 3 setting out vertical curve
Elev. Offset
Curve Elev. of A (%) BVC =(AX2/ Elev. on Rema
no station X BVC =(g1-g2) +g1x 200L) curve(Y) rk
0+790 0.000 1410.773 0.828 1410.773 0.000 1410.773 BVC
0+810 20.000 1410.773 0.828 1409.848 0.006 1409.854
0+830 40.000 1410.773 0.828 1408.924 0.022 1408.946
0+850 60.000 1410.773 0.828 1407.999 0.050 1408.049
0+870 80.000 1410.773 0.828 1407.075 0.088 1407.163
0+890 100.000 1410.773 0.828 1406.150 0.138 1406.288
0+910 120.000 1410.773 0.828 1405.225 0.199 1405.424
0+930 140.000 1410.773 0.828 1404.301 0.270 1404.571
2 0+940 150.000 1410.773 0.828 1403.839 0.311 1404.149 PVI
0+950 160.000 1410.773 0.828 1403.376 0.353 1403.729
0+970 180.000 1410.773 0.828 1402.452 0.447 1402.899
0+990 200.000 1410.773 0.828 1401.527 0.552 1402.079
1+010 220.000 1410.773 0.828 1400.602 0.668 1401.270
1+030 240.000 1410.773 0.828 1399.678 0.795 1400.473
1+050 260.000 1410.773 0.828 1398.753 0.933 1399.686
1+070 280.000 1410.773 0.828 1397.829 1.082 1398.911
1+090 300.000 1410.773 0.828 1396.904 1.242 1398.146 EVC
1+355 0.000 1388.849 1.521 1388.849 0.000 1388.849 BVC
1+375 20.000 1388.849 1.521 1388.090 0.012 1388.102
1+395 40.000 1388.849 1.521 1387.331 0.049 1387.380
1+415 60.000 1388.849 1.521 1386.572 0.110 1386.682

1+435 80.000 1388.849 1.521 1385.813 0.195 1386.008
1+455 100.000 1388.849 1.521 1385.054 0.304 1385.358
3 1+460 105.000 1388.849 1.521 1384.864 0.335 1385.200 PVI
1+475 120.000 1388.849 1.521 1384.295 0.438 1384.733
1+495 140.000 1388.849 1.521 1383.536 0.596 1384.132
1+515 160.000 1388.849 1.521 1382.777 0.779 1383.556
1+535 180.000 1388.849 1.521 1382.018 0.986 1383.004
1+555 200.000 1388.849 1.521 1381.259 1.217 1382.476
1+575 220.000 1388.849 1.521 1380.500 1.472 1381.972
1+585 250.000 1388.849 1.521 1379.362 1.901 1381.263 EVC

Figure of Carriage way and Shoulder, Earth work cross section, and
Table of Earth work quantity
Appendix D-1 Carriage way and shoulder

Appendix D -2 Earth work cross section
Appendix D – 3 Earth work quantity
Chainage End End Volume Volume Factored Net cumulative
Area Area Cut Fill Cut (m3) volume volume
Cut Fill (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3)
(m2) (m2)
0 6.486 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 1.1 0.857 75.86 8.57 56.895 48.325 48.325
40 0 6.045 10.999 69.019 8.249 -60.77 -12.445
48.95 0 1.903 0 35.569 0 -35.569 -48.014
60 0.721 4.551 3.986 35.659 2.989 -32.67 -80.684
80 0.543 1.854 12.643 64.045 9.483 -54.562 -135.246
100 3.594 0.095 41.371 19.489 31.028 11.539 -123.707
118.337 7.567 0 102.328 0.872 76.746 75.874 -47.833

120 7.912 0 12.871 0 9.653 9.653 -38.18
140 11.701 0 196.13 0 147.097 147.097 108.917
160 15.375 0 270.758 0 203.068 203.068 311.985
180 20.214 0 355.886 0 266.914 266.914 578.899
200 27.395 0 476.083 0 357.062 357.062 935.961
209.453 31.361 0 277.709 0 208.281 208.281 1144.242
220 35.678 0 353.532 0 265.149 265.149 1409.391
240 43.864 0 795.428 0 596.571 596.571 2005.962
248.95 47.213 0 407.57 0 305.677 305.677 2311.639
254.385 51.941 0 269.449 0 202.087 202.087 2513.726
256.453 52.993 0 108.502 0 81.377 81.377 2595.103
256.539 53.033 0 4.569 0 3.426 3.426 2598.529
260 54.781 0 186.545 0 139.909 139.909 2738.438
280 64.896 0 1196.72 0 897.539 897.539 3635.977
300 73.033 0 1379.25 0 1034.437 1034.437 4670.414
320 74.731 0 1477.64 0 1108.228 1108.228 5778.642
340 68.467 0 1432.01 0 1074.009 1074.009 6852.651
360 62.821 0 1312.92 0 984.689 984.689 7837.34
380 57.454 0 1202.8 0 902.097 902.097 8739.437
400 53.686 0 1111.45 0 833.585 833.585 9573.022
420 51.009 0 1047 0 785.246 785.246 10358.27
440 47.052 0 980.654 0 735.491 735.491 11093.76
460 42.819 0 898.753 0 674.065 674.065 11767.82
480 39.117 0 819.402 0 614.551 614.551 12382.38
500 36.263 0 753.851 0 565.388 565.388 12947.76

502.231 36.48 0 81.166 0 60.874 60.874 13008.64
504.385 36.882 0 79.005 0 59.253 59.253 13067.89
520 39.45 0 596.022 0 447.017 447.017 13514.91
527.713 38.038 0 298.853 0 224.14 224.14 13739.05
540 35.778 0 453.472 0 340.104 340.104 14079.15
560 32.32 0 680.974 0 510.73 510.73 14589.88
567.964 31.472 0 254.02 0 190.515 190.515 14780.4
574.713 30.786 0 210.092 0 157.569 157.569 14937.97
580 30.238 0 161.317 0 120.988 120.988 15058.95
600 28.263 0 585.013 0 438.76 438.76 15497.71
618.337 27.878 0 514.736 0 386.052 386.052 15883.77
620 27.834 0 46.324 0 34.743 34.743 15918.51
640 27.274 0 551.076 0 413.307 413.307 16331.82
660 26.887 0 541.608 0 406.206 406.206 16738.02
680 26.746 0 536.326 0 402.245 402.245 17140.27
690 26.862 0 268.04 0 201.03 201.03 17341.3
700 26.919 0 268.906 0 201.68 201.68 17542.98
720 26.559 0 534.785 0 401.089 401.089 17944.07
740 25.706 0 522.649 0 391.987 391.987 18336.05
760 25.903 0 516.087 0 387.066 387.066 18723.12
780 27.104 0 530.068 0 397.551 397.551 19120.67
790 27.63 0 273.669 0 205.252 205.252 19325.92
796.985 27.965 0 194.16 0 145.62 145.62 19471.54
800 27.862 0 84.168 0 63.126 63.126 19534.67
820 26.877 0 547.39 0 410.542 410.542 19945.21

840 25.322 0 521.991 0 391.493 391.493 20336.7
860 22.97 0 482.923 0 362.193 362.193 20698.9
867.964 20.8 0 174.292 0 130.719 130.719 20829.61
880 17.7 0 231.694 0 173.77 173.77 21003.38
900 13.044 0 307.44 0 230.58 230.58 21233.96
920 8.914 0 219.58 0 164.685 164.685 21398.65
940 3.192 1.34 121.063 13.403 90.797 77.394 21476.04
960 0.409 5.849 36.012 71.895 27.009 -44.886 21431.16
980 0 12.634 4.093 184.835 3.07 -181.765 21249.39
1000 0 16.751 0 293.855 0 -293.855 20955.54
1017.283 0 19.983 0 317.436 0 -317.436 20638.1
1020 0 20.466 0 54.95 0 -54.95 20583.15
1040 0 23.734 0 442.006 0 -442.006 20141.15
1060 0 26.519 0 502.534 0 -502.534 19638.61
1080 0 30.609 0 571.278 0 -571.278 19067.33
1083.015 0 31.289 0 93.319 0 -93.319 18974.01
1090 0 32.91 0 224.204 0 -224.204 18749.81
1100 0 35.359 0 341.343 0 -341.343 18408.47
1120 0 40.669 0 760.282 0 -760.282 17648.19
1140 0 46.539 0 872.081 0 -872.081 16776.1
1160 0 53.01 0 995.484 0 -995.484 15780.62
1180 0 51.796 0 1048.06 0 -1048.063 14732.56
1200 0 48.134 0 999.307 0 -999.307 13733.25
1217.283 0 45.349 0 807.839 0 -807.839 12925.41
1220 0 45.351 0 123.217 0 -123.217 12802.19

1240 0 46.617 0 919.683 0 -919.683 11882.51
1260 0 42.816 0 894.333 0 -894.333 10988.18
1280 0 41.384 0 841.996 0 -841.996 10146.18
1300 0 43.662 0 850.453 0 -850.453 9295.729
1320 0 43.792 0 874.533 0 -874.533 8421.196
1335 0 40.409 0 631.508 0 -631.508 7789.688
1340 0 39.328 0 199.343 0 -199.343 7590.345
1344.279 0 38.461 0 166.44 0 -166.44 7423.905
1360 0 35.737 0 583.222 0 -583.222 6840.683
1369.802 0 34.523 0 344.346 0 -344.346 6496.337
1380 0 31.858 0 338.479 0 -338.479 6157.858
1390 0 27.792 0 298.252 0 -298.252 5859.606
1400 0 23.753 0 257.726 0 -257.726 5601.88
1420 0 15.764 0 395.172 0 -395.172 5206.708
1440 0.043 8.033 0.428 237.971 0.321 -237.65 4969.058
1460 1.986 0.882 20.29 89.148 15.217 -73.931 4895.127
1480 8.771 0 107.572 8.816 80.679 71.863 4966.99
1500 20.134 0 289.052 0 216.789 216.789 5183.779
1520 32.029 0 521.627 0 391.22 391.22 5574.999
1540 42.747 0 747.758 0 560.818 560.818 6135.817
1560 68.65 0 1113.97 0 835.477 835.477 6971.294
1569.802 72.338 0 690.982 0 518.237 518.237 7489.531
1575.721 70.666 0 423.199 0 317.399 317.399 7806.93
1580 69.5 0 299.906 0 224.929 224.929 8031.859
1585 68.111 0 344.028 0 258.021 258.021 8289.88

1600 64.843 0 997.158 0 747.869 747.869 9037.749
1616.217 63.195 0 1038.23 0 778.67 778.67 9816.419
1620 63.075 0 238.815 0 179.111 179.111 9995.53
1640 63.457 0 1265.28 0 948.956 948.956 10944.49
1659.835 63.553 0 1259.5 0 944.627 944.627 11889.11
1660 63.561 0 10.486 0 7.864 7.864 11896.98
1672.217 64.294 0 780.922 0 585.692 585.692 12482.67
1680 65.069 0 503.311 0 377.484 377.484 12860.15
1700 68.352 0 1334.06 0 1000.547 1000.547 13860.7
1720 69.445 0 1377.93 0 1033.444 1033.444 14894.14
1740 66.374 0 1358.21 0 1018.654 1018.654 15912.8
1760 60.069 0 1264.49 0 948.367 948.367 16861.17
1780 48.756 0 1088.38 0 816.287 816.287 17677.45
1800 42.694 0 914.617 0 685.963 685.963 18363.42
1820 45.452 0 881.477 0 661.107 661.107 19024.52
1833.257 39.696 0 564.396 0 423.297 423.297 19447.82
1840 36.797 0 257.885 0 193.414 193.414 19641.23
1845.639 34.391 0 200.71 0 150.533 150.533 19791.77
1860 32.33 0 479.078 0 359.308 359.308 20151.07
1880 18.749 0 510.764 0 383.073 383.073 20534.15
1889.257 12.155 0 143.039 0 107.28 107.28 20641.43
1900 5.774 0.132 96.301 0.711 72.226 71.515 20712.94
1920 0.649 5.79 64.223 59.224 48.167 -11.057 20701.89
1940 0 14.499 6.487 202.887 4.866 -198.021 20503.86
1941.043 0 14.479 0 15.117 0 -15.117 20488.75

1960 0 13.834 0 268.364 0 -268.364 20220.38
1974.46 0 12.637 0 191.381 0 -191.381 20029
1980 0 12.036 0 68.34 0 -68.34 19960.66
1997.043 0 9.511 0 183.566 0 -183.566 19777.1
2000 0 8.989 0 27.333 0 -27.333 19749.76
2020 9.953 0 99.566 89.833 74.674 -15.159 19734.6
2040 9.798 0 197.68 0 148.26 148.26 19882.86
2060 9.766 0 195.89 0 146.917 146.917 20029.78
2080 13.442 0 232.246 0 174.185 174.185 20203.97
2100 14.728 0 281.733 0 211.3 211.3 20415.27
2120 14.633 0 293.527 0 220.146 220.146 20635.41
2140 24.985 0 396.16 0 297.12 297.12 20932.53
2160 22.152 0 471.405 0 353.554 353.554 21286.09
2160.623 21.952 0 13.729 0 10.297 10.297 21296.38
2180 16.619 0 373.557 0 280.167 280.167 21576.55
2183.206 18.374 0 56.057 0 42.043 42.043 21618.59
2200 26.328 0 375.245 0 281.434 281.434 21900.03
2216.623 31.716 0 482.42 0 361.815 361.815 22261.84
2220 32.485 0 108.415 0 81.311 81.311 22343.15
2240 35.397 0 678.822 0 509.117 509.117 22852.27
2260 34.175 0 695.729 0 521.796 521.796 23374.07
2280 33.776 0 679.516 0 509.637 509.637 23883.7
2297.578 35.407 0 608.054 0 456.041 456.041 24339.74
2298.78 34.956 0 42.288 0 31.716 31.716 24371.46
2300 34.497 0 42.366 0 31.775 31.775 24403.24

2320 27.236 0 617.324 0 462.993 462.993 24866.23
2340 19.961 0 471.968 0 353.976 353.976 25220.2
2360 20.953 0 409.14 0 306.855 306.855 25527.06
2380 26.355 0 473.076 0 354.807 354.807 25881.87
2400 30.506 0 568.612 0 426.459 426.459 26308.33
2420 30.64 0 611.467 0 458.6 458.6 26766.93
2440 34.498 0 651.381 0 488.535 488.535 27255.46
2460 34.421 0 689.187 0 516.89 516.89 27772.35
2480 29.952 0 643.729 0 482.796 482.796 28255.15
2500 28.479 0 584.313 0 438.234 438.234 28693.38
2520 25.395 0 538.742 0 404.057 404.057 29097.44
2540 20.437 0 458.322 0 343.742 343.742 29441.18
2560 17.178 0 376.152 0 282.114 282.114 29723.29
2577.707 13.21 0 269.039 0 201.779 201.779 29925.07
2580 12.592 0 29.582 0 22.187 22.187 29947.26
2598.78 6.476 0.392 179.049 3.68 134.287 130.607 30077.87
2600 6.598 0.419 7.975 0.494 5.981 5.487 30083.35
2620 7.268 0 138.656 4.187 103.992 99.805 30183.16
2620.36 7.278 0 2.618 0 1.964 1.964 30185.12
2640 7.047 0 140.676 0 105.507 105.507 30290.63
2660 6.252 0 132.993 0 99.745 99.745 30390.37
2680 6.803 0 130.549 0 97.911 97.911 30488.29
2700 6.397 0 132.001 0 99.001 99.001 30587.29
2720 7.248 0 136.458 0 102.343 102.343 30689.63
2740 6.417 0 136.658 0 102.493 102.493 30792.12

2760 5.053 0 114.707 0 86.031 86.031 30878.15
2780 0.803 0.041 58.565 0.408 43.924 43.516 30921.67
2800 0 3.151 8.032 31.919 6.024 -25.895 30895.77
2820 0 10.233 0 133.839 0 -133.839 30761.94
2820.36 0 10.403 0 3.714 0 -3.714 30758.22
2827.707 0 13.433 0 87.561 0 -87.561 30670.66
2840 0 17.636 0 190.965 0 -190.965 30479.7
2860 0 19.102 0 367.383 0 -367.383 30112.31
2880 0 13.296 0 323.977 0 -323.977 29788.34
2897.578 0 9.964 0 204.427 0 -204.427 29583.91
2900 0 9.753 0 23.877 0 -23.877 29560.03
2980 0 8.269 0 180.224 0 -180.224 29379.81

Table of Axle load surveys, Equivalent Factor for S/Bus and L/Buss,
Equivalent Factor for L/Truck and M/Truck and figure of pavement
Appendix E-1 Axle load survey for the project
S/Bus L/Bus L/Truck M/Truck T/Trailer
Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 4
287 546
2178 3038 5184 5634 6829 5612 8963 12036 7323 7623
0 5
287 564
2405 2925 5617 5782 6436 6289 7189 10405 7305 7418
6 5
283 514
2315 2977 5665 4694 7374 5308 9894 10372 6964 8699
2 8
285 563
2251 3099 5376 4351 7075 6531 7615 11955 8206 7550
5 5
309 504
1917 2998 5620 4928 6464 6601 9407 9397 7208 6660
6 6
321 578
2291 2698 5665 4784 7895 5394 8634 8154 8892 9704
2 7
282 566
1950 2844 5267 5249 6350 6917 8954 12279 7889 9138
9 9
318 594
2234 2753 5191 4154 7822 5592 7451 9940 7368 9435
4 1
305 513
2293 3064 5271 4733 7680 5312 9991 12523 6005 9481
6 7
2427 265 3119 5036 4900 6641 5888 7764 583 11497 6385 6718

2 5
276 534
2013 3046 5286 4358 6717 6021 9298 8825 8197 7776
6 8
Appendix E- 2 Equivalent factor for small Bus and large Bus
Small Bus large Bus
Axle Axle Total

EF1 EF2 Total EF Axle 1 EF1 Axle 2 EF2
1 2 EF
0.01 0.13
2178 0.003 2870 0.009 0.012 3038 5184 0.142
2 0
0.01 0.18
2405 0.004 2876 0.009 0.013 2925 5617 0.196
0 6
0.01 0.19
2315 0.003 2832 0.009 0.012 2977 5665 0.204
1 4
0.01 0.15
2251 0.003 2855 0.009 0.012 3099 5376 0.166
3 3
1917 0.001 3096 0.013 0.014 2998 0.01 5620 0.18 0.198

1 7
0.00 0.19
2291 0.003 3212 0.015 0.018 2698 5665 0.200
7 4
0.00 0.13
1950 0.002 2829 0.009 0.010 2844 5267 0.148
9 9
0.00 0.13
2234 0.003 3184 0.014 0.017 2753 5191 0.138
8 1
0.01 0.14
2293 0.003 3056 0.012 0.015 3064 5271 0.152
2 0
0.01 0.11
2427 0.004 2652 0.006 0.011 3119 5036 0.127
3 4
0.01 0.14
2013 0.002 2766 0.008 0.010 3046 5286 0.154
2 2
Summation = 0.144 = 1.825
Mean Of EF = 0.013 = 0.166
Appendix E-3 Equivalent factor for L/Truck and M/Truck
L/Truck M/Truck

Axle Total Axle Total

Axle 1 EF1 EF2 Axle 1 EF1 EF2
2 EF 2 EF
0.18 1.52
5634 6829 0.449 0.638 5612 0.186 8963 1.711
9 6
0.21 0.31 0.56

5782 6436 0.344 0.556 6289 7189 0.875
2 0 5
0.08 0.14 2.38

4694 7374 0.634 0.717 5308 9894 2.524
3 4 0
0.05 0.36 0.73

4351 7075 0.526 0.585 6531 7615 1.100
9 7 3
0.10 0.38 1.89

4928 6464 0.350 0.454 6601 9407 2.282
3 5 6
0.09 0.15 1.28

4784 7895 0.862 0.952 5394 8634 1.445
0 5 9
0.13 0.47 1.51

5249 6350 0.324 0.461 6917 8954 1.994
7 5 9
0.04 0.18 0.66

4154 7822 0.827 0.875 5592 7451 0.847
8 3 4
0.08 0.14 2.48

4733 7680 0.761 0.847 5312 9991 2.632
6 5 7
0.10 0.23 0.79

4900 6641 0.396 0.497 5888 7764 1.030
1 0 9
4358 0.05 6717 0.417 0.476 6021 0.25 9298 1.79 2.054

9 5 9
Summation =7.057 18.493
Mean of EF =0.642 1.681
Appendix E - 4 pavement design

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Link Road Design from Dandi to Jaldu

for the partial fulfillment of the BSc Degree in Civil Engineering.

Campus and department of Civil Engineering for allowing and helping on

commencement and proceeding of this road design project

RVULLC, Department of Civil EngineeringPage i

RVULLC, Department of Civil EngineeringPage ii

1.1 Back Ground..............................................................................................................1

1.2 Project Description.....................................................................................................1

1.3 Project Questions.......................................................................................................3

1.4 Objective of the Study................................................................................................4

1.5 Significance of the Study...........................................................................................5

1.6 Route Selection..........................................................................................................5

1.7 Scope of the Study.....................................................................................................5

2.1 Design Controls and Criteria......................................................................................6

2.1.1 Functional Classification of the Road.................................................................6

2.1.2 Terrain Classification..........................................................................................8

2.1.3 Design Vehicle....................................................................................................9

2.1.4 Character of Adjoining land use........................................................................10

2.1.5 Design Speed.....................................................................................................10

2.2 Horizontal Alignment..............................................................................................11

2.2.2 Curve Alignment...............................................................................................12

RVULLC, Department of Civil EngineeringPage iii

2.2.3 Simple Circular Curves.....................................................................................13

2.2.4 Elements of Horizontal Curve...........................................................................14

2.2.5 Horizontal curve calculation Parameters for different standard........................15

2.2.6 Setting out of Horizontal Curve........................................................................15

2.2.7 Spiral Curve.......................................................................................................15

2.2.7.1 Minimum Length of Spiral.............................................................................16

2.2.7.2 Maximum Length of Spiral............................................................................17

2.3 Super Elevation and Curve Widening......................................................................18

2.3.1 Super Elevation.................................................................................................19

2.3.2 Super Elevation Runoff and Run out................................................................23

2.3.3 Locating Super Elevation Runoff and Run out.................................................25

2.3.4.1 Construction of Traveled Way Widening......................................................26

2.3.4.2 Application of Widening on Curves...............................................................26

2.3.4.3 Design Value of Widening.............................................................................27

2.3.4.4 Widening on Curves.......................................................................................28

2.4 Vertical Alignment...................................................................................................29

2.4.3 Climbing Lane...................................................................................................34

2.4.4 Vertical Curve..................................................................................................34

2.4.4.1 Crest Curves...................................................................................................35

2.4.4.2 Sag curves.......................................................................................................36

RVULLC, Department of Civil EngineeringPage iv

2.4.5 Design of Vertical Curve...................................................................................37

2.4.6 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment.................................................39

2.4.6.1 Types of Mis-Phasing.....................................................................................39

2.5 Sight Distance..........................................................................................................41

2.5.1 Stopping Sight Distance....................................................................................42

2.5.1.1 Brake Reaction Distance................................................................................42

2.5.1.2 Braking Distance............................................................................................43

2.5.1.3 Effect of Grade on Stopping Sight Distance..................................................44

2.5.1.4 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves..............................................45

2.5.1.5 Stopping Sight Distance on Vertical Curves..................................................46

2.5.2 Passing Sight Distance......................................................................................47

2.5.2.1 Effect of Grade on Passing Sight Distance....................................................49

2.5.2.2 Passing Sight Distance on Crest Curve..........................................................50

2.6 Cross Section............................................................................................................51

2.6.2 Travelled Way.............................................................................................54