Modern History Notes (Sample Notes For JPSC Mains Exam)

Cognizance IAS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER-1:- BEGINNING OF EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS ................................ -12
Formation and growth of East India Company
Consolidation of British Power in India- Battles of Plssey and Buxar
Control over Mysore
Subsidiary Alliance
Doctrine of Lapse
Doctrine of Escheat
CHAPTER -2: - RESISTANCE TO COLONIAL RULE ............................................... 14-24
PEASANT, Tribal and cultural Renaissance
Revolt of 1857
CHAPTER-3: - SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENT ....................................................... 25-33
Hindu community- Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ram Krishna Mission,Prarthana Samaj
and Theosophical Society of India.
Muslim Community- Wahabi movement and Aligarh Movement.
-Abolition of Sati system, Widow remarriage Act,
Consent bill, stress on Female education
CHAPTER-4: -LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATIVE UNDER THE BRITISH RULE.34-37
Permanent settlement
Ryotwari system
Mahalwari system
CHAPTER- 5: RISE OF NATIONALISM IN INDIA IN THE 19TH CENTURY 38-51
Formation of Indian National Congress: Moderates and extremists, swadeshi Movement,
Home Rule League Movement, Khilafat Movement, Non-co-operation movement
CHAPTER- 6:- MAHATMA GANDHI AND ERA OF MASS NATIONALISM .52-71
Khilafat Movement
Non-co-operation Movement
Civil Disobedience Movement
Quit India Movement
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CHAPTER-7: - THE PARTITION OF INDIA AND ITS CONSEQUENCES .72-76
CHAPTER- 8:- INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE ....................................................... 77-89

Integration of princely states in Indian union,
Linguistic Reorganization of states
Non-aligned policy under Nehru and Indira Gandhi
Liberation of Bangladesh.
PAPER-3,Section-A, (JPSC Mains Syllabus ,Modern History)

COGNIZANCE IAS (MODERN HISTORY)
CHAPTER: -1. BEGINNING OF EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS

Formation and growth of East India Company
Consolidation of British Power in India- Battles of Plssey and Buxar
Control over Mysore
Subsidiary Alliance
Doctrine of Lapse
Doctrine of Escheat
In 14th century significant changes occurred in Europe. Capitalism began replacing the feudal economy and society.
This is because capitalism as a system based on profit making. It is always looking for new market and more profits.
Expansion of capitalist system, therefore was worldwide, engulfing many other economies.
Henceforth, world history got closely related to developments in Europe. Industrial Revolution and capital formation
in Europe led to search for new markets. Asia and Africa were the ideal power for colonial powers to make their
fortune. Different trading companies were formed in European to Carry external trade. Soon there was clash of
interests and struggles started among the colonial power- the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the English.
From this struggle the English east India company emerged victorious and established its monopoly over Indian trade.
FORMATION AND GROWTH OF EAST INDIA COMPANY

On 22 September 1599, a company to trade with the East was formed under the auspices of a group of merchants
known as Merchant Adventures. The company popularly came to be known as the East India Company (EIC).
In 1600, The East India Company was granted a Royal Charter by Queen Elizabeth giving it the exclusive
privilege of trading east of the Cape of Good Hope for a period of 15 years.
In beginning, the East India Company concentrated on spice trade. The initial voyages of the company were
made to the spice island in Indonesia.
Soon the English discovered the importance of Indian Goods especially textiles as a barter commodity for spice
trade. Thus, in 1608, Surat in Gujrat was established as the trade transit point and the company ships were
docked there
The company now planned to open a factory at Surat in Gujrat and Captain Hawkins was sent.
In 1608, He was sent to the court of Jahangir to obtain permission to open a factory at Surat.
Conditions in the south were more favourable to the English as they did not have to face a strong Indian
government there. The great Vijayanagar Kingdom had been overthrown in 1565 and its place taken by a
number of petty and weak states.
In 1662, King Charles-II of England received Bombay as dowry on marrying a Portuguese Princess.
In 1668, the crown transferred it to the company on an annual rent of ten ponds and it was soon fortified in
the wake of threats from the rising Maratha Power. Bombay quickly replaced Surat as the principal depot
centre of company on west coast.
English Factories
employees.
In, 1611, the English opened their first factory in the south at Masulipatnam. In 1613 English were allowed by
Jahangir to set up a permanent factory at Surat.
In, 1632, Sultan of Golconda issued a Golden Farman in favour of English, permitting them to trade freely from
the ports of Golconda on annual payment of 500 pagodas.
In, 1651, at Hugli, the first English factory in Bengal was set up upon receiving permission from Sultan Shuja,
the Subahdar of Bengal.
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1
PRACTICE QUESTION
1.
politics.
2.It was not the Battle of Plassey but battle of Buxer led to foundation of British rule in India. Discuss.

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CHAPTER:-2 -RESISTANCE TO COLONIAL RULE

PEASANT, Tribal and cultural Renaissance
Revolt of 1857.
-
encompasses several sections of the Indian society who were affected by the alien rule. The peasants, artisans, tribals,
ruling classes (active or dispossessed), military personnel (those under the Company as well as the demobilised soldiers
of ex-rulers), religious leaders (Hindu and Muslim), etc., fought for the protection of their interests, at times separately
and at times together.
The establishment of British rule in India was not a sudden event but a slow and gradual process comprising many
wars and conquests, resulting in forceful subjugation of the Indian people. The British introduced rapid changes, which
had adverse impact on various aspect of Indian life. Consequently, people reacted to this new rule in two broad ways.
1. In the form of popular uprising (i.e. revolt, rebellions, peasant and tribal movement)
2. In the form of socio-cultural reform movement.
RESISTANCE TO COLONIAL RULE

At a time when the newly created class of urban intelligentsia was reaping the benefits of the British rule, it was the
traditional sections of society whose lives had been almost completely changed for the worse, who rebelled.
The series of civil rebellions were often led by deposed rulers or their descendants, uprooted and impoverished
zamindars, landlords and poligars (landed military magnates in South India) and ex-retainers and officials of the
conquered Indian States. The backbone of the rebellions, their mass base and striking power came from the rack-
rented peasants, ruined artisans and demobilized soldiers.
Major Causes of Civil Uprisings

Under the Company rule, there were rapid changes in the economy, administration and land revenue system
that went against the people.
Several zamindars and poligars who had lost control over their land and its revenues due to the colonial rule,
had personal scores to settle with the new rulers.
The ruin of Indian handicraft industries due to colonial policies impoverished millions of artisans whose misery
was further compounded by the disappearance of their traditional patrons and buyers princes, chieftains,
and zamindars.
The priestly classes instigated hatred and rebellion against alien rule, because the religious preachers, priests,
pundits, maulvis, etc., had been dependent on the traditional landed and bureaucratic elite. The fall of
zamindars and feudal lords directly affected the priestly class.
Peasants and artisans, as indicated earlier, had their own reasons to rise up in arms and side with the
traditional elite. Increasing demands for land revenue were forcing large numbers of peasants into growing
indebtedness or into selling their lands. The new landlords, bereft of any traditional paternalism towards their
tenants, pushed up rents to ruinous heights and evicted them in case of non- payment. The economic decline
of the peasantry was reflected in twelve major and numerous minor famines from 1770 to 1857.
Classification of the Popular Uprisings

Political-religious Movements - Fakir Uprising, Sanyasi Uprising, Pagal Panthis, Wahabi Movement, Faraizi
Movement, Kuka Movement and Moplah Rebellions
Movement by deposed rulers and Zamindars- Velu Thampi and Polygar Rebellions Movements by the
dependents of the deposed ruler- Ramosi Uprising, Gadkari Revolt and Sawantwadi Revolt.

14
fight against introduction of feudal, zamindari tenures, and exploitation by money-lenders and forest contractors. The
Mundas claimed Chhotanagpur as their area in 1879. British armed forces were then deployed. Birsa was captured
and imprisoned.
Kol Mutiny (1831)

Area: Chhotanagpur- Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau and the western parts of Manbhum. Leader: Buddho
Bhagat.
Cause: a. large-scale transfers of land from Kol headmen to outsiders like Hindu, Sikh and Muslim farmers and money-
lenders who were oppressive and demanded heavy taxes.
b. the British judicial and revenue policies badly affected the traditional social conditions of the Kols.
Chuar Uprising (1766 1772 & 1795 and 1816)

Areas: Jungle Mahal of Midnapore district and Bankura district (in Bengal) Cause: Famine, enhanced land revenue
demands and economic distress to take up arms. Leader: Jagannath Singh, Durjon Singh of Raipur, the zamindar of
Ghatsila, Shyam Ganjan of Dhadka, Subla Singh of Kaliapal and Dubraj. These tribes people were basically farmers and
hunters. The Chuars held their lands under a kind of feudal tenure, but were not strongly attached to the soil, being
always ready to change from farming to hunting, at the bidding of their jungle chiefs or zamindars. The revolt was
brutally suppressed by the British.
Khond Uprisings (1837-1856)

Areas: From Odisha to the Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh Against: Company rule-
suppression of human sacrifice, new taxes, and the entry of zamindars into their areas. Leader: Chakra Bisoi, a young
raja- joined by the Ghumsar, Kalahandi and other tribals (A later Khond rebellion in 1914 - triggered by the hope that
foreign rule would end and they could gain an autonomous government).
Koya Revolts
Areas: Eastern Godavari track (modern Andhra) Leader: Khonda Sara chiefs and later Tomma Sora and even later
under Raja Anantayyar. Against: oppression by police and moneylenders, new regulations and denial of their
customary rights over forest areas.
Bhil Revolts
Areas: Western Ghats- controlled the mountain passes between the north and the Deccan.
Against: Company rule in 1817-19- had to face famine, economic distress and misgovernment. The British used both
force and conciliatory efforts to control the uprising. Later, a reformer, Govind Guru helped the Bhils of south
Rajasthan (Banswara, Sunth states) to organize themselves to fight for a Bhil Raj by 1913.
Khasi Uprising
After having occupied the hilly region between Garo and Jaintia Hills, the East India Company wanted to build a road
linking the Brahmaputra Valley with Sylhet. A large number of outsiders including Englishmen, Bengalis and the
labourers from the plains were brought to these regions. The Khasis, Garos, Khamptis and the Singphos organised
themselves under Tirath Singh to drive away the strangers from the plains. By 1833 it was suppressed.
Thus it is evident that the colonial rule even, during the days of the east India Company
witnessed numerous uprising and disturbances. The nature of these disturbances varied from elitist grievances as
manifested in the rebellions headed by deposed rulers

18
For more than a year the rebels carried on their struggle against heavy odds.
SUPPRESSION OF THE REVOLT

The revolt was finally suppressed. The British captured Delhi on September 20, 1857 after prolonged and bitter
fighting. John Nicholson, the leader of the siege, was badly wounded and later succumbed to his injuries.
Bahadur Shah was taken prisoner. The royal princes were captured and butchered on the spot, publicly shot
at point blank range by Lieutenant Hudson himself. The emperor was exiled to Rangoon where he died in
1862. Thus the great House of Mughals was finally and completely extinguished.
Military operations for the recapture of Kanpur were closely associated with the recovery of Lucknow. Sir Colin
Campbell occupied Kanpur on December 6, 1857. Nana Saheb, defeated at Kanpur, escaped to Nepal in early
1859, never to be heard of again.
Tantia Tope escaped into the jungles of central India, but was captured while asleep in April 1859 and put to
death.
The Rani of Jhansi had died on the battlefield earlier in June 1858. Jhansi was recaptured by Sir Hugh Rose.
By 1859, Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan Bahadur Khan of Bareilly, Rao Sahib (brother of Nana Saheb) and
Maulvi Ahmadullah were all dead, while the Begum of Awadh was compelled to hide in Nepal.
At Benaras, a rebellion had been organised which was mercilessly suppressed by Colonel Neill, who put to
death all suspected rebels and even disorderly sepoys.
By the end of 1859, British authority over India was fully re-established. The British government had to pour
immense supplies of men, money and arms into the country, though the Indians had to later repay the entire cost
through their own suppression.
Reasons of its Failure

1. Unorganised and Weak leadership- The revolt of 1857 failed because it suffered from weak leadership and
was hardly organized with any coordination or central leadership. The principal rebel leaders- Nana Sahib,
Tantya Tope, Kunwar Singh, and Laxmibai- were no match to their British opponents in generalships. On the
other hand, the East India Company was fortunate in having the services of men of exceptional abilities in the
Lawrence Brothers, John Nicholson, James Outram, Henry Havelock, Edward etc.
2. Poor Arms and Equipment- The Indian Soldiers were poorly equipped materially, fighting generally with
swords and spears and very few guns and muskets. This proved a major handicap when dealing with the well
trained and equipped British troops, who were equipped with the latest weapons of war like the Enfield rifle.
The electric telegraph kept the Commander-in-Chief informed about the movements and strategy of the rebels.
3. All classes did not join- The revolt failed to extend to all parts of the country and large sections of the
population did not support it. And some section infacts threw their support behind the British acted as
wa Begum of Bhopal, Sir Jang
Bahadur (Minister of Nepal) and Maharaja Scindhia of Gwalior. There was absence of Support from the
intelligentsia, who viewed this revolt as backward looking and mistakenly hoped the British would usher in an
era of modernization.
4. No Unified Ideology- The different groups of rebels fought for different reasons and served their respective
leaders. Each sought restoration of the older order of their leaders. By hailing Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of
Hindustan, the rebels sought to revert back to the medieval political order rather than replace it with an
alternate political authority. Nana Sahib and Tatya Tope sought to revive the Maratha power while Rani
Laxmibai, her own control over the lost territories.
5. the region could be
redeployed for tackling the rebels; the Gurkha soldiers sided with the British.

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CHAPTER:-3- SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENT

Hindu community- Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ram Krishna Mission,Prarthana Samaj and
Theosophical Society of India.
Muslim Community- Wahabi movement and Aligarh Movement.
-Abolition of Sati system, Widow remarriage Act, Consent
bill, stress on Female education
Indian Society in the 19th century was caught in a vicious web created by religious superstitions and dogmas. Social
Reform Movement are linked with different ideas including presence of Colonial government, Economic and Social
backwardness of society, influence of modern western ideas, rise of intellectual awakening in the middle class and
poor position of women in society. British rule in India acted as a catalyst to deep seated social changes.
Factors contributing to the rise of 19th century reform movements
British Conquest of India-

A large number of Indians refused to accept western ideas, other gradually came to hold that India lagged behind in
the race for civilisation and that western knowledge had to be imbibed for regeneration of Indian society.
Spread of colonial culture-

The introduction of western education and ideas had the far reaching impact on the Indian Society. Through the glasses
of utility, reason, justice, and progress, a select group of individuals began to explore the nature of their own society.
Religious and social conditions ripe for reform

The conquest of India by the British during the 18th and 19th century exposed some serious weaknesses and
drawbacks of Indian social institutions. The response, indeed, was varied but the need to reform social and religious
life was a commonly shared conviction.
Role of Enlightened Indians

The British conquest of India also gave rise to factors such as growth of nationalist sentiments, emergence of new
economic forces, spread of education, impact of modern Western ideas and culture and increased awareness of world
affairs which also significantly contributed to the rise of 19 th century reform movements.
Social reform movement in Hindu community

Two Intellectual criteria of social reform movement included-
Social relevance was judged by a rationalist critique. It is difficult to match the uncompromising rationalism of the
early Raja Rammohan Roy. Rejecting Supernatural explanations, Raja Rammohan Roy affirmed the principle of
causality linking the whole phenomenal universe.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj
Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833), the morning star of reform movement often called the father of Indian Renaissance
and the maker of Modern India, was a man of versatile genius. Rammohan Roy believed in the modern scientific
approach and principles of human dignity and social equality. He put his faith in monotheism.
He wrote Gift to Monotheists (1809) and translated into Bengali the Vedas and the five Upanishads to prove his
conviction that ancient Hindu texts support monotheism.
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CHAPTER: -4- LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATIVE UNDER THE BRITISH RULE

Permanent settlement
Ryotwari system
Mahalwari system
The British conquerors were driven ny zeal to drive maximum economic advantage from their rule in India. After the
its attention to land revenue as principle means of income. They put in place new
types of land revenue settlements to assess and collect these taxes. These are broadly of three types-
1. Permanent settlement
2. Ryotwari system
3. Mahalwari system
Permanent Settlement
After getting the Diwani (right to collect revenue), in 1765, of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The EIC made an attempt to
continue the old system of revenue collection though it increased the amount to be collected.
Need of permanent settlement

In 1773, it decided to manage the land revenues directly. Warren Hastings auctioned the right to collect
revenue to the highest bidders. This experiment failed.
Because amount of land revenue was pushed high by zamindars and other speculators bidding against each
other, the actual collection varied from year to year and seldom came up to official expectations.
Neither the Ryot nor the zamindar would do anything to improve cultivation because they did not know what
Permanent settlement fixing of land revenue at a permanent amount.

John shore - the man who planned the Permanent Settlement.
Permanent settlement was introduced in Bengal and Bihar in 1793. The land revenue was fixed at a very high level of
Rs. 2 crores and 65 lakhs. Every bit of these provinces now became a part of some zamindari. The zamindar had to pay
a fixed tax upon it.
The zamindars were to give, 10/11th of the rental they derived from the peasantry to the state, keeping only
1/11th for themselves.
The sums to be paid by them as land revenue were fixed in perpetuity.
If the land revenue is increased of a estate, he would keep the entire amount of the increase. The
state would not make any further demand upon him.
But, the zamindar had to pay his revenue rigidly on the due date even if the crop had failed for some reason;
otherwise his lands were to be sold.
The initial fixation of revenue was arbitrary and without any consultation with the zamindars.
zamindars and revenue collectors were converted into so many landlords. They were to act as agents of the
Government in collecting land revenue from the ryot.
They had been given the ownership of land, and their right of ownership was made hereditary and
transferable.
Cultivators were reduced to mere tenants. They were deprived of long-standing rights to the soil and other
customary rights
The use of the pasture and forest lands, irrigation canals, fisheries, and homestead plots and protection against
enhancement of rent were some of their rights which were sacrificed.
Officials wanted to secure the maximum amount and so fixed rates of revenue was very high. Result of fixing high
revenue rate was half of zamindari lands were put up for sale between 1794 and 1807. Be
have proprietary rights over most of the land.

34
Political Associations Before the Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress was not the first political Political Associations Before Indian National
organisation in India. However, most of the political
Congress
associations in the early half of the nineteenth century were
1836 Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha Zamindari
dominated by wealthy and aristocratic elements. They were
local or regional in character. Through long petitions to the
1843 Bengal British India Society
British Parliament most of them demanded-
1851 British Indian Association
Administrative reforms
1866 East India Association 1870 Poona
Association of Indians with the administration
Sarvajanik Sabha
Spread of education.
1875 Indian League
The political associations of the second half of the nineteenth
1876 Indian Association of Calcutta or Indian
century came to be increasingly dominated by the educated
middle class the lawyers, journalists, doctors, teachers, etc., National Association
and they had a wider perspective and a larger agenda. 1885 Bombay Presidency Association
1884 Madras Mahajan Sabha
Political Associations in Bombay

The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was founded in 1867 by Mahadeo Govind Ranade
The Bombay Presidency Association was started by Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozshah Mehta and K.T. Telang in 1885.
Political Associations in Madras

The Madras Mahajan Sabha was founded in 1884 by M. Viraraghavachari, B. Subramaniya Aiyer and P. Anandacharlu.
Political Associations in Bengal (Pre INC association)

1. The Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha was formed in 1836 by associates of Raja Rammohan Roy.
2. The Zamindari Association , was founded to safeguard the
interests of the landlords.
3.
and use of methods of constitutional agitation for the redressal of grievances.
4. The Bengal British India Society was founded in 1843
information relating to the actual condition of the people of British India and to employ such other means of
peaceful and lawful character as may appear calculated to secure the welfare, extend the just rights and advance
the interests of all c
5. In British India Society merged into the British Indian
Association. It sent a petition to the British Parliament demanding inclusion of some of its suggestions in the
renewed Charter of the Company, such as-
Establishment of a separate legislature of a popular character
Separation of executive from judicial functions
Reduction in salaries of higher officers; and
Abolition of salt duty, abkari and stamp duties.
These were partially accepted when the Charter Act of 1853.
6. The East India Association was organised by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1866 in London to discuss the Indian question
and influence public men in England to promote Indian welfare. Later, branches of the association were started in
prominent Indian cities.

39
to Muslims, as it was associated with the Muslim glory, but the Muslims were not pleased. Bihar and Orissa were
taken out of Bengal and Assam was made a separate province.
Muslim League
The separatist and loyalist tendencies among a section of the educated Muslims and the big Muslim Nawabs and
landlords reached a climax in 1906 when the All India Muslim League was founded under the leadership of Aga
Khan, the Nawab of Dhaka, and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.
Founded as a loyalist, communal and conservative political organisation, the Muslim League made no critique of
colonialism, supported the partition of Bengal, and demanded special safeguards for the Muslims in government
services.
Later, with the help of Lord Minto, the Viceroy, it put forward the demand for separate electorates. Their demands
of communal representation in the Imperial Legislative Council and District Boards, adequate share in the public
service and local bodies, adequate safeguards for the protection and promotion of Muslim culture and weight to
the Muslims to protect their legitimate interests were accepted through Minto-Morley Reforms known as
Government of India Act of 1909. This Act devised a novel method to distribute and balance the power. It came as
HOME RULE LEAGUE MOVEMENT

The Home Rule Movement was the Indian response to the First World War in a less charged but a more effective way
than the response of Indians living abroad which took the form of the Ghadr adventure.
The Indian Home Rule Leagues were organised on the lines of the Irish Home Rule Leagues and they represented the
emergence of a new trend of aggressive politics. Annie Besant and Tilak were the pioneers of this new trend.
Prominent leaders
Balgangadhar Tilak, Annie Besant, G.S. Khaparde, Sir S. Subramania Iyer, Joseph Baptista and Mohammad Ali Jinnah
among others got together and decided that it was necessary to have a national alliance that would work throughout
the year (unlike the Congress which had annual sessions) with the main objective of demanding self-government or
home rule for all of India within the British commonwealth. This alliance was to be the All India Home Rule League
along the lines of the Irish Home Rule League.
Factors leading to the Movement

1. A section of nationalists felt that popular pressure was required to attain concessions from the Government.
2. The Moderates were disillusioned with the Morley- Minto reforms.
3. People were feeling the burden of wartime miseries caused by high taxation and a rise in prices, and were
ready to participate in any aggressive movement of protest.
4. The War, being fought among the major imperialist powers of the day and backed by naked propaganda
against each other, exposed the myth of white superiority.
5. Tilak was ready to assume leadership after his release in June 1914, and had made conciliatory gestures to
reassure the Government of his loyalty and to the Moderates that he wanted, like the Irish Home Rulers, a
reform of the administration and not an overthrow of the Government. He also said that the acts of violence

48
CHAPTER: -6-MAHATMA GANDHI AND ERA OF MASS NATIONALISM

Khilafat Movement
Non-co-operation Movement
Civil Disobedience Movement
Quit India Movement
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, better known as Mahatama Gandhi, emerged on the Indian political scene during the
period 1918-18 and significantly transformed the ideology and range of the National movement. With his entry, the
national movement entered its third and final phase of struggle, also known as the era of Mass Mobilisation under
Mahatama Gandhi (1919-47). Purna Swaraj or complete Independence emerged as the goal of the national movement
during this phase.
Gandhi found in south Africa that the masses had immense capacity to participate in and sacrifice for a cause
that moved them.
He was able to unite Indians belonging to different religions and classes, and men and women alike under his
leadership.
He also came to realise that at times the leaders have to take decisions unpopular with their enthusiastic
supporters.
He was able to evolve his own style of leadership and politics and new techniques of struggle on a limited
scale, untrammelled by the opposition of contending political currents.
Gand
Gandhi evolved the technique of Satyagraha during his stay in South Africa. It was based on truth and non-violence.
He combined some elements from Indian tradition with the Christian requirement of turning the other cheek and the
philosophy of Tolstoy, who said that evil could best be countered by non-violent resistance. Its basic tenets were as
follows:
A satyagrahi was not to submit to what he considered as wrong, but was to always remain truthful, non-violent
and fearless.
A satyagrahi works on the principles of withdrawal of cooperation and boycott.
Methods of satyagraha include non-payment of taxes, and declining honours and positions of authority.
A satyagrahi should be ready to accept suffering in his struggle against the wrong-doer. This suffering was to
be a part of his love for truth.
Even while carrying out his struggle against the wrong-doer, a true satyagrahi would have no ill feeling for the
wrong-doer; hatred would be alien to his nature.
A true satyagrahi would never bow before the evil, whatever the consequence.

52
Thousands of students left government schools and colleges and joined around 800 national schools and colleges
which cropped up during this time. These educational institutions were organised under the leadership of Acharya
Narendra Dev, C.R. Das, Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir Hussain, Subhash Bose (who became the principal of National College
at Calcutta) and included Jamia Millia at Aligarh, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Gujarat Vidyapeeth and Bihar Vidyapeeth.
Many lawyers gave up their practice, some of whom were Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, C.
Rajagopalachari, Saifuddin Kitchlew, Vallabhbhai Patel, Asaf Ali, T. Prakasam and Rajendra Prasad. Heaps of foreign
cloth were burnt publicly and their imports fell by half. Picketing of shops selling foreign liquor and of toddy shops
was undertaken at many places.
The Tilak Swaraj Fund was oversubscribed and one crore rupees collected. Congress volunteer corps emerged as
the parallel police. In July 1921, the Ali brothers gave a call to the Muslims to resign from the Army as it was
unreligious.
The Ali brothers were arrested for this in September. Gandhi echoed their call and asked local Congress
committees to pass similar resolutions to that effect.
Now, the Congress gave a call to local Congress bodies to start civil disobedience if it was thought that the people
were ready for it. Already, a no-tax movement against union board taxes in Midnapore (Bengal) and in Guntur
(Andhra) was going on.
In Assam, strikes in tea plantations, steamer services and Assam-Bengal Railways had been organised. J.M.
Sengupta was a prominent leader in these strikes.
In November 1921, the visit of the Prince of Wales to India invited strikes and demonstrations. The spirit of
defiance and unrest gave rise to many local struggles such as Awadh Kisan Movement (UP), Eka Movement (UP),
Mappila Revolt (Malabar) and the Sikh agitation for the removal of mahants in Punjab.
Government Response
Talks between Gandhi and Reading, the viceroy, broke down in May 1921 as the government wanted Gandhi to urge
the Ali brothers to remove those portions from speeches which suggested violence. Gandhi realised that the
government was trying to drive a wedge between him and the Khilafat leaders and refused to fall into the trap. In
December, the government came down heavily on the protestors. Volunteer corps were declared illegal, public
meetings were banned, the press was gagged and most of the leaders barring Gandhi were arrested.
Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement?

Gandhi felt that people had not learnt or fully understood the method of non-violence. Incidents like Chauri-Chaura
could lead to the kind of excitement and fervour that would turn the movement to become generally violent. A violent
movement could be easily suppressed by the colonial regime who would make the incidents of violence an excuse for
using the armed might of the State against the protestors. The movement was also showing signs of fatigue. This was
natural as it is not possible to sustain any movement at a high pitch for very long.
THE CHAURI CHAURA INCIDENT

Chauri Chaura is a town in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
On 4th February, 1922, this town witnessed a violent incident - a large crowd of peasants set on fire a police
station that killed 22 policemen. Due to this incident Mahatma Gandhi called off the Non-Cooperation
Movement (1920-22).
Gandhi decided to stop the Non-Cooperation Movement, which he saw as having been tainted by
unforgivable violence. He bent the Congress Working Committee to his will, and on 12th February, 1922,
the satyagraha (movement) was formally suspended.

57
1. immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted of violence

2. remission of all fines not yet collected
3. return of all lands not yet sold to third parties
4. lenient treatment to those government servants who had resigned
5. right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption (not for sale)
6. right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing; and
7. withdrawal of emergency ordinances.
The viceroy, however, turned down two of Gandh
1. public inquiry into police excesses, and
2. eath sentence to life sentence.
Gandhi on behalf of the Congress agreed
1. to suspend the civil disobedience movement, and
2. to participate in the next Round Table Conference on the constitutional question around the three lynch-
pins of federation, Indian responsibility, and reservations and safeguards that may be
interests (covering such areas as defence, external affairs, position of minorities, financial credit of India
and discharge of other obligations).
All these demands of Congress were accepted by the Government. But two demands were refused to accept:
1. A demand for a public inquiry into police excesses.

2. Commutation of death sentences of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru.
On the other hand, Congress on its part agreed to:
1. Participate in the Second Round Table Conference,
2. Discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement.
- Karachi Session on 29th
After the 1931 Gandhi-Irwin agreement, Congress decided to discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement and
participate in the second Round Table Conference.However, on the basis of the immediate award of Dominion status,
the British government declined to concede the simple nationalistic demand for independence.
Karachi Congress Session(Presided by Sardar Patel)
In March 1931, a special session of the Congress on held at Karachi to endorse the Gandhi-Irwin or Delhi Pact. Six
days before the session (which was held on March 29) Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru had been executed.
black flag demonstrations by the Punjab Naujawan
Bharat Sabha, in protest against his failure to secure commutation of the death sentence for Bhagat and his
comrades.
Congress Resolutions at Karachi:
1. While disapproving of and dissociating itself from political violence, the Congress admired
2. three martyrs.
3. The Delhi Pact was endorsed.
4. The goal of Purna Swaraj was reiterated.
5. Two resolutions were adopted one on Fundamental Rights and the other on National Economic
Programme which made the session particularly memorable.
This was the first time the Congress spelt out what Swaraj would mean for the masses

62
IMPORTANT EVENTS UP TO INDEPENDENCE

(NOT IN SYLLABUS JUST READ IT FOR CLEAR UNDERSTANDING)
C. Rajagopalachari Formula (March 1944)

C. Rajagopalachari (CR), prepared a formula for Congress-League cooperation in 1944. It was a tacit acceptance of the
n points in the CR Plan were:
Muslim League to endorse Congress demand for independence.
League to cooperate with Congress in forming a provisional government at centre.
After the end of the war, the entire population of Muslim majority areas in the North-West and North-East
India to decide by a plebiscite, whether or not to form a separate sovereign state.
In case of acceptance of partition, agreement to be made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce,
communications, etc.
The above terms to be operative only if England transferred full powers to India.
Objections-
Jinnah wanted the Congress to accept the two-nation theory. He wanted only the Muslims of North-West and
North-East to vote in the plebiscite and not the entire population. He also opposed the idea of a common centre.
While the Congress was ready to cooperate with the League for the independence of the Indian Union, the League
did not care for independence of the Union.
It was only interested in a separate nation. Hindu leaders led by Vir Savarkar condemned the CR Plan.
Desai-Liaqat Pact
Efforts continued to end the deadlock. Bhulabhai Desai, leader of the Congress Party in the Central Legislative
Assembly, met Liaqat Ali Khan, deputy leader of the Muslim League in that Assembly, and both of them came up with
the draft proposal for the formation of an interim government at the centre, consisting of-
an equal number of persons nominated by the Congress and the League in the central legislature.
20% reserved seats for minorities.
No settlement could be reached between the Congress and the League on these lines, but the fact that a sort of parity
between the Congress and the League was decided upon had far-reaching consequences.
Wavell Plan (Shimla Conference June 1945)

The idea was to reconstruct the governor- council pending the preparation of a new constitution.
For this purpose, a conference was convened by the viceroy, Lord Wavell, at Shimla in June 1945. The main proposals
of the Wavell Plan were as follows.
With the exception of the governor-general and the commander-in-chief, all members of the executive council
were to be Indians.
Caste Hindus and Muslims were to have equal representation.
The reconstructed council was to function as an interim government within the framework of the 1935 Act.
The governor-general was to exercise his veto on the advice of ministers.
Representatives of different parties were to submit a joint list to the viceroy for nominations to the executive
council. If a joint list was not possible, then separate lists were to be submitted.
Possibilities were to be kept open for negotiations on a new constitution once the war was finally won.
the League wanted all Muslim members to be League nominees, because it feared that since the aims of other
minorities depressed classes, Sikhs, Christians, etc. were the same as those of the Congress, this arrangement
would reduce the League to a one-third minority. The League claimed some kind of veto in the council with decisions
opposed to Muslims needing a two-thirds majority for approval.
Congress Stand
and insisted on its right to include members of all c
69
CHAPTER:-7- THE PARTITION OF INDIA AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
the division of British India into the two separate states of India and Pakistan on August 14-15, 1947
st- how independence would
take place. At the time, few people understood what Partition would entail or what its results would be, and the
migration on the enormous scale that followed took the vast majority of contemporaries by surprise.
Background to Partition
The demand for Pakistan was a product of certain political developments which took place after 1937. The period after
1937 witnessed serious changes in the politics of both the Hindu communal and the Muslim communal forces. In the
popularisation of the Pakistan demand the British Policy also played a very active role, by giving it acknowledgement
and credibility.
Role of British Policy
The growth of Muslim communalism was considerably aided and encouraged by the British by giving it official
backing.
-Muslim divide unbridgeable.
The British were willing to go to any length to prolong their rule in India.
They deliberately encouraged Jinnah
thwart Congress participation in government during the war.
After the outbreak of the Second World War the Muslim League was assiduously fostered by Viceroy
Linlithgow.
The Pakistan demand was used to counter the demand of the Congress that the British should promise that
India would be free after the War and as proof of their sincerity, transfer actual control of the government to
Indians immediately.
The British pointed out that Hindus and Muslims must come to an agreement on how power was to be
transferred before the process could begin.
The League was officially recognised as the representative voice of Muslims (even though its performance in
the last elections hardly substantiated this claim)
And it was promised that no political settlement would be made unless it was acceptable to the League.
This was a blanket power of veto; which Jinnah was to use to good effect after the War had ended.
On 20th February 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee outlined following points:
A deadline of 30 June 1948 for transfer of power even if Indian politicians had not agreed by the time on the
constitution.
British would transfer the power to provincial governments or some form of central government or other if
constituent assembly was not fully representative. Thus it had clear hint of balkanization of India into
numerous states.
British powers and obligations with respect to princely states would lapse with transfer of power.
Mountbatten would replace Wavell as viceroy .
Irreversible decline of the government authority was reality so quick withdrawal was necessary
Government hoped to convince Indians about sincerity of British efforts and was keen to avoid any
constitutional crisis.
Fixed date would move things fast thus setting aside minor differences among various organizations .

72
India Independence Act

The Indian Independence Act 1947 was as an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that partitioned British India
into the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan. The Act's most important provisions were:
division of British India into the two new and fully sovereign dominions of India and Pakistan, with effect from 15
August 1947.
partition of the provinces of Bengal and Punjab between the two new countries establishment of the office of
Governor-General in each of the two new countries, as representatives of the Crown
conferral of complete legislative authority upon the respective Constituent Assemblies of the two new countries
termination of British suzerainty over the princely states, with effect from 15 August 1947, and recognized the
right of states to accede to either dominion
division of joint property, etc. between the two new countries, including in particular the division of the armed
forces.
Why Congress accepted partition?
The partition ruled out balkanization of India which had even greater danger to Indian unity.
The Congress was not consistent on the Partition.
o in 1942, the Congress Working Committee criticized the secessionist idea. But at the same time Congress
committee said that it cannot think in terms of compelling the people of any territorial unit to remain in
the Indian Union against their declared and established will.
ngress had accepted the principle
of Partition, based on consent of the areas concerned. For example, Gandhi himself offered Jinnah his plan for
with a Treaty of Separation on defence, foreign affairs, etc.
Direct action day observed by Muslim league and the incidents of Hindu-Muslim riot made Congress believe that
partition was the only option if otherwise there could be lasting peace even if British leave India. And so Congress
accepted the partition.
The strongest reaction to partition came from Gandhi who had worked for communal harmony for decades.
Gandh
He also had no choice but to accept the inevitable as he was in fact helpless due to communalization of the masses.
However, amidst all this turmoil, he worked valiantly towards restoring communal harmony
He moved from the villages of Noakhali in East Bengal (present-day Bangladesh) to the villages of Bihar and then
to the riot-torn slums of Calcutta and Delhi, in a heroic effort to stop Hindus and Muslims kill each other, careful
everywhere to reassure the minority community.
CONSEQUENCES OF PARTITION
The year 1947 was the year of one of the largest, most abrupt, unplanned and tragic transfer of population that human
history has known. Partition of the country was accompanied by widespread Hindu-Muslim riots and massacres which
comprise the tragedy of partition.
Partition triggered riots, mass casualties, and a colossal wave of migration. Millions of people moved to what they
hoped would be safer territory, with Muslims heading towards Pakistan, and Hindus and Sikhs in the direction of
India.
People were Forced to abandon their homes and move across borders, people went through immense sufferings.
Many were killed by members of other communities and sometimes their own families, as well as by the
contagious diseases which swept through refugee camps. Women were often targeted as symbols of community
honour, with up to 100,000 raped or abducted.
75
Liberation of Bangladesh
Background
since partition of India the residents of East Pakistan felt their culture and status were being undermined by the forces
in West Pakistan. The Bengali attempt to increase their status and earn respect for their language was met with severe
suppression from the authorities. This led to foundation of Bangladesh Liberation war. Some other reasons were-
Political Imbalance: In the 1950s the centralised Pakistani state was run undemocratically by a military-
bureaucratic oligarchy dominated by West Pakistan.
Under this system, Bengalis had no political say. But West Pakistan dominance was challenged in 1970 during
general elections. Begin
election produced a split verdict
Awami League led by Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman swept through East Pakistan. The Bengali population of East
Pakistan had voted to protest against years of being treated as second class citizens by the rulers based in
West Pakistan. The Pakistani rulers were not willing to accept the democratic verdict. Nor were they ready to
Instead, in early 1971, the Pakistani army arrested Sheikh Mujib and unleashed a reign of
terror on the people of East Pakistan. In response to this, the people start
from Pakistan. Throughout 1971, India had to bear the burden of about 80 lakh refugees who fled East Pakistan
and took shelter in the neighbouring areas in India. India extended moral and material support to the freedom
struggle in Bangladesh. Pakistan accused India of a conspiracy to break it up.
Landslide Victory of Awami League:

majority, enough to become the prime minister.
o However, west Pakistan was not willing to let a leader from its eastern provincial wing rule the country.
Cultural Differences: The then West Pakistan (present Pakistan), under the leadership of Yahya Khan, started a
brutal assault on the people of East Pakistan (present Bangladesh) who were demanding freedom because of the
language and cultural differences between the two regions. After political negotiations failed, the Pakistani army
under General Yahya Khan decided to start the crackdown.
During Bangladesh war, 1971

After months of diplomatic tension and military build-up, a full-scale war between India and Pakistan broke out in
December 1971. Pakistani aircrafts attacked Punjab and Rajasthan, while the army moved on the Jammu and
Kashmir front.
Operation Searchlight: West Pakistan kicked in operation searchlight across the whole of East Pakistan on March
26, 1971.
o This resulted in millions of Bangladeshis fleeing to India, mainly West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya and
Tripura.
o West Bengal, in particular, was massively burdened by the onrush of the refugees and the state appealed
to the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and her government for assistance for food and shelter.
Indo-Bangla Cooperation: With the subsequent bravery of the Indian Army coupled with the spirited fight put up
by Mukti Bahini the Bangladeshi guerilla resistance movement consisting of the Bangladeshi military,
paramilitary and civilians defeated the Pakistani forces.

87

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Cognizance IAS

CONTACT NO.:- 8375824623,9525134093 COGNIZANCE IAS

CHAPTER- 8:- INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE ....................................................... 77-89

PAPER-3,Section-A, (JPSC Mains Syllabus ,Modern History)

CONTACT NO.:- 8375824623,9525134093 COGNIZANCE IAS

CHAPTER: -1. BEGINNING OF EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS

FORMATION AND GROWTH OF EAST INDIA COMPANY

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CHAPTER:-2 -RESISTANCE TO COLONIAL RULE

RESISTANCE TO COLONIAL RULE

Major Causes of Civil Uprisings

Classification of the Popular Uprisings

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Kol Mutiny (1831)

Chuar Uprising (1766 1772 & 1795 and 1816)

Khond Uprisings (1837-1856)

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SUPPRESSION OF THE REVOLT

Reasons of its Failure

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CHAPTER:-3- SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENT

Factors contributing to the rise of 19th century reform movements

British Conquest of India-

Spread of colonial culture-

Religious and social conditions ripe for reform

Role of Enlightened Indians

Social reform movement in Hindu community

Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj

CHAPTER: -4- LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATIVE UNDER THE BRITISH RULE

Need of permanent settlement

Permanent settlement fixing of land revenue at a permanent amount.

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Political Associations Before the Indian National Congress

Political Associations in Bombay

Political Associations in Madras

Political Associations in Bengal (Pre INC association)

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HOME RULE LEAGUE MOVEMENT

Factors leading to the Movement

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CHAPTER: -6-MAHATMA GANDHI AND ERA OF MASS NATIONALISM

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Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement?

THE CHAURI CHAURA INCIDENT

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1. immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted of violence

1. A demand for a public inquiry into police excesses.

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IMPORTANT EVENTS UP TO INDEPENDENCE

C. Rajagopalachari Formula (March 1944)

Wavell Plan (Shimla Conference June 1945)

CHAPTER:-7- THE PARTITION OF INDIA AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

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India Independence Act

Landslide Victory of Awami League:

During Bangladesh war, 1971

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