THE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF LESOTHO

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

B1501: INTRODUCTORY BIOLOGY 1

INTRODUCTORY PLANT DIVERSITY NOTES

Lecturer: Dr. P. Chatanga (PhD)

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Lecture 7: Gymnosperms
These are non-flowering seed-bearing plants that produce naked seeds. The word gymnosperm
comes from a Greek word Gymnospermos, meaning “naked seeds”, referring to the exposed
nature of the seeds; Gymno – naked and spermos – seed

General characteristics of Gymnosperms

 Usually produce cones on which sporangia, spores and seeds develop.
 Ovules, later seeds, are located on the surfaces of specialized scale leaves called
ovuliferous scales.
 The sporophylls (ovuliferous scales) are arranged in cone-like structures called strobili.
 The seeds are “naked” i.e. they are not enclosed.
 No fruit because there is no ovary.
 Gymnosperms are represented by four phyla: Cycadophyta (≈130 spp.), Ginkgophyta (1
sp.), Gnetophyta (≈75 spp.) and Coniferophyta (≈600 spp.).

Adaptations of gymnosperms to life on land

 The gametophyte generation is very much reduced, is always protected inside the
sporophyte and is totally dependent on the sporophyte.
 Fertilization is not dependent on water as male gametes are non-motile but are carried
in pollen grains dispersed mainly by wind and finally conveyed by a pollen tube.
 The fertilized ovule (seed) is retained for some time on the parent sporophyte from which
it obtains protection and food before dispersal.
 Produce pollen that contains and protects the male gametes; this makes pollination easier
 Produce seeds and these are usually adapted for dispersal.
 Seeds provide protection (protective coating) and resources for the developing embryo.
 Exhibit secondary growth, producing large amount of wood which offers support, e.g.
trees and shrubs are able to compete effectively for light and other resources.
 Vascular tissue, true roots and stems provide anchorage and enable water and mineral
salts in the soil to be reached, as well as translocation.
 Presence of thick waxy cuticle to minimize water loss.

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  Presence of stomata of adjustable size for gaseous exchange.
 Plants can show a variety of adaptations to hot dry environments.
NB. Seeds and pollen grains are key adaptations for life on land.

Phylum Coniferophyta (Conifers)

 This is by far the largest gymnosperm phylum, consisting of about 600 species of conifers.
 Conifer means “cone bearing”
 Conifers include pines, larches, cypresses, redwoods, cedars, spruces and firs, and some
of these are large trees e.g. cypresses and redwoods.
 They are trees or shrubs, mostly evergreen.
 Conifers are a successful group of plants of worldwide distribution, accounting for about
one third of the world’s forests.
 Most of the species are found at higher altitudes and further north than any other trees.

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  Pines (Pinus) and other conifers have a roughly conical appearance
 The lower branches die and drop off as the tree grows, leaving the mature trees bare for
some distance up their trunk.
 They show unlimited growth i.e. show overall increase in size throughout their lives.
 The leaves are needle-like, reducing surface area available for water loss.
 They are covered with thick, waxy cuticle and have sunken stomata. These xeromorphic
features ensure conservation of water given that the plants are evergreen.
 Male and female cones are borne on the same tree (heterospory). Male cones (smaller)
are borne on the lower branches and female cones (larger) on the upper branches.
 They take about three years to complete their life cycle.
 Fertilized ovules become winged “naked” seeds.

Reproduction in conifers
 The pine tree is the sporophyte; its sporangia are located on ovuliferous scales packed
densely in cones called strobili (sing – strobilus).
 Like all seed plants, conifers are heterosporous. Two types of spores are produced by
separate cones in conifers: smaller pollen cones and larger ovulate cones. In most pine
species, each tree has both types of cones.
 In pollen cones, microsporocytes (microspore mother cells) undergo meiosis producing
haploid microspores. Each microspore develops into a pollen grain containing a male
gametophyte. In pines and other conifers the yellow pollen is released in large amounts
and carried by wind, dusting everything in its path.
 In ovulate cones, megasporocytes (megaspore mother cells) undergo meiosis and
produce haploid megaspores inside the ovule. Surviving megaspores develop into female
gametophytes, which are retained within the sporangia.
 From the time young pollen cones and ovulate cones appear on the tree it takes nearly
three years for male and female gametophytes to be produced and brought together and
for mature seeds to form from fertilized ovules. The scales of each ovulate cone then
separate and the seeds are dispersed by wind. A seed that lands in a suitable environment
then germinates into a pine seedling.

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 Development of seed from ovule in Gymnosperms

Structure of Gymnosperm winged seeds

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Life cycle of a pine
Mature sporophyte (2n)

Pollen cone (2n) Ovulate cone (2n)

(Microsporophyll) (Megasporophyll)

Ovules

Seedling (2n) Microsporangium (2n) Megasporangium (2n)

Germination

Microsporocytes (2n) Megasporocytes (2n)

Seed (2n) (Microspore mother cells) (Megaspore mother cells)

Meiosis Meiosis
Microspores (n) Megaspore (n)

Embryo (2n)

Pollen grains (n) Embryo sac (n)

(Contains male gametophyte) (Contains female gametophyte)

Zygote (2n) Germination Eggs (n)

Fertilisation

Phylum Gnetophyta (gnetophytes) – link/ resemblances to angiosperms

Gnetophytes can grow as shrubs, trees or vines. The phylum is considered to be the direct
ancestor of flowering plants i.e. it is believed to be the group linking gymnosperms and
angiosperms. Of all gymnosperms, gnetophytes are the group most closely related to
angiosperms and likely represent the most evolutionarily advanced gymnosperm phylum. The
phylum consists of three genera: Gnetum, Ephedra and Welwitschia. Although very different in
appearance, the genera are grouped together, based on molecular data.

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Characteristics of gnetophytes that make them resemble angiosperms
 Like most angiosperms (flowering plants), all gnetophytes are characterised by the
presence of both tracheids and vessel elements in their xylem tissue.
 Gnetophytes (Ephedra and Gnetum) are the only gymnosperms that undergo double
fertilization; but two embryos are formed and one disintegrates. Unlike in angiosperms,
no endosperm is formed.
 Like some angiosperms, they produce dicotyledonous embryos
 Like angiosperms, some of the species in all the three genera produce nectar and attract
insects. Thus, like in many angiosperms and in contrast to the typical gymnosperm’s
reliance on the wind, insects play a role in the pollination of gnetophytes.
 The cones (strobili) of gnetophytes bear some resemblance to angiosperm flower clusters.
 Gnetum seeds look somewhat like fruits.

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  The leaves of Gnetum are similar in form, structure and venation to those of flowering
plants, especially dicots.

Ecological and economic importance of Gymnosperms

 Food e.g. pine nuts (seeds) in the USA.
 They are soft woods and are used for timber, resins (sticky flammable organic substance),
turpentine (volatile oil used in making adhesives, varnishes, inks etc).
 They are used as fuel (source of energy).
 Some are used for ornament e.g. Pinus sylvestris.
 Making plywood, chipboards etc.
 Preparing wood pulp for paper making.
 Construction material – the world’s most widely used construction material.
 They are a carbon sink – they photosynthesize throughout the year as they are evergreen.
 Provide habitat for other organisms including insects, fungi, birds and some small plants.
 Play a role in the control of soil erosion.

≈END≈

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