ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

2020-21
 REFERENCES
1. Russell S, Norvig P , Artificial Intelligence : A Modern
Approach, Pearson Education.
2. Elaine Rich and Kelvin Knight : Artificial Intelligence,
Tata McGraw Hill, 2002.
3. Dan W. Patterson : Introduction to Artificial Intelligence
and Expert Systems, Prentice Hall of India, 2002.
4. Kaushik Saroj, Logic and Prolog Programming, New Age
International Publishers.
5. Konar Amit : Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing,
Behavioral and Cognitive Modeling of the Human
Brain,CRC Press.
Intelligence
The capability to form concepts and grasp their
significance.
To judge well, to comprehend well, to reason well
Reflected in
• mental and behavioral activities
• situation specific (acquisition of skills implies
behaving in a certain way)
e.g. Car Driving
Intelligence(contd.)
Adaptation to the physical and social environment.
essential abilities to
• respond to situations flexibly
• make sense out of ambiguous or contradictory
messages.
• Find similarity in situations separated by
differences.
• To generate new concepts and new ideas.
 Artificial Intelligence
AI is the study of how to make computers do things, which
at the moment,people do better (Elaine Rich).
(This definition does not include problems that can not be
solved by either computers or people).

AI is the science of making machines do things that would

require intelligence if done by men (Marvin Minsky).

AI can be defined as a subject dealing with computational

models that can think and act rationally, i.e., plan and
execute the right task at the right time.(Amit Konar)
Artificial Intelligence
AI is the branch of computer science concerned with the
study and creation of computer systems that exhibit some
form of intelligence: systems that can learn new concepts
and tasks, systems that can draw useful conclusions about
the world around us, systems that can understand a natural
language or perceive and comprehend a visual scene and
systems that can perform other types of feats that require
human type of intelligence(Patterson).
• Humans try to understand about how to perceive,
understand, predict and manipulate
AI tries not just to understand but also to build
intelligent entities.
• AI currently encompasses a huge variety of subfields in
•general-purpose areas such as learning and perception
•specific tasks such as playing chess, proving
mathematical theorems, writing poetry and diagnosing
diseases.
• AI systematizes and automates intellectual tasks
and is therefore relevant to any sphere of human
intellectual activity. In this sense, it is truly a
universal field.
•AI is one of the newest sciences. Work started soon
after world war II and name itself was coined in
1956. Along with molecular biology, AI is regularly
cited as the “ field I would most like to be in “ by
scientists in other disciplines.
Definitions of AI, organized into four
categories
Systems that think like humans
Systems that act like humans

Systems that think rationally

Systems that act rationally
 Systems that act like humans (The
Turing Test approach)
• The act of creating machines that perform functions that
require intelligence when performed by people.( Kurzweil
1990)
• Study of how to make computers do things at which, at
the moment people are better(Elaine Rich).
Turing Test

Named after Alan Turing who in 1950 proposed the following

method for determining whether the machine can think.

Interrogator
KB1 A

Typed
questions
answers Programmed to respond
C like a person
KB2 B
(multiplication, reversing
a sequence of letters etc.)
If the interrogator can not distinguish between a computer and a person, the computer
passes the Turing test for that problem.
Computer would need to provide the following
capabilities ( Various Disciplines of AI)
• NLP to enable it to communicate successfully in
English
•KR to store about what it knows or hears
•Automated Reasoning to use the stored information to
answer questions and to draw new conclusions.
•Machine Learning to adapt to new circumstances and to
detect and extrapolate patterns
•Computer Vision to perceive objects
•Robotics to manipulate objects and move about.
Systems that think like humans (The
Cognitive Modeling approach)
• “ The exciting new efforts to make computers think…
machines with minds, in full and literal sense.”
(Haugeland,1985)
•“[The automation of] activities that we associate with
human being, activities such as decision-making, problem
solving, learning…(Bellman,1978)
How humans think
One can understand actual working of Human mind
• through introspection - try to catch your own thoughts as
they go by
•through psychological experiments
Once we have a precise theory of mind, it becomes
possible to express the theory as a computer program
The interdisciplinary field of cognitive science
brings together computer models from AI and
experimental techniques from psychology to try to
construct precise and testable theories of the working of
human mind.
Thinking rationally (The Law of
Thought approach)
• “The study of mental faculties through use of
computational models.” (Charniak and McDermott,1985)
•The study of the computations that make it possible to
perceive, reason and act.” (Winston, 1992)

These law of thought approach were supposed to govern

the operation of mind; their study initiated the field called
logic.
Acting rationally (The Rational Agent
approach)
• “Computational Intelligence is the study of intelligent
agents.” (Poole et al, 1998)
•AI is concerned with intelligent behavior in
artifacts.”(Nilson 1998.)

An agent is just something that acts (agent comes from

the Latin word agere, to do).
Attributes that distinguish agents from programs
• operating under autonomous control
• perceiving their environment
• persisting over a prolonged time period
• adapting to change
• being capable of taking another’s goal
A rational agent is one that acts so as to achieve the
best outcome or, when there is uncertainty, the best
expected outcome.
•In law of thought approach to AI, emphasis is on correct
inferences. Making correct inference is sometimes a part
of being a rational agent because one way to act rationally
is to reason logically to the conclusion that a given action
will achieve one’s goals and then to act on that
conclusion.
On the other hand, correct inference is not all of
rationality, because there are often situations where there
is no provably correct thing to do, yet something must be
done.
•All the skills needed for the Turing test are there to allow
rational actions. Thus we need the ability to represent
knowledge and reason with it because this enables us to
reach decisions in a wide variety of situations.
Advantages of study of AI as rational agent approach
•It is more general than law of thought approach as correct
inference is just one of the several possible ways to achieve
rationality.
•It is more amenable to scientific developments than the
approaches based on human behavior or human thought
because the standard of rationality is clearly defined and
completely general. Human behavior on the other hand is
well adapted for one scientific environment.
Hence We will follow the rational agent approach to AI.
•Perfect rationality- always doing the right thing
•Limited rationality - acting appropriately when there is not
enough time to do all the computations one might like
Foundations - Mathematics
More formal logical methods
• Boolean logic (Boole, 1847)
Analysis of limits to what can be computed
• Intractability (1965) – time required to solve
problem scales exponentially with the size of
problem instance
• NP-complete (1971) – Formal classification of
problems as intractable
Uncertainty
• The basis for most modern approaches to AI
• Uncertainty can still be used in logical analyses
Foundations - Neuroscience
How do brains work?
Early studies (1824) relied on injured and abnormal
people to understand what parts of brain work
More recent studies use accurate sensors to correlate
brain activity to human thought
• By monitoring individual neurons, monkeys can
now control a computer mouse using thought alone
Moore’s law states computers will have as many gates
as humans have neurons in 2020
How close are we to having a mechanical brain?
• Parallel computation, remapping, interconnections,
binary vs. gradient…
Foundations – Control Theory
Machines can modify their behavior in response to
the environment (sense / action loop)
• Water-flow regulator (250 B.C.E), steam engine governor,
thermostat
The theory of stable feedback systems (1894)
• Build systems that transition from initial
state to goal state with minimum energy
• In 1950, control theory could only describe
linear systems and AI largely rose as a
response to this shortcoming
Foundations - Linguistics
Speech demonstrates so much of human
intelligence
Analysis of human language reveals thought
taking place in ways not understood in other
settings
• Children can create sentences they have never heard
before
• Language and thought are believed to be tightly
intertwined
Two Views of AI Goal
AI is about duplicating what the (human)
brain DOES
Cognitive Science

AI is about duplicating what the (human)

brain SHOULD do
Rationality (doing things logically)
Cool Stuff in AI
Game playing agents
Machine learning
Speech
Language
Vision
Data Mining
Web agents …….
Useful Stuff
Medical Diagnosis
Fraud Detection
Object Identification
Space Shuttle Scheduling
Information Retrieval ….
 AI Techniques

Rule-based
Fuzzy Logic
Neural Networks
Genetic Algorithms
Characteristics of AI systems
• learn new concepts and tasks,
• reason and draw useful conclusions about
the world around us,
• understand a natural language or perceive
and comprehend a visual scene,
• plan sequences of actions to complete a
goal,
• offer advice based on rules and situations,
• remember complicated interrelated facts, and
draw conclusions from them (inference),
• look through cameras and see what's there
(vision), to move themselves and objects around
in the real world (robotics),
• may not necessarily imitate human senses and
thought processes but indeed, in performing
some tasks differently, they may actually exceed
human abilities,
• capable of performing intelligent tasks
effectively and efficiently,
• performing tasks that require high levels of
intelligence,
UNDERSTANDING OF AI

AI techniques and ideas seem to be harder

to understand than most things in computer
science.

Artificial intelligence shows best on

complex problems for which general
principles don't help much, though there are
a few useful general principles.
Artificial intelligence is also difficult to
understand by its content.
Boundaries of AI are not well defined.
Often it means the advanced software
engineering, sophisticated software
techniques for hard problems that can't be
solved in any easy way.
AI programs - like people - are usually not
perfect, and even make mistakes.
It often means, nonnumeric ways of solving
problems, since people can't handle
numbers well.
Nonnumeric ways are generally "common
sense" ways, not necessarily the best ones.
Understanding of AI also requires an
understanding of related terms such as
intelligence, knowledge, reasoning, thought,
cognition, learning, and a number of other
computer related terms.
Components of AI Program
AI techniques must be independent of
the problem domain as far as possible.
AI program should have
knowledge base,
navigational capability which contains
control strategy,
inferencing,
 A.I. Program

K.B.

Control
Result
Query (Gate Keeper)

(Inference Engine)

Control (Gate Keeper) explores the knowledge and draws the inference.
Knowledge Base
AI programs should be learning in nature
and update its knowledge accordingly.
Knowledge base consists of facts and rules.
Characteristics of Knowledge:
It is voluminous in nature and requires
proper structuring.
It may be incomplete and imprecise.
It may keep on changing (dynamic).
new facts might emerge
* soil on Mars means evidence of life
* absence of ozone layer means no evidence of life
However, an AI technique which is a method that
exploits knowledge and attempts

•to capture generalization as far as possible

- helps to conserve storage
- enhances clarity
- one may need exception handling

•to have flexibility of representation

- for modification
- for extensibility of approach
• Control strategy
– determines the rule to be applied
– some heuristics (thumb rule) may
be applied

• Inferencing
– requires search through knowledge
base and derive new knowledge
Sub-areas
- natural language understanding,
- computer vision,
- understanding spoken utterances,
- intelligent tutoring systems,
- robotics,
- machine translation systems,
- expert problem solving,
- Neural Networks, AI tools etc
Applications
Business : Financial strategies, give advice
Engineering: check design, offer suggestions to
create new page
Manufacturing: Assembly, inspection &
maintenance
Mining: used when conditions are dangerous
Hospital : monitoring, diagnosing & prescribing
Education : In teaching
household : Advice on cooking, shopping etc.
farming : prune trees & selectively harvest mixed
crops.
What is AI today
Three typical components of AI Systems

THE WORLD

Perception Action

Reasoning
Recent AI
Heavy use of

probability theory
decision theory
statistics
logic (fuzzy, modal, temporal)