Management Education

in Developing Countries
The Brazilian Experience

Dole A. Anderson

Published in cooperation with

the Latin American Studies Center,
Michigan State University

~ l Rootled~JO
~~ Taylor & Francis Group
LOt,mON NEW
First published 1987 by Westview Press
Published 2018 by Routledge
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Copyright © 1987 by the Board of Trustees, Michigan State University

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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 86-51545
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 CONTENTS
PREFACE /7
MANAGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT EDUCATION WORLIMIDE /11
The Management Education Boom /11
The Foundation Reports and Their Impact /13
The Controversies in Management Education /16
Country Models of Management Education /20
II BUSINESS AS AN OCCUPATION IN BRAZIL /26
Industrialization in the Twentieth Century /28
From Patriarchal to Professional Management /32
The Education of the Businessman /36
The Business Elite: Some Sketches /39
III BRAZILIAN HIGHER EDUCATION /48
Recent Growth and Current Characteristics /49
The Evolution of Public Policy /57
Postgraduate Education /59
IV MANAGEMENT SCll)()LS AND PROGRAMS /65
The Supply of Administration Programs /65
The Missions of Administration Schools /71
Types of Programs /76
Postgraduate Programs in Administration /82
Executive Developnent Programs /85
The Regional Distribution of Programs /89
Curriculum /91
Teaching Materials /100
Teaching Methodology /104
Brazilian Case Clearinghouse (CBC) /106
Case Teaching /108
V MANAGEMENT STUDENTS /113
Characteristics of Undergraduate Students /113
Intellectual Quality /117
The Part-time Student /120
Aspirations and Achievements /122
What Management Graduates Do /125
Characteristics of Postgraduate Students /129
Appendix: An Analysis of the F.mployers
of Graduates of EAESP /133

3
VI FACULTY AND RESEARCH /146
Characteristics of Administration Faculty /148
Multidisciplinary Career Paths of Professors /153
Faculty Development /156
Research and Publications /159
VII BUILD!?«; FOR QUALITY IN 1llE FUTURE /173
GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS /178
BIBLIOORAPHY /183
INDEX /199

4
 LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Selected Characteristics of Directors of Brazilian

and Foreign Manufacturing Companies, Sao Paulo, 1965. 33
2.2 Comparison of Monthly Salaries of Selected Occupa-
tions and the Percentage of Employees Who Were Col-
lege Graduates, December 31, 1980. 38
2.3 Fields of Study of Sao Paulo and U.S. Business
Executives. 41
3.1 Higher Education Enrollments and Graduates, 1940-1980. 51
3.2 Characteristics of the Higher Education System, 1979. 53
4.1 Growth of Undergraduate Enrollments in Modernizing
Disciplines, 1889-1980. 66
4.2 Supply of Undergraduate Administration Courses and
Vacancies by Institution Type, by States, 1980. 77
4.3 Postgraduate Programs in Administration and Accounting, 83
1981.
4.4 Geographic Distribution of Undergraduate Enrollments
and Graduates: All Programs and Administration,
1979-1980. 87
4.5 Distribution of College Graduates Employed in Industry,
Conmerce and Services in 1969 and Students Studying
Administration, 1978. 90
4.6 Comparison of ~ Offered in Administration in 1978
with Population of Markets Served. 92
4.7 The Minimum Curriculum and Two Curricula in Admin-
istration, 1966. 93
Appendix I Principal Employers of EAESP Graduates, 1972. 136
II Selected Industrial Sectors with Component
Companies, Classified by Size and Employment
of Alumni, 1972. 137
III Graduates Employed per 100 Million Cruzeiros
of Net Worth, by Sector, 1972. 142

5
I.able
6.1 Sunmary of Characteristics of Administration
Faculty , 1982. 149
6.2 Faculty Characteristics of the Thirteen Postgraduate
Programs in Administration, 1982. 150
6.3 Foreign Sources of Highest Degree of Permanent Faculty
of Thirteen Postgraduate Administration Schools,
1982. 151
6.4 Career Paths of EAESP Professors. 154
6.5 Scholarships Provided by CAPES and CNPq, 1975-1979. 157
6.6 Scholarships Provided by CAPES in Administration
and Related Areas, 1970, 1975 and 1980. 158

6.7 CNPq Overseas Scholarship Support in Administration

and Related Areas, 1976 through March, 1982. 160
6.8 Productivity of Postgraduate Faculty in Administra-
tion and Related Areas, 12 roonths ended 30 June 1981. 164
6.9 Distribution of Original Articles in the Principal
Business Journals by Authors' Affiliation,
1961-1980/82. 167
6.10 Principal Business Periodicals in Brazil with Foreign
Counterparts, by Type (with 1983 circulation in
thousands) • 169

6
 PREFACE
During the past three decades, management as an area of
study has literally exploded in higher education around the
world. In half of the 67 countries for which roughly comparable
data exist, Business Administration now ranks among the top
three fields of study of university graduates.
Business schools began in the United States, the first
dating from 1881, although the bulk of the expansion took place
after the first World War. During the "development decades"
following the second World War, the U.S. model was carried to
many countries, both developed and developing. Brazil's first
business school was founded in 1954 just as a period of
intensive industrialization was getting under way there. In
both countries business programs now dominate all other fields
of study; 20I of university graduates in the U.S. earned
diplomas in business in 1980, and Brazil with 15j was not far
behind. Japan, on the other hand, was very far behind; there
the first program roughly comparable to a U.S. undergraduate
business program is only four years old and Japan's first MBA
program began six years ago.
Even as this .American technology was being transferred
abroad it was generating debate at home. In what have come to
be known as the Foundation Reports, two extensive studies
supported by the Ford and Carnegie foundations and
coincidentally both published in 1959 arrived at similar and
critical evaluations of this " ••• restless and uncertain giant in
the halls of higher education." The situation, when 14j of U.S.
university diplomas were being granted in business, was
described in these terms in the Ford Foundation report:
"Schools of Business Administration across the
nation are trying, sometimes almost desperately,
to find their souls. They are 'bedeviled by the
problems of whom to teach and what to teach.'
They seek to clarif)' their purpose and to find
their proper place in the educational world. They
search for academic respectability, while most of
them continue to engage in unrespectable
vocational training. They seek to be professional
schools, while expressing doubt themselves that
the occupations for which they prepare students
can rightfully be called a profession." (Gordon
and Howell, 1959)
Yet despite these domestic doubts of the utility and

7
quality of the product, it was exported and welcomed in
a hurry by societies that of course lacked the resources as
well as time to adapt the transferred technology to their
different milieux.
In Brazil, a similar litany of problems was recently recited
in these terms:
"Although the discipline of Administration is
considered indispensable, it has yet to achieve
status. The activities of administrators are not
properly valued and, as in the past, we are
sometimes viewed as simply preoccupied with
earning money. While the profession has achieved
official recognition, it still lies in limbo. The
products of our programs are not accorded their
real worth and our contribution to the conmunity
still is not recognized and is, at times, even
contested." (ANPAd, National Association of
Post-graduate Programs in Administration, 1979)
I first became involved in Brazilian higher education for
business in 1952, in what developed into a series of technical
assistance assigrunents, residing there off and on for a total of
14 years, with frequent short visits in the intervening years.
In the capacity of a visiting professor at three of Brazil's
prominent business schools, I participated in the formative
years of their programs (the School of Administration at the
Federal University of Bahia during 1959-1961, the Si'o Paulo
School of Business or EAESP during 1961-1966, and the master's
program in Administration at the Federal University of Parafba
during 1976-1977. My first assigrunent in Brazil was as a
visiting associate professor, later head of the Department of
Economics and Business Administration at ITA, an engineering
school in sa'o Jos' dos Campos, from 1951 to 1959). Moving back
and forth between the two countries, I had the opportunity to
observe similarities and differences developing between U.S.
business schools, which were the models, and their copies, which
were springing up throughout Brazil. And, by 1980, I wondered
how the Brazilian schools had developed in their first quarter
century. What was their role in the country's rapid economic
growth? To what extent had the imported model adapted to the
local culture? What was the process by which this technology
transfer took place?
In March 1981, I began field work in Brazil for this study,
on a Fulbright senior research grant, which was to replicate the
Foundation reports in scope of inquiry and in the methodology of

8
exam1n1ng the literature and interviewing individuals involved
in the development and current operation of Brazilian schools of
administration. During that period, I visited seven schools and
three research institutes in five cities (Rio de Janeiro, sao
Paulo, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre, and Salvador) and
interviewed 78 educators, government officials and business
executives. With the data from that trip I prepared a lengthy
preliminary report, which was shared with 31 deans and faculty
leaders in Brazil and a few Brazilianists in the U.S. to
confirm, refine and expand on my observations. A year later, I
returned to Brazil in March 1982 for the second three months of
the Fulbright grant, when I reinterviewed 20 individuals,
together with 28 individuals for the first time, in sao Paulo,
Rio and Bras1lia.
A general caveat is appropriate regarding my results.
Explicitly sensitive though I am to my own ethnocentrism or the
tendency to view and judge Brazilian matters through the prism
of my own culture and its business and educational practices, I
have probably not eliminated this bias in my reporting. Equally
serious however is the adopted U.S. etbnocentrism of many
Brazilian leaders in business education. Many of them have
secured lrllch of their own business education in the U.S. and all
of them have been surrounded by and bathed in U.S. models ~in
textbooks and academic journals, teaching methods, faculty and
student obligations, institutional support as for library and
publication facilities, and so on. I sense that many of them
judge and are unfairly depreciatory of their accomplishments by
comparing theirs with the older, better funded model in the more
propitious U.S. culture.
My institutional acknowledgements are to the Fulbright
Conmission and Graham K. French in Bras{lia for supporting my
field work, to the Exxon Education Foundation for a grant
enabling me to devote time to the project, and to Michigan State
University, particularly to the Graduate School of Business
Administration where I am now an emeritus professor and to the
Latin American Studies Center and its former directors, John M.
Hunter and James L. Buschman. I am deeply indebted to all those
Brazilians, former colleagues and new friends, who gave of their
time in helping me. Some friendships and working relationships
go as far back as 30 years, with Paulo Ernesto Tolle, regional
director of SENA!, who once more showed his graciousness by
providing me with office space in sao Paulo, or 25 years, with
the first director of EAESP, Flavio Penteado Sampaio and his
successors, Gustavo de Sa e Silva, Carlos Jose Malferrari, and
incumbent Fernando Carmona and his aides --all of whom have
helped me by sharing their experience in business education and

9
"opening doors." Especially gratifying and useful was the
sharing of ideas and materials with others who were working and
writing on management education, particularly Cl,udio de Moura
Castro, executive director of CAPES, and Paulo Fleury of
COPPEAD. In fact, the authors of Dllch of the Brazilian writing
on this subject, which is cited in the Bibliography, have helped
me twice ~by their articles and books and by their discussions
with me of their experience, which has not yet appeared in
print. Finally, I thank the coordinators of the postgraduate
programs at the University of Sio Paulo, in Porto Alegre, and at
the Catholic and Federal universities in Rio de Janeiro.

IJoZe A. Anderson

10
 CHAPTER I
MANAGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT EDUCATION WORLDWIDE
"The emergence of management may be the pivotal
event of our times ••• Rarely, if ever, has a new
basic institution, a new leading group, a new
central function emerged as fast as has management
since the turn of the century. Rarely in human
history has a new institution proven indispensable
so quickly. Even less often has a new institution
arrived with so little opposition, so little
disturbance, so little controversy. And never
before has a new institution encompassed the globe
as management has, sweeping across boundaries of
race and creed, language and traditions, within
the lifetime of many men still living and at
work." (Drucker, 1973:10)
The growth in the size of organizations during the 20th
century has focused attention on the complexities of planning,
implementation, and control of their activities. Managing
economic activities has occupied man since the beginning of
society, of course; what was new was the rational approach to
the problem, marshalling the knowledge at hand and creating new
knowledge about how individuals and organizations behaved.
Drucker (1973:16) calls the development a "management boom" and
dates it from the end of World War II, when the contributions of
the industrial war effort came to be appreciated, to the 1960s
when the "mystique" of American management faded as the
reconstructed and rehabilitated European and Japanese economies
closed the performance gap. This "boom" left as its permanent
contribution n••• the awareness of management as a force, as a
function, as a responsibility and as a discipline ••• " throughout
the world.

Tbe Management Education Boom

Out of the management boom came another boom, in management
education. Clearly, carrying out the new activities called for
by the former required training and probably formal education:
those who were already managing needed retooling. And the
young, without work experience and choosing a career as they
entered the university, now had a new and often "softer"
option--business administration or management. As the need for
an expanded cadre of middle management developed, prospective

11
employers bid up the starting salaries of the holders of the
M.B.A. and increasingly relied on university degrees to screen
job applicants.
Writing in 1968, Drucker (1969:332-333) had called
" ••• meritocracy the ugly word the British invented for control
of life's opportunities by the diploma", urged the elimination
of the diploma "curtain" before it came to "substitute the
arrogance of title for the pride of accomplishment as the ruling
passion of the knowledge society ••• 11 , and prophesied that in ten
years a state legislature would consider banning all questions
related to educational status on employment applications, just
as questions on race, age, and sex were already banned in many
states in the U.S. Dore (1977:8), surveying the educational
scene around the world in ~ Diploma Disease, observed that it
was in the developed countries that "the qualification rot"
started1, but that the later a country begins its deliberate
modernization process, the more definitively the disease takes
hold (op. cit.:12).
A rough notion of the worldwide spread of management
education is found in the data reported by the various countries
to UNESCO (Statistical Yearbook, 1981) despite problems of
non-comparability. Twenty-four countries reported a higher
percentage of undergraduate students majoring in C011111ercial and
Business Administration than did Brazil (with 15.51) for the
most recent reporting year, generally the late 1970s.
Undergraduates, or Level 6 students in the International
Standard Classication of Education, are defined as pursuing
programs leading to a first university degree or equivalent
qualification . The field of C011111ercial and Business
Administration is defined as "Business administration and
c011111ercial programs, accountancy, secretarial programs, business
machine operation and electronic data processing, financial
management, public administration, institutional
administration."
The inclusion of secretarial and comnercial programs and
business machine operations in the classificatio n introduces
vocational subjects which are not included in our definition of
management or administration disciplines in higher education.
However, not long ago, secretarial, office administration, and
business education (training of future teachers of conmercial
subjects in secondary schools) majors were not unc0111110n in U.S.
business schools. In Pierson•s (1959:219) survey of 132
four-year business schools in the mid-1950s, 481 offered majors
in secretarial studies, 281 in business education, and 121 in
office administration. Since a principal indictment of higher

u
education for business in the two Foundation Reports was
excessive vocationalism, the secretarial and related programs
drew their most scathing criticism, as in Gordon and Howell
(1959:218-19). Many schools had been trying to eliminate these
vestiges of the past in business education and today they are
largely in junior college two-year certificate programs or Level
5 in the UNESCO terminology.2 Very likely, sane of the
nations are reporting undergraduate students as Level 6 when
they should be Level 5 but since large college enrollments are a
sign of a country's comnitment and efforts toward social and
economic development, an upward bias is not surprising. Of the
24 nations reporting the largest relative enrollments in
Conmercial and Business Administration, all were in the
developing world, eight each from Latin America and Asia, five
in Africa, and three in Europe (Bulgaria, the German Democratic
Republic and Poland). Developed countries with substantial
shares of university enrollments in management (between 10S and
151 of total students) included Australia, Norway, Belgium, Hong
Kong and Ireland. In absolute terms, the largest numbers of
students in this field of study were reported by India (413
thousand), the Philippines (361 thousand) and Brazil (187
thousand), with the u.s. reporting graduates only, not students.

The Foyruiation Reports and Iheir Impact

The carmissioning and financing of major studies of higher
education for business by the Ford Foundation (Gordon and
Howell, 1959) and the Carnegie Corporation of New York (Pierson,
1959), following the tradition of the famous Flexner report on
medical education in the U.S. in 1910, examined in depth the
state of the art and made recorrmendations for future
development. The authors of the Ford report were professors of
economics at the University of California (Berkeley) · and
Stanford, respectively; Professor Pierson, an economist at
Swarthmore College, was assisted by 13 others who wrote chapters
on specific aspects of the problem. Although the two groups
exchanged information on preliminary findings, they reached
their conclusions independently and only by coincidence
published in the same year.
The reports were critical of the low quality of programs,
students and faculty and of excessive vocationalism, i.e., an
over-emphasis in many schools on training for specific jobs and
on "how-to" business skills. What had happened was that many
schools had not grown beyond the scope of their original
orientations and objectives.

13
 Joseph Wharton, explaining the reason for his $100,000 gift
to the University of Pennsylvania to start the first school in
1881, the Wharton School of Finance and Comnerce, showed his
interest in a specialized education in the principles of
successful business management and civil government. His list
of the practical things future leaders in private or public life
ought to be taught sounds quaint today: n ••• the functions of
clearinghouses; the phenomena and causes of panics and money
crises; the nature of pawn establishments and of lotteries; the
nature of stocks and bonds;" together with business law,
elocution, and other useful knowledge (quoted in CED, 1964:16).
One hundred years was very long ago! Although New York
University's school traced its founding to a decision of the
Society of Certified Public Accountants that a school was needed
to prepare students for the C.P.A. examination, its title was
broader,~School of Coumerce, Accounts and Finance. At Chicago
in 1902, majors were available in Banking, Transportation, Trade
and Industry, and Journalism; by World War I, Journalism had
been dropped from the business school but secretarial studies
added (Pierson:39). By the end of World War II when the
management boom started, business education was moving away from
teaching business skills toward teaching management; Harvard had
been the first but elsewhere, programs in production and
personnel were following the managerial approach (Drucker,
1973:12).3
Both of the reports went beyond examining current practices
to praising some of the schools and philosophies their authors
felt were moving in the right direction and to making
suggestions for improving the quality of programs, students and
faculty. The response in the business schools themselves was
significant; al though there was not agreement on all of the
criticisms and suggestions, few schools escaped some change
during the 1960s as the findings stimulated discussion and
evaluation of goals and strategies. The deliberations of the
accreditation agency of U.S. business schools, the American
Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), reflected
the reports• findings for years and controversial issues
regarding the objectives of management education were
reexamined, as will be discussed in the next section. The
business cOIJllllnity became involved; its Conmittee for Economic
Developnent carmissioned a s\111118ry of the reports by the senior
editor of Business Week and distributed over 200 thousand
copies, mainly to executives (Silk, 1960). Subsequently, it
coumissioned papers and a survey of prominent business
executives and in 1964 published a statement on (national
policy) regarding the relationship between business schools and
the business c0DD1Unity (CED, 1964). In another form of impact,

14
the Ford Foundation made grants of $28.5 million during the five
years following the publication of its report to a small number
of schools and faculty in the forefront of change (Sheehan,
1964).
During the 1970s an international dimension was added to the
debate swirling around management education. When business
programs began to be introduced in Europe by U.S. schools and
professors with support from the U.S. government and
foundations, there had been arguments that while these programs
were consistent with the attitudes and values of American
businessmen, educators, and the general public, they conflicted
with and constituted a somewhat revolutionary force in European
cultures (Leavitt, 1957:153). The spread of the U.S.-model
business school to other continents and especially to the
developing world, again with the support of U.S. aid programs
and of the Ford Foundation, along with the rise of the
nultinational corporation, made it appear as if the whole world
was speaking one language. In 1973, the Conference Board, a
private U.S. business-supported research organization, queried
98 business leaders in 41 countries on management education in
their areas and found n,,,an unusual degree of consensus on
important issues: that relations between the business and
educational cOD111Unities need improvement; that business has a
key role to play in the educational process; that education nust
continue well beyond the conventional time span; and that the
nature of the current generation of young managers is
encouraging a trend toward more participative management in the
firm." (Duerr, 1974:ii),
In 1979-80, a series of conferences in Europe and the U.S.
under the joint sponsorship of the AACSB and the European
Foundation for Management Development (EFMD) resulted in a
report entitled Hanasers for tbe :XXI Century (AACSB/EFMD,
1981), The momentum for this effort, more prognostication than
evaluation, came from the business schools and the business
c01111Unity, and not externally as in the case of the Foundation
reports. Since approximately one thousand individuals had been
involved in the series of conferences, the final report and
recomnendations were very general, reflecting the diversities in
the cultures and in the educational and economic systems
represented. The developing world was underrepresented (with
only about 51 of the participants in the final Paris meeting,
where U.S. participation dominated, followed by the Netherlands,
France and the United Kingdom, and no participation from Japan),
and the report had no specific reconmendations for educational
institutions in developing countries although it urged greater
cOllllllnication between educational institutions in the developed
and developing worlds.

The Controversies in Management Education

Throughout the development of management education, a few
questions continually arose; can anything be taught; if so,
what; and when in the career trajectory of the individual; and
by whom. Consensus had developed on some of these by 1959,
others were still debated in Paris in 1980. All have been
argued in Brazil and in other recipients of this technology
transfer and hence a brief review of the controversies will be
helpful.
111 was terrified as to the hypothesis of granting diplomas
to bachelors or doctors in administration!! My daily contact
with industrialists makes me realize how ridiculous such a
graduate would be ••• 11 (Brazilian businessman quoted in Taylor,
1968:33). The author of this opinion during the 1952 debates
over launching Brazil's first business school was arguing, if
somewhat irreverently as he himself admitted, that a manager was
made by experience in the real world, not by listening to
lectures, reading, or even analyzing the problem of a business
case. Of course, the industrialists he knew had not studied
business in a formal program since none then existed; they may
however have had engineering or accounting training and then
moved into managerial functions or "learned the business"
apprenticed to father, family or friend in the patriarchal
system of management which then dominated the Brazilian business
world. But the body of knowledge about how business and the
economy, and organizations and human beings, function has
steadily increased and the inadequacies and high risks of
intuitive management have become ever more apparent. Thus,
there is now a broad consensus that while there is no substitute
for years of experience in the development of an effective
manager, formal training in the tools and techniques of
management can shorten the process of development. As Andrews
(1969:53) puts it, formal education in business administration
enables graduates 11 ••• to learn faster and more accurately from
their practice than they otherwise would and to acquire sooner
the values that professionalize their work."
Related to the question of the usefulness of formal training
in business is the controversy over whether management is an art
or a profession. Here, the issue is where business
administration stands on the spectrum of "professional"
occupations that range from the creative arts such as painting
and sculpture at one extreme to a traditional profession such as

16
medicine at the other. A substantial literature in sociology
has developed on the concept of a profession in the occupational
structure of modern societies and on the process by which an
activity becomes a profession. The issue seems to be
important in all cultures because the title of "profession" is a
claim to social standing and recognition; in Brazil, legal
recognition of the profession of Administrator aims at
restricting the practice of management to holders of bachelor's
diplomas in Administration, a subject we will examine in Chapter
IV. The consensus in the U.S. is that management does not yet
fill the accepted criteria for qualification as a profession but
that it is moving in that direction (Gordon and Howell:72-3 and
Andrews, 1969). Technical specializations within the field of
management knowledge and practice such as accounting have a
longer history of development,5 are closer to meeting or
already meet the criteria of profession and have a greater need
for professional licensing since they may deal directly with the
general public which needs protection against malpractice; the
manager in the large organization however is presumed to be
subject to its many internal checks and balances which protect
society and its sub-groups against incompetence.
The question of what ought to be taught has evolved into
three parts; a) what emphasis should be given vocational versus
general or liberal arts subjects in the education of a manager;
b) is the educational objective the training of specialists who
will be able to get entry-level jobs to start their careers, or
of the generalists who in their career progression arrive
finally at upper management levels; and c) whether the emphasis
should be on education which provides cognitive knowledge or
develops non-cognitive skills.
The following statement by the then-director of the Sl'o
Paulo School of Business Administration, EAESP, who was
answering the charge that his school was teaching too many
non-business subjects a decade ago, would probably have found
unanimous concurrence in Paris four years ago when the needs of
executives for the next century were being debated:
"The world of business, and the rest of the world,
will undergo great change in the coming
decades •••• knowledge of the physical world has
increased greatly [and we can perceive today] a
surge in progress in knowledge of man as an
individual and as a social being. In the face of
the certainty of considerable change, and
uncertainty with respect to the direction and the
results of these transformations, university

17
 teaching of administration should not limit itself
to detailed treatment of its subject, but rather
emphasize the preparation of students to think
flexibly, to critically accept new ideas, to
develop disciplined thought processes and to learn
on their own initiative. This type of formation
is more promising both for the individual and for
society today and in the coming decades, than
training which is limited to specific techniques
or the best practices of today's business world. 11
(Sa e Silva, 1975:8-9)
The heart of the criticisms of the Foundation reports had
been that excessive vocationalism, that is, an over-emphasis on
training for specific jobs, not only blocked the student's
intellectual growth and therefore was counterproductive in his
lifetime career, but also lowered the intellectual rigor of the
discipline in the academic world and of its professors, and gave
a tone of mediocrity to the field. Unfortunately, buyers of the
business school products, corporations, did not speak with one
voice. While the president was describing the attributes of the
generalist who would replace him, his personnel recruiters were
often looking for the best-trained accountant or market
researcher they could find. The result was a compromise and
continues to do both; the COll'lllittee for Economic Development
(1964:12) urged schools 11 ••• to prepare students both for the
beginning of their careers and for the long pull", and
AACSB/EFMD (1981:19) concluded 11 ••• management schools must
provide an education that combines both specialist and
generalist strands."
In order to assure the generalist strand, the accreditation
policies of the AACSB have required a minimum general cultural
content in the four-year undergraduate program (currently
40-60%). Unfortunately, the specialist fever has struck the
liberal arts as well ( 11 ••• historians have carved their
discipline into fragments, philosophers have preferred
linguistic analysis to metaphysics or ethics •• " (AACSB/EFMD,
1981:20). Even more effective in insuring a generalist strand
in the manager's education would be to eliminate undergraduate
programs in business and offer only postgraduate programs. Some
schools, including many with the strongest programs, have made
this choice, which of course is easier for private than for
tax-payer supported state universities.
Finally, on the issue of what should be taught, increasing
attention has been given in recent years to the distinction
between cognitive and non-cognitive learning; that is, between

18
11 ••• those forms of empirical knowledge acquisition typically
seen in schools of management ••• " and the development of
11 ••• non-cognitive attributes such as leadership and
administrative skills, oral and written collll'l.lnication skills,
attitudes and values, creativity and innovation, ambitions and
energies... "(AACSB/EFMD, 1981:22). It is too early to see how
these added objectives in management education will be
achieved. The interest in developing managerial skills rather
than simply imparting knowledge is related to another recent
concern in the accreditation process, which is to evaluate a
program on its outputs as well as its inputs, i.e., on what the
graduate can do at the end of the program, and not simply the
conventional measures of test scores of inc0ming students,
proportion of the faculty with doctorates, and the size of the
library (AACSB Accreditation Research Project, 1980, and
Business~' 19 November, 1979).

The question of when management education ought to take

place is also new, the result of an accelerating rate of change
in the business world which demands continuing or lifelong
education throughout the executive's career. In the jargon of
business, formal education on the "front-end load model is
obsolete", and companies increasingly take responsibility for
the education of employees by supporting not only short training
programs and conferences, but also their own internal formal
degree-granting programs not affiliated with a college or
university (See "Survey of Continuing Education; Business is
Cutting into the Market. 11 , ~ IQrk ~ supplement, 30 August,
1981).
A final controversy has heightened since the call by the
Foundation Reports for more applied social science to legitimize
business programs in the scholarly world. Gordon and Howell
(1959:347-348) forecast the trend thus: 11 ••• the applied social
scientists--now only a small minority in the business school--
will grow significantly in the years ahead, as will their
influence on curriculum and research." And, as forecast by
them, 11 ••• the early 1960s witnessed the recruitment of
specialists in such fields as economics, mathematics,
psychology, sociology, social psychology, engineering, and
anthropology to business school faculties. On a proportionate
basis, the number of business school faculty trained in
management, or having first-hand management experience, lllJst
have declined rather precipitously" (Uselding, 1981:9).
There have been two effects according to this author which
are inimical to the development of the hoped-for modern
management discipline. One is that there is no unified and

19
coherent body of thought or comnon methodology among the faculty
members of a business school. Instead, the literature develops
around the sociology of management, the psychology of
management, the decision theoretical aspects of management, and
so on; and the gap widens further between the academicians and
the practitioners in the real world. (An AACSB survey of how
executives and professors ranked business courses in importance
found the former put Accounting first, Economics third, and
Quantitative Analysis tenth; professors ranked the same courses
second, first, and fourth, respectively (Business Week, 19
November, 1979:174). Particularly unsettling is the suggestion
that executives and professors represent two cultures, each with
a different way of analyzing and solving human problems
confronting an organization. Gil and Bennis (1968, with
connents by Haire) discuss the conflict between the
anti-authoritarian bias of the behavioral scientist and the
authority needs of the manager. Other characteristics of the
values and attitudes of many social scientists regarding
business and profit which affect both the teaching and the
choice of research topics in management are explored in Lee
(1982), who suggests that a number of subjects which are of
great interest to executives are largely avoided by social
scientists. The very liberal political preferences and
anti-business views of many social scientists have been noted in
a number of societies. A survey in the U.S. found 28S of social
science professors characterizing themselves as "far left or
very liberal", compared with 8S of professors in business. Half
of the latter categorized themselves as far right or somewhat
conservative in their politics, whereas only 19S of the former
did so (1977 Ladd-Lipset faculty survey; cited in Evans, 1981).
In Chapter VI we will return to this issue in the example of
Brazilian business education, where the same trend toward social
science domination has occurred, but for different reasons.

Country Models of Management Education

The models on which a country's management education
programs are patterned reflect the cultural matrix of the
society, the nature of its industrialization, characteristics of
its entrepreneurial class, and the role of its universities.
The polar cases in the spectrum of management education through
the specialist institution of the business school are the U.S.
and Japan, the former providing undergraduate education for over
a century for those with no business experience, the latter just
beginning, with its first comparable institution only four years
old. The difference lies in the structure of industrial
relations in the two societies,--one based on mobility of

20
employment among firms, market-based salaries, and individual
responsibility (largely) for choices of type and timing of
education; the other, lifetime employment after a liberal arts
or technical education and mobility throughout a single firm
which provides the opportunities for further education
appropriate to the executive's career progression. (For some
years, scholars have been debating how prevalent lifetime
employment and low inter-firm mobility has been in Japan; the
current consensus is that convergence or the movement of the
Japanese toward the U.S. model is taking place.)
Along the spectrum lie t~e other nations of the world,
industrialized and developing. A most important difference
between countries is the emphasis given to pre-experience or
undergraduate programs versus post-experience, whether
postgraduate degree or shorter advanced management certificate
programs for executives. In the inmediate post-world War II
period, thousands of young European managers crossed the
Atlantic in an effort to close the management gap between the
Old World and the New. U.S. faculty went in the opposite
direction to staff executive develoµnent programs which were
mounted by companies, federations of industry and institutes
with ties to technical education rather than to universities.
In Britain, for example, the National Scheme of Management
Studies of 1947 emphasized the technical and comnercial colleges
as the main suppliers of academic management education, with
universities playing only a limited role. It was not until the
Robbins and Franks reports of the early 1960s that major
graduate business schools were set up at the London and
Manchester universities and undergraduate business studies
programs began to appear in other universities. By 1968 there
were only 548 first degree or undergraduate business students
enrolled in 14 university programs in Britain (Daniel, 1971:67);
in that same year one school alone in Brazil, EAESP, had more
undergraduates enrolled. Many factors explained this slow
development of pre-experience education; the aura surrounding
the prestigious U.S. graduate business schools, the distaste of
traditional British universities for vocational education,
particularly that connected with industry and business, the
widespread conviction that business was not a unified nor
academically respectable discipline and the bad marks given some
U.S. undergraduate programs by the Foundation reports. At the
postgraduate level in the United Kingdom, at the end of the
1960s about 6000 students were enrolled, five-sixths of them in
45 colleges of technology and the rest at the London and
Manchester business schools and 30 other universities. All of
these numbers in management education are relatively small,
however, and "the majority of managers in Britain today •••• have

21
not undergone formal training for management of any kind. 11
(Hughes, 1980:110)
On the Continent, the ranks of management have historically
been filled by engineers. Hence, the management education boom
began in executive development institutions founded by companies
to train their own middle managers, as C.E.I. in Geneva of the
Canadian company, Alcan Aluminium, which was the earliest, in
1946, and !MEDE in Lausanne of Nestle, which began in 1958.
Also in that same year, INSEAD was established at Fontainebleau
by the Paris Chamber of Conmerce and IESE in Barcelona by a
Spanish religious association. Over the years, these schools
moved beyond the short advanced management programs to offering
masters degrees and outgrew their initial dependence on visiting
U.S. professors, although in the early 1970s, the deans of three
of them were Americans from U.S. business schools and the school
at Barcelona had had a technical assistance agreement with
Harvard. From these beginnings, the European business school
movement spread to the Low Countries and Scandinavia; in 1981,
the first M.B.A. program in Portugal was launched, with
technical assistance from the U.S. and support from AID, the
U.S. Agency for International Development and the local and
nultinational business conmunity.
Ironically, the lowest penetration of business schools in
European management education has occurred in West Germany, thus
matching Japan, the other economic miracle country of the
post-war period. Even in France and Britain, business schools
train only "a tiny proportion of managers." (Whitley and
Marceau, 1980:17). It may be that in the absence of schools in
their own countries, more students study business abroad. A
profile of Japanese students in U.S. institutions in 1980 shows
19S studying business and management, the largest of any field
for the Japanese; in 1950, only 6S were so enrolled. Similarly,
among students from the United Kingdom in 1980, business was the
most popular major with 14S of the total while 30 years earlier
it had been one of the least popular majors. For West German
students in the U.S., business was the third most popular field
a~er the Humanities and the Social Sciences, with 10S of total
students (Boyan, Profiles: Tbe Foreign Student in tbe United
States.)
In addition to the business schools, over 200 management
training centers provide continuing education opportunities. In
some countries, company schools predominate; in Italy, for
example, where the level of institutionalization of management
education is still very low, corporate-owned schools accounted
for 70S of the student enrollment and university-affiliated

22
schools only 3% in the late 1970s (Inzerilli, 1980:81).
The business school movement in Spain provides another
variant, that of sponsorship by religious orders or
organizations. This orientation not only started early (IESE,
mentioned above, offered the first 2-year fulltime M.B.A.
program in Europe) but became dominant; of the 14 business
schools operating at the beginning of the 1970s, ten were
sponsored by religious groups. A similar role for church
related schools occurs half-way around the world in the
Philippines. In that culture, the diploma disease has been
chronic, business is the most popular field of study, and nearly
all of the higher education enrollments are in private
institutions, of which over 40% are in church-related
organizations.
Latin America exhibits the greatest degree of direct
transfer of the U.S. business school model through the formal
technical assistance contract.7 Excluding Brazil, these
schools date from the 1960s and were assisted by A.I.D. or
foundation contracts with U.S. business schools. The A.I.D.
contracts were INCAE at Managua, Nicaragua with Harvard, INCOLDA
at Cali, Colombia with Syracuse and Georgia Tech, EAFIT at
Medell!n, Colombia with the University of Georgia, ESAN at Lima,
Peru with Stanford, Buenos Aires with Columbia University; IESA
at Caracas, Venezuela with Northwestern was under a Ford
Foundation grant. With these similar early roots, other
similarities are not surprising. All offer postgraduate
degrees; most are autonomous institutions unaffiliated with a
university; most are members of CLADEA, a regional association
of business school deans who meet annually to further
cooperative research and exchange teaching materials; and most
have at some time participated as non-accredited members of the
AACSB. There is much co111110nality with the problems of Brazilian
business schools which we shall examine in later chapters:
part-time students and faculty, difficulties in adapting
imported teaching materials, adopting the case method, and
providing for future faculty development now that foreign aid
has ended.

23
 Footnotes
1. If education is learning to de. a job, qualification is a
matter of learning in order to &et. a job.
2. In a 1956 survey of 312 two-year or junior colleges in the
U.S., enrollments in general secretarial programs accounted
for 35S of their fUll-time students (Pierson, 1959:645).
3. Pierson, (p. ~) cites a 1921 report stating n ••• medical
education is shifting from a vocational training, which in
the recent past has been largely didactic and descriptive,
to a scientific discipline ••• n and a 1955 report on
engineering education which found that field also
increasingly concerned with matters of theory, not details
of specific practice.
4. On the former, see Parsons, 1968 and Elliott, 1972; on the
latter, Wilensky, 1964; and for Brazil, Durand, 1975.
5. When the population of Medici Florence was less than one
hundred thousand, as many as twelve hundred boys were
studying accounting and arithmetic in preparation for their
apprenticeship to merchants, making the city n ••• a noble
ancestor for the 19th century business college and the 20th
century graduate school of business." (Blivin, 1983).
6. The literature on this area is vast. For this brief
treatment of models in a few countries, I have drawn on the
following: For British and continental European
develoJXDents; OECD, 1962; McNulty, 1969; OECD, 1971;
Mailick, 1974; Seglow and Thomas, 1974· Wheatcroft, 1970;
Daniel, 1971; Whitley and Marceau, 197B; Inzerilli, 1980;
Willatt, 1979; and Foy, 1979: On the Philippines; Carroll,
1965 and Alba: On Japan; Yoshino, 1968; Ueno, 1972; Horita,
1972; Marsh and Mannari, 1972; Levine and Kawada, 1980;
Tanaka, 19801 Bedford, 1981; Nagata, 1981: On Latin America;
Rehder, 196ts; Cullinan, 1970; and documents of CLADEA
(Corrmittee of Deans of Latin American Schools of Business
Administration.)
7. Some evidence suggests that Latin American executives more
than those elsewhere have accepted the attitudes and values
underlying the U.S. business school. Peterson (1972) in a
mail survey of chief executives of corporations in five
regions (U.S., Western Europe, Latin America, British
COlllDOnwealth, and Asia) found that Latin American executives
were more in agreement than those of any other region on the

24
following statements: that "a university education is a
prerequisite for those seeking positions of business
leadership." and that "the subject matter and
intellectual training of university education are an
excellent preparation for later success in business." On
the statement "Social contacts made at the university
level are highly important in the later business career."
the degree of agreement among Latin American chief
executives as second only to that of Asian executives.
U.S. executives• level of agreement with these statements
put them only in the middle of the rank of the five
regions, except on the importance of social contacts,
where they were least in agreement. It is possible that
these reactions of Latin executives reflect their elite
status.

25
 f9otnotes
1. There is some diversity among authors in the definition of
"foreign." Since the word "expatriate" is widely accepted
in international business, we will use it for those spending
part of their careers in Brazil on temporary assignment and
intending to return to their land of birth. Some research
(e.g., Makler, 1974:30) examines "foreign-born" businessmen
who have migrated to Brazil, usually with the intent of
becoming naturalized Brazilians. The studies of Bresser
Pereira (1974:72) on ethnic origins of businessmen consider
as "foreign" those whose grandfathers were born abroad
(i.e., third-generation, patriarchal line) and all others
"Brazilian." Finally, studies of ethnic origins based on
surname identification of published lists rather than on
questionnaires or interviews with businessmen, their family
or colleagues, as in Nichols and Snyder, 1981:326 can only
presume ethnic origins.
2. Bresser Pereira and his work illustrate a number of
characteristics of the academic world which will be
discussed at various points in the present study. Prior to
joining EAESP as a young professor, he had been a journalist
and movie critic and continues to write for newspapers as
well as to produce best-selling books on economic and
political matters, illustrating a generalist rather than
specialist bent which many find in the national character.
His first study of ethnic and social origins of
entrepreneurs illustrates the tendency of Brazilian
professors of Administration to replicate research with
which they became familiar during their educational
experience abroad,--in this case the work of W. Lloyd
Warner, his professor at Michigan State. The research on
administrators leading to the 1974 book was essentially a
team project of four professors, with students of EAESP
doing much of the field work. Finally, illustrating the
part-time characteristics of faculty, he has since 1965 been
Diretor Administrativo (roughly Vice
President-Administration) of Supermercados Pao de Agucar,
the largest supermarket chain in Latin America, in addition
to fUll-time status and activity at EAESP.
3. Or in other ventures of the "grupo." Hans Singer (1964,
Chapter 23) offered some impressions of businessmen in the
most underdeveloped Northeast region a~er a 3-month visit
in 1953 during which he researched the potential for a new
economic development bank. He was 11 ••• impressed by the high
quality and competence of a number of the businessmen and

46
 industrialists, reflected also in the efficient organization
of a number of the factories seen." He did find some
weaknesses however. One was n••• a mania for keeping the
business in the family. I have never before seen this
carried to such length." Another was a reluctance to seek
outside advice or assistance, the two factors givingn ••• the
conduct of industry in the Northeast a curiously amateurish
tone, with empirical rather than scientific solutions of
technical problems prevailing. The amateurish tone of
business is reinforced by the fact that a number of
businessmen tend to invest their profits in other
enterprises only indirectly related to their original
enterprise. To illustrate this point, the owner of a
considerable-sized tannery also manages a large-scale farm
in the neighborhood, with the use of by-products and waste
from the tannery as fertilizer on the farm serving as a
tenuous link between the two enterprises. It is my
impression that a movement in the direction of greater
specialization ••• could be highly beneficial". (pp.269-71)
It can be argued that spreading risks among other ventures,
given the uncertainties in the inchoate state of
industrialization at that time and in that region was a sign
of a professional, not an amateur.
4. Matarazzo to a technician: "I didn't study anything--! am
an ignorant person--It is you gentlemen who know ••• n He
interfered, however, in the decisions of his technicians,
managers, and directors." (Martins, 1973:58).
5. Renato Costa Lima, agronomist, from family interests in
agriculture to Minister of Agriculture; Paulo Maluf,
engineer, family firms to mayor and governor of Sio Paulo;
Magalhaes Pinto, lawyer, banker, governor of Minas Gerais.
6. Glycon de Paiva, engineer, from mining research in federal
government to national development bank; Helio Beltrao,
lawyer, from civil service to Grupo Ultra, later Minister;
Roberto Campos, economist, from foreign service and Minister
of Planning to banking.

47
1. " ••• to shine in a social gathering, it is important to have
a smattering of knowledge on many subjects, not to
understand any of them deeply" and " ••• to think well is less
important than to speak fluently ••• " p.223.
2. Except for the two Catholic schools, none of the private
institutions existed as a university in 1962; all of the
public universities except Fluminense, on the other hand,
were functioning as such then.
3. In fact, the present Brazilian Constitution of 1967
prohibits, in Article 99, the holding or accUDlllation of two
paid public jobs, except for a judge also working as a
professor, two positions as a professor, etc.
4. Recent research at the Federal University of Bahia, reported
in Y.eja, ("Vagas Occupadas, 11 14 April 1982), found that 11%
of its students had been pursuing their four-year programs
for 12 years or more, and that 16% failed three or more
subjects annually.
5. There is evidence that federal controls are not always
successful in containing local politicians• enthusiasm. For
example, in mid-1980 a municipal decree created a university
"with political rather than educational objectives" in a
county with 45,000 inhabitants. Months later, MEC closed
the school which by then had 350 students enrolled in
"phantom" classes. (0 Estado de Sio Paulo, 2 Hay 1982).
6. Not surprisingly, the "A"-rated programs are concentrated in
the states of Rio de Janeiro and sao Paulo but eight other
states are also represented.

64
 footnotes
1. Needless to say, data are available only sporadically for
such an extended time series and changes in methods of
reporting and in definitions make only the most recent
values for 1971 and 1980 strictly comparable.
2. It stipulated three disciplines in Economics (Political
Economy, Economic History of America and Sources of National
Wealth, and Finance and Banking Economics). one in
Administration (Science of Administration) and six in Law
(Civil, Colllllercial, Industrial Labor, International, etc.)
and in addition a variety of tool and background courses as
Mathematics of Finance, Public Accounting, Psychology and
Sociology.
3. Taylor, 1968, has examined in an exhaustive and definitive
fashion the process by which the institutionalizati on of
Business Administration occurred through the three
AID-supported change-agent schools--EAESP and the
universities at Salvador, Bahia, and Porte Alegre, Rio
Grande do Sul--including the continuing battle with
Economics.
4. Another author provides the following estimates of all
public-sector employment as a percentage of total employment
in Brazil: 1872 - 0.2%; 1900 - 0.6%; 1940 - 2.4%; and 1970 -
3.9%. Katzman, 1977:126.
5. This issue has been widely discussed in North America, as in
Allen and Gench, 1970 in the U.S. and Blackburn, 1972 in
Canada, with proponents of conJ110nality using the rubric of
School of Management, which some schools have adopted in
place of their earlier denomination of School of Business.
Their argument is buttressed by the growth of management
education for other areas of the public or non--profit
sector as hospitals and education.
6. The Federal University of Bahia, the regional leader under
the AID program of 1959-66, does not yet offer a
postgraduate course and with 100 undergraduate openings, is
only fourth largest in its state.
7. The Fleury case study in 1982 of 7 administration schools
throughout Brazil reflected fewer poor quality schools than
in Greater Sao Paulo. He found 53% of the professors had
the bachelor's as their highest degree and that 4 of the 7
schools had computer facilities.

110
 8. Souza, 1981, Chapter III traces the evolution of education
policies in the various national develoJXDent plans of the
post-1964 administrations. MEC, 1976 describes the
National Plan for Postgraduate Study (PNPG) enacted in
1975.
9. See IUPERJ, 1977 and 1979. The latter report quoted a
government estimate of more than 100,000 executives from
over 55,000 companies receiving training during the four
years 1973-76.
10. Schuch, 1976:66, discusses the problems of finding local
employment by graduates of the nationally-known Federal
University in Santa Maria, RGS, where there were 80
openings and a population of 184,000.
11. Similarly wide differences in curriculum profiles of
master's programs in U.S. schools with different
philosophies of management education are shown in Hosmer,
1978:109. Thus, percentages of class-hours in particular
subjects at Harvard and M.I.T. respectively, were;
quantitative methods and behavioral sciences- 20J and 48J,
Accounting- 9J and 14J, and functional area courses
(Personnel, Production, Marketing, etc.) 57J and 21J.
12. In another example of such protective action, the similar
organization for lawyers (OAB), protesting the excessive
number of lawyers being turned out by law schools, urged
that the minimum curriculum for a law degree be jointly
determined by them and the Federal Education Council.
13. John M. Hunter has called my attention to a characteristic
of foreign students in Economics which is probably equally
applicable in Business Administration. The institutional
content in his courses which pertain to the U.S. economy
tend to be disregarded as irrelevant. When he gets home he
culls out the institutional and, rather than undertake the
arduous task of developing local material, instead
emphasizes that which is not culture-bound, i.e., micro
theory, mathematical economics and econometrics, all of
course at the highest level of sophistication of which he
is capable.
14. For example, the most popular Economics textbook after
Samuelson, written in 1967 by two Brazilians, has sold
10,000 copies in its best year. (Treinamento de Execytiyo,
1977:27)

111
15. It is possible that interest developed earlier at EBAP in
Rio, based on the public administration programs in the
U.S. which were using the training experiences of the
Tennessee Valley Authority. (Munhoz, 1982:261). Much
earlier, the need for more active methods of teaching law
in Brazil was enunciated by a group of distinguished
jurists in 1927 when they urged professors "'to present
practical cases as a means of making principles more
concrete.' ••• The lecture or monologue-hour was to be used
with restraint lest teaching assume a passive character."
(Steiner, 1971:85) Interestingly, Professor Steiner of the
Harvard Law School spent 1968-69 at the Center for Studies
and Research in the Teaching of Law, CEPED, an agency
concerned with reform of legal education including more
active pedagogy and which was located in the GetGlio Vargas
Foundation in Rio and funded by AID and the Ford
Foundation.
16. "As a matter of institutional policy, both Harvard and HIT
(whose Sloan School of Management had a companion Ford
Foundat1on contract at the Indian Institute of Management
at Calcutta) deliberately promoted ••• such American
educational concepts as applications-oriented teaching and
student-instructor interaction but they did not seek to
impose any predetermined curriculum content. In fact,
emphasis on the accUUlllation of indigenous case materials
as a means of discovering and understanding local
management problems was the heart of the Harvard thesis
urged upon Ahmedabad. n Hill, et .al, 1973: 59.

112
 Footnotes
1. An unusual example of inmigrant achievement motivation
occurred in the January, 1972 entrance examination at EAESP
when 1400 candidates competed for 150 openings in the
undergraduate program. The highest score was achieved by a
45 year old father of three, a refugee from Hungary who had
emigrated to Brazil in 1950 at the age of 22. While working
in data processing for a machinery manufacturer he had taken
the maduresa (maturity) exam which gave him a high school
diploma without doing the course work. His lowest score on
the entrance exam was on the part covering Brazilian
history.
2. A study of 334 Administration graduates from the University
of sao Paulo over the years 1964-1974 (Trevisan, 1977, p.67)
showed only 15S of the fathers had attended a university.
The difference between USP and EAESP would seem to lie in
the more modest backgrounds of students attending a public
university, in the great increase in enrollments after 1968,
and the fact that USP offers a degree in Accounting, which
attracts students of a lower socio-economic class (see
Ribeiro and Klein, 1979 and Ribeiro, 1980).

132
 Footnote~

1. Not surprisingly, a graduate's continuing contact with the

school varies with the length of his course; 70% of the
undergraduates are members of the alumni association, 60% of
those in the one-year-plus graduate program and only 45% of
those who took the thirteen-week intensive course.
2. Hill, Thomas M., Haynes, W. Warren and Baumgartel, Howard,
Institution Byildins in India: A Study of International
Collaboration in Manasement Education, Division of Research,
Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration,
1973:381.
3. Hillman, Richard S. and Moore, Russell M., "Administration
and DeveloIJDent: Relations between International
Corporations and Management Education in sao Paulo,
Brazil." Jpyrnal of International Bysiness Studies, Spring,
1971:47-59.

145
1. In the U.S., engineering professor's average salaries in
1981 were only 3S higher than those of business professors.
(AACSB News11ne, December, 1981, p.1)
2. Corroborative evidence is found in the Braga 1977 survey of
16 si'o Paulo business programs, where 701. of the 766
professors (including double-counting of those teaching in
rrx>re than one school) had as their highest degree the
bachelor's, with 201. master's and 10S with doctorates.
3. Prior to reform legislation, a professional school in a
university similarly housed the professors offering tool
courses so that, for example, in 1966 one medium-sized
federal university had 14 chemistry departments. The
university reform rrx>vement has attempted to eliminate
duplication by centralizing the provision of service
courses. Where this has happened before the physical
consolidation of the various schools on one campus, the
student can be inconvenienced, however, as at Bahia where
the Administration student traveled to the Institute of
Mathematics across town for classes in Quantitative Methods.
4. In January 1979, Harvard Business Review began to publish a
regular feature addressed to owners and managers of smaller
businesses. The editor referred to requests from many
subscribers and quoted from one of them: n••• rrx>st of your
articles concern machinations within the Fortune 500 largest
companies •••• Since I cannot believe that all HBR readers are
employed by the 500, why not devote time to those who are
not inside corporate bureaus and therefore not involved in
mistake management? While writing this, the Department of
Defense has called five times. So has the bank. My patent
attorney is coming over for brown bag lunch (a sandwich
brought from home to be eaten in the office). I have to
sweep now.n (HBR, Letter from the Editor, Jan.-Feb.,1979).
This was in HBR's 57th year of publication.
It is interesting to note that Revista de Aclministraifio de
F.!gpresas RAE) published an alrrx>st identical letter from one
of its readers but in its third year of publication. CBA&,
V.4, no.10, Mar.,1964). In his reply the editor of BA&
quite properly noted a) that many of the problems addressed
were applicable to firms of any size, b) that many solutions
proposed were complex but not unworkable, and c) that at
times it was an illusion that many of the widely-published
"how-to-do" articles provided real help. Having stated

171
 these reservations, the editor noted that the EAESP
professors' "sin of omission" was soon to be corrected by a
research project on the small and medium-sized company then
in progress and which subsequently yielded a series of 5
manuals published by the FGV.
5. However, Evenson and Kislav (1975:507-21) examined the
number of annual research publications in agriculture
journals per $100 million of value of agricultural
production by regions of the world and found values for
Latin America lower than those of any other region and only
about half that of the total of less developed countries,
suggesting that the research tradition in agriculture is
particularly weak in the region.

172
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