(16BT70202)

SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION

Int. Marks Ext. Marks Total Marks L T P C

30 70 100 3 1 -- 3

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 Power system:
• Faults in power system
Equipment % of total
Overhead lines 50
Cables 10
Transformers 10
Switchgear 15
Control equipment 3
Instrument 2
transformers
Miscellaneous 10

• Necessity for protection

system
Fig1: Single line diagram of power system
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Fault clearing process:

Fig2: Typical relay circuit

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Protective zones:

Fig2: Various protective zones of power system

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Types of protection:

Fig3: Line diagram of relay protected power system

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 UNIT-I: RELAYS
• Electromagnetic relays: Introduction, types of relays, construction,
operation and torque equation of induction type relays, differential
relays and biased differential relays. Characteristics of over current,
directional and distance relays (R-X).
• Static relays: Advantages and disadvantages, block diagram of a
basic static relay, definite time, inverse and inverse definite
minimum time (IDMT) static relays. Comparators – amplitude and
phase comparators.
• Microprocessor based relays: Advantages and disadvantages, block
diagram with flow chart - distance relays and over current relays -
definite, inverse & IDMT.

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Basic requirements of relay:
• Speed
• Selectivity
– Unit selectivity & Non-unit selectivity
• Sensitivity
• Reliability
• Simplicity
• cost

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Basic terminology:
• Relay time
• Pickup
• Pickup value
• Dropout or reset
• Time delay
• Reach
• Current setting
• Plug setting multiplier
• Time setting multiplier
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Current setting:
• The pick up value of
current can be adjusted
to the required level in
the relays which is called
current setting of that
relay.
• Then pickup = %current
setting X rated secondary
current of C.T. Fig4: Current setting Plug bridge

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• Ex1:

– An IDMT type over-current relay is used to protect

a feeder through 500/1 A Current Transformer.
The relay has plug setting of 125%.

➢ Then pickup value of relay is:

✓1.25 A

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Plug setting multiplier:
• The ratio of actual fault current in the relay
coil to the pickup current is called plug setting
multiplier (P.S.M.)
• P.S.M =
𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙(𝐼𝑟)
= % 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑋 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶.𝑇.
• Ex2: If a fault current of 5,000 A flows through
the feeder. Then P.S.M of relay is
✓8

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Time/P.S.M curve:
• This is relation curve between operating time and plug setting
multiplier of an electrical relay.
• Ex 3:
PSM 2 3 5 8 10 15
Time (sec) 10 6 4.5 3.2 3 2.5

Time/PSM
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2 3 5 8 10 15
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Time setting multiplier:

• The adjustment of traveling distance of an

electromechanical relay is commonly known as time
setting. This adjustment is commonly known as time
setting multiplier of relay.
• The time setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of
0.05 sec.
• Ex 4:
• If TMS is 0.3. Then actual time of operation is:
• Actual time of operation is = time corresponding to PSM X
TSM
✓ 0.96 sec

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Classification of relays:
• Based on operation mechanism the protection
relay can be categorized as:
– Electromagnetic relay, static relay and mechanical
relay.
• Based on Characteristic the protection relay can
be categorized as:
– Definite time relays
– Inverse time relays with definite minimum time(IDMT)
– Instantaneous relays.
– IDMT with inst.
– Stepped characteristic.
– Programmed switches.
– Voltage restraint over current relay.
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 Contd.,
• Based on actuating parameter the protection relay can be
categorized as-
– Current relays, Voltage relays, Frequency relays and Power relays etc.,
• Based on of logic the protection relay can be categorized as:
– Differential.
– Unbalance.
– Neutral displacement.
– Directional.
– Restricted earth fault.
– Over fluxing.
– Distance schemes.
– Bus bar protection.
– Reverse power relays.
– Loss of excitation.
– Negative phase sequence relays etc.
• Based on application the protection relay can be categorized as-
– Primary relay and Backup relay.

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Electromagnetic relays:
• Electromagnetic relays are those
relays which are operated by
electromagnetic action.
• Depending upon working principle
these can be divided into following
types of electromagnetic relays.
▪ Attracted Armature type relay,
▪ Induction Disc type relay,
▪ Induction Cup type relay,
▪ Balanced Beam type relay,
▪ Moving coil type relay,
▪ Polarized Moving Iron type relay.
• Driving torque is created electrically and restraining torque
is provided by springs generally.
• The two torques are mechanically compared and relay
operates when driving torque(Td) is more than the
restraining torque(Tr).
• Tnet = Td – Tr i.e, relay operates when Tnet is positive.
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 Electromagnetic attraction relays:
• The electromagnetic
attraction relay is the
simplest type of relay which
includes a plunger (or
solenoid), hinged armature,
rotating armature (or
balanced) and moving iron
polarised relay.
• Balanced Beam Relay – In such type of relay two quantities
are compared because the electromagnetic force developed
varies as the square of the ampere-turn.
• The ratio of an operating current for such relay is low. If the
relay is set for fast operation, then it will tend to overreach
on a fast operation
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Hinged armature relay:

• – The sensitivity of
the relay can be
increased for DC
operation by adding
the permanent
magnet.
• This relay is also
known as the
polarised moving
relay.
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 Induction relays

Fig10: Production of torques in induction relay

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 Torque developed in induction relay
ɸ1 = ɸ1max sin ωt
ɸ2 = ɸ2max sin (ωt + θ)
where, θ is the angle by which ɸ 2 leads ɸ1
i1 ∝ e1
∝ dɸ1 / dt
∝ ɸ1max cos ωt
i2 ∝ e2
∝ dɸ2 / dt
∝ ɸ2max cos (ωt + θ)
F = (F2 – F1) ∝ ɸ2 i1 – ɸ1 i2
∝ ɸ1max ɸ2max [cos ωt sin (ωt + θ) – sin ωt cos
(ωt + θ)]
or F ∝ ɸ1max ɸ2max sin θ …………………Eq(1)

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 T ∝ ɸS ɸu sin θ
1. Shaded-pole type: T ∝ I2 sin θ

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2. Watt-hour meter type: T ∝ ɸ1 x ɸ2 sin θ

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3.Induction-Cup Relay:

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Over current induction relay:

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 Induction Type Directional Over Current Relay
Contd…
It consists of two relay elements mounted on a common case,
Directional element.
Non-directional element.
 Differential relay
• The relay whose operation depends on the
phase difference of two or more electrical
quantities is known as the differential
protection relay.
• It works on the principle of comparison
between the phase angle and the magnitude
of the same electrical quantities.

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 Working of differential relays
1. Current differential relay

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2. Biased differential relay

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3. Voltage balance differential relay

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Characteristics of differential relay:

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Distance relays:
• Distance protection relay is the name given to the
protection, whose action depends on the distance of
the feeding point to the fault.
• The time of operation of such protection is a function
of the ratio of voltage and current, i.e., impedance.
• This impedance between the relay and the fault
depends on the electrical distance between them.
• The principal type of distance relays are:
– impedance relays,
– reactance relays, and
– the reactance relays.

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 Impedance Relays
The relay operates when the ratio V/I is less than a predetermined value.
Also called voltage restrained over current relay.
This is an under reach relay.

• It consists of two element.

• Current element and voltage
element.
❖ +ve (operative) Torque by
current element
❖ -ve (restraining) Torque by
voltage element
• At normal operating condition
Operating torque = restraining
torque
• At fault
• operative torque > restraining
torque

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 Operating Characteristic of Impedance relay

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 Operating Characteristic on R-X diagram

If zf - Impedance between relay and fault point

Z - Set value for impedance=Radius of circle
Then for, zf < z …relay operates
zf > z …relay is inoperative

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 Reactance relays

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 Mho relays

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 Types of Distance Relay
A distance or impedance relay is essentially an ohmmeter and operates whenever
the impedance of the protected zone falls below a pre-determined value. There
are two types of distance relays in use for the protection of power supply, namely;
(i) Definite-distance relay - which operates instantaneously for fault up to a pre-
determined distance from the relay.
(ii) Time-distance relay - in which the time of operation is proportional to the
distance of fault from the relay point. A fault nearer to the relay will operate
it earlier than a fault farther away from the relay.

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Definite – Distance Type Impedance Relay
It consists of a pivoted beam F and two electromagnets energized respectively by a
current and voltage transformer in the protected circuit. The armatures of the two
electromagnets are mechanically coupled to the beam on the opposite sides of the fulcrum.
The beam is provided with a bridging piece for the trip contacts. The relay is so designed that
the torques produced by the two electromagnets are in the opposite direction.

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The pull of the current element is proportional to I2 and that of voltage
element to V2. Consequently, the relay will operate when
k1V2 < k2 I2
or V2 /I2 < k2/k1
or V/I < √k2/k1
or Z < √k2/k1
The value of the constants k1 and k2 depends upon the
ampere-turns of the two electromagnets. By providing tappings on the
coils, the setting value of the relay can be changed.

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 Operating Characteristic of Impedance relay

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 Operating Characteristic on R-X diagram

If zf - Impedance between relay and fault point

Z - Set value for impedance=Radius of circle
Then for, zf < z …relay operates
zf > z …relay is inoperative

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 Time – Distance Type Impedance Relay

A time-distance impedance relay is one which

automatically adjusts its operating time according to the
distance of the relay from the fault point i.e.
Operating time, T ∝ V/I
∝Z
∝ distance

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 Time – Distance Type Impedance Relay Contd…

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Time-distance characteristics of distance
time impedance relay:

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Universal torque equation:
• The universal torque equation explains the working of an electrical relay. These
electromagnetic relays consists of current and voltage windings.

• If both the current and voltage windings are used, the torque developed by the
interaction between the fluxes is given by the equation

– Where θ is the angle between V and I and the τ is the relay maximum torque angle.
• If the relay has current, voltage and the torque angle, the torque will be
developed, and it will be given as

– where K1, K2, K3 are the tap setting or constant of V and I. The K4 is the mechanical restraint due to
spring or gravity.
• The operating characteristic of all types of relays is obtained by adding and
subtracting all the other constants and letting others be zero or by adding other
similar terms.
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