DETERMINANTS OF SMOKING IN THE TEENAGERS AND YOUNG

ADULTS, IMPLICATIONS AND REMEDIES

Mustafa Mahmood

Pennsylvania State University at Harrisburg

School of Public Affairs

December 11, 2019

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of

The Requirements for H ADM 503

Dr Daniel J. Mallinson
 Introduction

Tobacco use is a global problem and is a pediatric epidemic throughout the world. It has been

rated as the largest global threat to the human health. Currently, it kills more than 5 million

people each year and the figures are expected to rise to 8.3 million by 2030 (Lander et al.,

2019). Daily about 82 to 99 thousand young people start tobacco smoking (Reilly, 2019).

Mostly, tobacco use begins in the teenagers out of curiosity, under estimating that “they” may

be addicted to smoking. They keep smoking despite knowing its severe health hazards. Under

these circumstances, greater understanding of the causes of smoking in the youth and their

preventive measures is a dire need, so will be examined in this study.

Literature Review

Youth is more vulnerable to smoking between high school and college period wherein they

start, develop and consolidate this habit. Cigarette smoke carries more than 4000 chemicals out

of which at least 250 are harmful and 50 cause cancer (Reilly, 2019). It has been observed that
younger adult smokers, who had smoked cigarettes first in their early twenties or in their teens

are at greater risk of issues such as asthma, wheezing, smaller lungs, cardiovascular disease and

cancer. These smokers die 13 years earlier than non-smoker (Benjamin, 2019).

Smoking trends are greatly gendered. Studies consistently reveal higher smoking prevalence in

males than the female adolescents in different cultures. According to a study conducted on

Chinese adolescent in schools, tobacco use by boys i.e., 16.5% was much higher than girls i.e.,

1.9% (Yue et al., 2015). Results of smoking prevalence analysis about Salvador adolescent

revealed that more male i.e., 14.4% than female i.e., 6.2% are active smokers (Neto & Cruz,

2003). Adolescent smoking is significantly higher in boys than girls because females have higher

self-control and for them smoking is traditionally not a feminine trait. The Global Youth Tobacco

Survey canvassed 400 000 students aged 13-15 in all WHO regions determined that globally

male youth is more prone to smoking than the females (Lander et al., 2019).

Hypothesis, 1 – Male, teenagers and young adults, are more prone to smoking habit than the

females.

Initiation of smoking in youth normally begins at 15-16 years old. More than 1/3, i.e., 36.7%of

adults who ever had smoked tobacco, tried first cigarette at 14 years i.e., time of entering high

school (Berman, Snyder & D, 2019). Studies in Western countries have revealed that roughly

half of school students have already established regular smoking habit at 18 years (Abdalla,

kaabba, saeed, Abdulrahman & Raat, 2019). According to a report of the Surgeon General

almost

9 out of 10 smokers start tobacco by the age of 18 and 99% by 26 years of age. If adolescents

don’t smoke by age 26, they will almost surely not start (Benjamin, 2019). Under another
report of five years, i.e., 2006-2010, the initiation of tobacco smoking in teen and young adults

have remained constant for all subgroups i.e. gender, race (Berman, Snyder & D, 2019).

Hypothesis, 2- Teenagers and young adults are more vulnerable to smoking habit than the

adult population of 25 years and above.

Unsatisfactory academic performance is a risk factor related to the youth smoking initiation. It

specifically happens because poorly performing students are marginalized by the teachers and

better performing classmates, so they get engaged in deviant behavior i.e., absence, violation of

school rules and tobacco smoking (Robert, Kuipers, Rathmann, Moor & Kinnunen, 2018).

Children of promising academic performance have stronger academic focus with an objective of

university education so are lesser vulnerable to smoking. By another study the student’s

percentage of smokers amongst poor performance at school was 13.2 percent in grades 4-5,

34.5 % in grades 6-8 and 55.2% in grades 9-12 (Khuder, Price, Jordan, Khuder & Silvestri,

2008).

Hypothesis, 3- Lesser educated teenagers and young adults are more likely to smoking habit

than those of higher educated teenaged and young adults.

Socio economic gradient remains clearly constant i.e., adolescents of lower socio-economic

status (SES) have higher current smoking prevalence than the youth of higher SES (Berman,

Snyder & D, 2019). Adolescents at all levels of SES are influenced by parental smoking

behaviors. Second, growing up from parents and friends in a social environment of lower

efficacy than that of higher SES youth is another favorable ground for smoking. It not only

tolerates tobacco use but encourage it. Even globally, it has also been identified that 80%of

smokers live in low and middle-income countries (Lander et al., 2019).

Hypothesis, 4- Teenagers and young adults of lower socio-economic status are more prone to

be smoker than those of higher socio-economic status.

METHODS

In order to conduct the study, the data was obtained by using the ERIC database. ERIC database

involves free access to the thesaurus files, it also contains a topic page containing information,

and a peer-reviewed summary designed for the public and links to valuable resources. To

obtain the cases in the study, Survey Documentation and Data analysis (SDA) was utilized. SDA

is a set of web-based documentation and analysis software for investigating data. The sample

size used for analysis was 400 teen and young adults lesser than 25 years. The sample was

drawn by using those cases that contained data pertinent to the dependent and independent

variables.

The variables in the survey that were considered for the study include age, gender, education

and socioeconomic status of the youth and their relation to the determinants of smoking habit

in teens and young adults. Respondents were taken in years. Participants under 15 years were

not included in the study and similarly the respondents with age more than 25 were also

excluded. Gender was estimated as male and female. Education of the students is also an

important variable, the students of high school, college and universities were preferably

included in the study. The relation of each of these variables with the determinants of smoking

habit in teens and young adults is being estimated. For the analysis, ages were distributed in

three groups 15-18, 18-22 and 22-25. Education was recorded into four categories: less than

high school (nine years or less), some years in high school or high school graduate (10 to 12

years), some years in college or bachelor’s degree (13 to 16 years), and some years in graduate

school or graduate degree (17 years or more).

Descriptive statistical data analysis of the variables was carried out using SPSS software. In

frequency distributions for all independent and dependent variables, median, minimum and

maximum values were evaluated. Most of the variables that were examined are nominal so

crosstabulation was performed and for measures of association for any significant, Chi-square

analysis was carried out on cross tabulation of the nominal data to find out the relation

between each dependent and independent variables pair. The results obtained by each

statistical test are presented in the succeeding section.

RESULTS

The frequency of distribution of both dependent and independent variables is shown of tables

below: -

Frequency distribution of variables

Table 1.1 shows the age distribution of the respondents. Out of 400 respondents, it revealed that

178 i.e., 44.5 % respondents were in the age between 15-18 years. Numbers of respondents

between the age 18 - 21 years were 130 i.e., 32.5%, whereas 92 i.e., 23% of the respondents were

in the age between 21 – 25 years. It proves that adolescents of the younger age are more prone to

smoking than the adolescents of the senior age.

Table 1.1 – Frequency distribution of Age of the Respondents

Age Frequency Percent

15-18 178 44.5

18-21 130 32.5

21-25 92 23

Total 400 100

Table 1.2 shows the gender distribution of the respondents. According to the results obtained, out

of 400 respondents, 364 were male that constitutes 91 percent of the respondents whereas only

36 respondents were females, comprising 9 percent of the total. It is clear that male smokers are
significantly higher than the females. It proves that male teenagers and young adults, are more

prone to smoking habit than the females.

Table 1.2. Frequency distribution of the respondents by Gender

Gender Frequency Percent

Male 364 91

Female 36 9

Total 400 100

Table 1.3 shows frequency distribution of respondents by the education level. Out of 400

respondents participated, 124 were in less than high school, 118 were high school graduate or

with some years in high school, 62 had a bachelor’s degree or had some years in college and 96

respondents were those who either had a graduate degree or served some years in graduate

school. Results prove that lesser educated teen and young adults are more prone to smoking

habits than the more educated teen and young adults.

Table 1.3 – Frequency distribution of respondents by the education level

Education Level Frequency Percent

who are less than high school 124 31.0

who are high school graduate or some years in 118 29.5

high school

some years in college or bachelor’s degree 62 15.5

some years in graduate school or graduate 96 24.0

degree

Total 400 100.0

Table 1.4 shows the frequency distribution of socioeconomic status of the respondents.

Socioeconomic status was divided into three categories lower class, middle class and upper class.

The total, of 400 respondents got distributed in each category as 166, 152 and 82 respectively.

Maximum smokers were thus observed in lower classes of socioeconomic status. It has proven

that teenagers and young adults of lower socio-economic status are more prone to be a smoker

than those of higher socio-economic status.

Table 1.4 – Frequency distribution of socioeconomic status of respondents

Socioeconomic Status Frequency Percent

Lower class 166 41.5

Middle class 152 38.0

Upper class 82 20.5

Total 400 100.0

Table 1.5 shows the frequency distribution of smoking status of respondents Among the 400

participants of the study, 270 were those who had a habit of smoking whereas 130 were non-

smokers. The percentage of smokers was found to be 67.5 percent of a 100 percent.

Table 1.5 – Frequency distribution of smoking status of respondents

Smoking Status Frequency Percent

Smokers 270 67.5

Non-smokers 130 32.5

Total 400 100.0

2-Cross tabulation between smoking and different variables with Chi-Square

Table 2.1, shows cross tabulation between smoking and age. Cross tabulation of the smoking and

its relationship with the age of the respondents showed that between the age of 15 and 18 there

were 123 smokers of a total 178, 86 smokers were of an age between 18 and 21, whereas 61 of

the smokers was having an age of 21 to 25.The remaining 130 were non-smokers. Through

calculated Pearson Chi-Square, df and p values as endorsed in the table, it is concluded that there

is a significant relation between the ages of respondents and the development of the smoking

habit.

Table 2.1 – Cross tabulation between smoking and age

Smoking Status, * Age Cross tabulation

Smoking Age

Status 15-18 18-21 21-25 Total

Smokers 123 86 61 270

Non- 55 44 31 130

smokers

Total 178 130 92 400

Pearson Chi-Square = 0.375, df = 2, p value = 0.171

Table, 2.2 shows cross tabulation between smoking and gender It was revealing from the survey

that predominant majority of the smokers were male, i.e., 244 out of 270 whereas female

smokers were merely 26 of the totals. The remaining 130 respondents were non-smokers.

Through Pearson Chi-Square, df and p calculated values as endorsed in the table, it is concluded

that there is a significant relationship between smoking and the gender.

Table 2.2 – Cross tabulation between smoking and gender

Smoking Status * Gender Cross tabulation

Gender
Smoking Status
Male Female Total

Smokers 244 26 270

 Non-smokers 120 10 130

Total 364 36 400

Pearson Chi-Square = 0.402, df = 1, p value = 0.419

Table, 2.3, shows cross tabulation between smoking and education. The study revealed that most

of the smokers were either having education below high school, currently studying in high

school or high school graduates. A decline is revealed with increase in education. Through

Pearson Chi-Square, df and p calculated values as endorsed in the table, it is concluded that there

is a significant relationship between smoking and education.

Table 2.3 – Cross tabulation between smoking and education

Smoking Status * Education Cross tabulation

Education
less than high some years in some years in some years in Total
Smoking school high school or college or graduate
Status high school bachelor’s school or
graduate degree graduate
degree
Smokers 84 81 42 63 270

Non-smokers 40 37 20 33 130
Total 124 118 62 96 400
Pearson Chi-Square = 0.229, df= 3, p value = 0.027

Table, 2.4, shows cross tabulation between smoking and socioeconomic status. It is evident from

the table that most of the smokers belonged to lower class, or a middle class, and lesser number

belonged to an upper class. There were 111 smokers in lower class and 104 in middle class and

only 55 from the upper class out of 270 respondents. Through Pearson Chi-Square, df and p
calculated values as endorsed in the table, it is concluded that there is a significant relationship

between smoking and the SES.

Table 2.4 – Cross tabulation between smoking and socioeconomic status

Smoking Status * Socioeconomic Status Cross tabulation

Socioeconomic Status
Smoking Status
Lower class Middle class Upper class Total

Smokers 111 104 55 270

Non-smokers 55 48 27 130

Total 166 152 82 400

Pearson Chi-Square= 0.096, df= 2, p value = 0.047

DISCUSSION

From the results obtained in the study, it is quite evident that age acts as a significant factor in

the development of smoking habit. Among the total number of smokers, mostly, it was the

adolescent ranging their age from 15-18. The development of smoking habits in this age is thus

more frequent. Mostly, the youth gets in smoking habits innocently as a fun. The habit developed

at this young age become part of their lifestyle and therefor is difficult to quit.

In relationship between smoking and gender, it was revealed from the study that most of the

respondents favoring smoking i.e., 244 out of 270 were male. This event could either be due to

the
reason that females are more concerned about the social taboos and the family sensitivities to

smoking. Education plays a key role in a person’s character building i.e., forming different

behaviors, and developing different habits including smoking. It was revealed from the study that

the respondents who indulged in smoking were mostly either in high school or had educational

status of below high school graduation. As they progressed in the education achievements, the

ratio of youth involvement in smoking decreased. Academic performance also reflects on

developing habit. Adolescents with high achievements and or young people studying at

university levels are less likely to smoke.

Socioeconomic status figures out to be an important factor in building youth smoking habits.

Study reveals that adolescents from vulnerable groups of societies have higher rates of smoking.

It is mostly due to lesser social support and motivation to quit, increased tobacco addiction, and

increased likelihood of incomplete pharmacological therapy.

The results obtained from this study about the relationship between age, gender, education, SES

and smoking in teen and young adults support the previous studies on the subject.

Remedies to reduce the rate of smoking in youth

Tobacco products use in the youth in any form, i.e., electronic or smokeless is a health hazard

of serious nature. Prevention of smoking is thus a critical requirement to defeat it in the early

age. Tobacco prevention education about tobacco hazards should start right from the elementary

schools where young generation be encouraged to rather make healthy fun seeking choices.

Although some progress has been made in discouraging adolescent tobacco use yet much more

efforts are needed in remedial pursuits. Anti-tobacco mass media campaign would be a key to

success if the children are targeted to antismoking messages through celebrities, physicians, and

personal stories by the victims and the tobacco companies labelling their products with

health
hazard’s graphics/pictures. Smoke-free, laws/regulations, strict penalties for selling contraband

cigarettes and higher tobacco prices are alternate means that make adolescent access to tobacco

products more difficult. Substantial progress is possible if tobacco products are made less

affordable by taxing them prohibitively, ignoring opposition by the powerful tobacco industry.

Above all, steps should be taken to increase the rehabilitation facilities for the young addicts by

providing confidential access to the medications and smoking cessation therapies.

Policy Implication

Success in tobacco use prevention programs in the past, many years is encouraging and making

good progress especially in the developed world. The researchers focus should now shift to other

variables e.g., family-centered interventions which remain greatly ignored till day. Rather, then

continuous concentration on the usual means of preventing smoking initiation in the adolescents,

policy makers should consider involving parents proactively in this endeavor. The negative

effects of parents smoking during pregnancy and the early years of their infant’s upbringing are

made well known to them. Parents smoking and their children exposure to second-hand smoke

remains hurtful at later stages of their siblings’ lives, commencing before birth. Since some of

these health effects are lifelong, parents and the caregivers be intimately made aware of these

health risks aggressively and the means to avoid or reduce them.

Limitations and future perspectives of study

There are hosts of reasons of childhood smoking. Peer pressure, psychological conditions,

stresses, anxiety, attempts to seek excitement, losing weight, family life, cultural messages

through TV and movies are some of the other causes of smoking. This paper however had a

limited view and studied only youth age, gender, education and socioeconomic status on building

a smoking habit. A thorough investigation in all other aspects of adolescent’s smoking would be

appropriate, to make wholesome remedial strategy.

Conclusion

Prevalence has been reduced to 20% in Australia, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, and Sweden as a

result of effective policies being implemented. If the absolute smoking prevalence is just reduced
by 5% till 2020 globally, there will be at least 100 million fewer tobacco-related premature

deaths in people alive today. Additionally, another 50 million deaths would be prevented in

infants born between now and 2030. (Frieden & Bloomberg, 2019) Enormous lives can be

saved if we immediately focus our antismoking campaign more specifically on the developing

world because two-thirds world wise smokers live in low / middle-income countries.

References

o Benjamin, R. (2019). Preventing Tobacco Use Among Youth and Young

Adults [Ebook].Retrievedfromhttps://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/2012/

consumer_booklet/pdfs/consumer.pdf

o Reilly, S. (2019). Second-hand tobacco smoke (SHS) and children [Ebook]. Retrieved

from https://www.who.int/ceh/capacity/tobacco1.pdf

o Berman, M., Snyder, K., & D, J. (2019). Cause and Effect: Tobacco Marketing

IncreasesYouthTobaccoUse [Ebook].Retrievedfromhttps://www.publichealthlawcenter.or

g/sites/default/files/resources/tclc-guide-SGReport-Findings-Youth-Marketing-2012.pdf

o vardavas, c. (2019). Key points in preventing tobacco use among adolescents (p.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2819233/).

o Yue, Y., Hong, L., Guo, L., Gao, X., Deng, J., & Huang, J. et al. (2015). Gender

differences in the association between cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption and

depressive

symptoms:acrosssectionalstudyamongChineseadolescents(p.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go

v/pmc/articles/PMC4671152/).
o Abdalla, A., kaabba, A., saeed, A., Abdulrahman, B., & Raat, H. (2019). Gender

differences in smoking behavior among adolescents in Saudi Arabia [Ebook]. Retrieved

from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9885/3d8afc5902f3725d2d2648f8b8eb4833e8ae.pdf

o Lander, T., Hall, B., Quansah, A., Rojas, C., Sanda, D., Trivedi, S., & Vesta, G.

(2019). Sifting the evidence: gender and tobacco control [Ebook]. Retrieved from

https://www.who.int/tobacco/resources/publications/Sifting%20the

%20evidence.pdf

o Neto, A., & Cruz, Á. (2003). Smoking among school adolescents in Salvador

(Bahia)*(pp.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?

pid=S010235862003000500004&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en).

o Robert, P., Kuipers, M., Rathmann, k., Moor, I., & Kinnunen, J. (2018) (pp.

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02673843.2018.1475288).

o Khuder, S., Price, J., Jordan, T., Khuder, S., & Silvestri, K. (2008). Cigarette Smoking

among Adolescents in Northwest Ohio: Correlates of Prevalence and Age at Onset (pp.

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2500/993be67d689396f099531d6fe94c9206971f.pdf).

o Frieden, T., & Bloomberg, M. (2019). [Ebook]. Retrieved from

http://bear.warrington.ufl.edu/williams/MAR_6930/Readings_files/Frieden

%20%26%20Bloomberg.pdf
 Appendix

Statistics

Age

N Valid 400

Missing 0

Age

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid 15-18 178 44.5 44.5 44.5

18-21 130 32.5 32.5 77.0

21-25 92 23.0 23.0 100.0

Total 400 100.0 100.0

Statistics

Gender

N Valid 400

Missing 0
Gender

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid Male 364 91.0 91.0 91.0

Female 36 9.0 9.0 100.0

Total 400 100.0 100.0

Statistics

Education

N Valid 400

Missing 0

Education

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid less than high school 124 31.0 31.0 31.0

some years in high school 118 29.5 29.5 60.5

or high school graduate

some years in college or 62 15.5 15.5 76.0

bachelor’s degree

some years in graduate 96 24.0 24.0 100.0

school or graduate degree

Total 400 100.0 100.0

Statistics

Socioeconomic Status

N Valid 400

Missing 0
Socioeconomic Status

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid Lower class 166 41.5 41.5 41.5

Middle class 152 38.0 38.0 79.5

Upper class 82 20.5 20.5 100.0

Total 400 100.0 100.0

Statistics

Smoking Status

N Valid 400

Missing 0

Smoking Status

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid Smokers 270 67.5 67.5 67.5

Non-smokers 130 32.5 32.5 100.0

Total 400 100.0 100.0

Case Processing Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Age * Smoking Status 400 100.0% 0 0.0% 400 100.0%

Age * Smoking Status Crosstabulation

Count
 Smoking Status

Smokers Non-smokers Total

Age 15-18 123 55 178

18-21 86 44 130

21-25 61 31 92

Total 270 130 400

Case Processing Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Gender * Smoking Status 400 100.0% 0 0.0% 400 100.0%

Gender * Smoking Status Crosstabulation

Count

Smoking Status

Smokers Non-smokers Total

Gender Male 244 120 364

Female 26 10 36

Total 270 130 400

Case Processing Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Education * Smoking 400 100.0% 0 0.0% 400 100.0%

Status
Education * Smoking Status Crosstabulation

Count

Smoking Status

Smokers Non-smokers Total

Education less than high school 84 40 124

some years in high school 81 37 118

or high school graduate

some years in college or 42 20 62

bachelor’s degree

some years in graduate 63 33 96

school or graduate degree

Total 270 130 400

Case Processing Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Socioeconomic Status * 400 100.0% 0 0.0% 400 100.0%

Smoking Status
Socioeconomic Status * Smoking Status Crosstabulation

Count

Smoking Status

Smokers Non-smokers Total

Socioeconomic Status Lower class 111 55 166

Middle class 104 48 152

Upper class 55 27 82

Total 270 130 400

Case Processing Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Age * Smoking Status 400 100.0% 0 0.0% 400 100.0%

Age * Smoking Status Crosstabulation

Count

Smoking Status

Smokers Non-smokers Total

Age 15-18 123 55 178

18-21 86 44 130

21-25 61 31 92

Total 270 130 400

Chi-Square Tests

Asymptotic
Significance (2-
Value df sided)

Pearson Chi-Square .375a 2 .829

Likelihood Ratio .376 2 .829

N of Valid Cases 400

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum

expected count is 29.90.

Case Processing Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Gender * Smoking Status 400 100.0% 0 0.0% 400 100.0%

Gender * Smoking Status Crosstabulation

Count

Smoking Status

Smokers Non-smokers Total

Gender Male 244 120 364

Female 26 10 36

Total 270 130 400

Chi-Square Tests

Asymptotic
Significance (2- Exact Sig. (2- Exact Sig. (1-
Value df sided) sided) sided)

Pearson Chi-Square .402a 1 .526

Continuity Correction .200 1 .654

Likelihood Ratio .412 1 .521

Fisher's Exact Test .581 .333

N of Valid Cases 400

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 11.70.

b. Computed only for a 2x2 table

Case Processing Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Education * Smoking 400 100.0% 0 0.0% 400 100.0%

Status

Education * Smoking Status Crosstabulation

Count

Smoking Status

Smokers Non-smokers Total

Education less than high school 84 40 124

some years in high school 81 37 118

or high school graduate

some years in college or 42 20 62

bachelor’s degree

some years in graduate 63 33 96

school or graduate degree

Total 270 130 400

Chi-Square Tests

Asymptotic
Significance (2-
Value df sided)

Pearson Chi-Square .229a 3 .973

Likelihood Ratio .228 3 .973

N of Valid Cases 400

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum

expected count is 20.15.

Case Processing Summary

Cases

Valid Missing Total

N Percent N Percent N Percent

Socioeconomic Status * 400 100.0% 0 0.0% 400 100.0%

Smoking Status

Socioeconomic Status * Smoking Status Crosstabulation

Count

Smoking Status

Smokers Non-smokers Total

Socioeconomic Status Lower class 111 55 166

Middle class 104 48 152

Upper class 55 27 82

Total 270 130 400

Chi-Square Tests

Asymptotic
Significance (2-
Value df sided)

Pearson Chi-Square .096a 2 .953

Likelihood Ratio .096 2 .953

N of Valid Cases 400

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum

expected count is 26.65.