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42
Praveen Kumar Malik • Joan Lu 43
B T P Madhav • Geeta Kalkhambkar 44
Swetha Amit 45
Editors 46
Smart Antennas 47
Latest Trends in Design and Application 48

49 Editors
Praveen Kumar Malik Joan Lu
School of Electronics and Electrical School of Computing and Engineering
Engineering University of Huddersfield
Lovely Professional University Huddersfield, United Kingdom
Phagwara, Punjab, India
Geeta Kalkhambkar
B T P Madhav Electronics and Telecommunication
Electronics and Communication Department
Engineering Sant Gajanan Maharaj College of
K L Deemed to be University Engineering
Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India Kolhapur, India
Swetha Amit
Department of Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering
M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology
Bengaluru, India
50 ISSN 2522-8595 ISSN 2522-8609 (electronic)

51 EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing
52 ISBN 978-3-030-76635-1 ISBN 978-3-030-76636-8 (eBook)
53 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76636-8
54 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
55 Switzerland AG 2022
56 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
57 the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
58 illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
59 transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
60 or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
61 The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
62 does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
63 protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
64 The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
65 are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
66 editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
67 errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
68 claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
69 This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
70 The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to my late father, who 71
taught me to be an independent and 72
determined person, without whom I would 73
never be able to achieve my objectives and 74
succeed in life. 75
76
Late (Sr.) Dharamveer Singh 77

Preface 78
This edited book aims to bring together leading academic scientists, researchers, 79
and research scholars to exchange and share their experiences and research results 80
on all aspects of planer and printed antenna design. The book primarily focuses on 81
latest trends in the field of patch and printed antenna design and its applications in 82
various fields of wireless communication, mobile communication, vehicular com- 83
munication, and wearable applications. Students from different branches of elec- 84
tronics, communication, and electrical engineering, researchers, and industry 85
persons will benefit from this book. This book provides the literature students and 86 AU1
researchers can use to design antennas for the above-mentioned applications. It also 87
provides a premier interdisciplinary platform for researchers, practitioners, and edu- 88
cators to present and discuss the most recent innovations, trends, and concerns as 89
well as practical challenges encountered and solutions adopted in the field of planer 90
antenna design. 91
Phagwara, Punjab, India Praveen Kumar Malik 92

Huddersfield, UK Joan Lu 93
Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India B. T. P. Madhav 94
Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India Geeta Kalkhambkar 95
Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Swetha Amit 96
vii
Contents 97
Part I Overview and Introduction of Microstrip Antenna 98

Microstrip Antenna: An Overview and Its Performance Parameter�� 3 99
Hirendra Das, Mridusmita Sharma, and Qiang Xu 100
Compact Dual-Fed Self-Diplexing Antenna

A 101
for Wireless Communication Application�� 15 102
Alpesh Vala, Amit V. Patel, Rashmi Vaghela, Keyur Mahant, 103
Hiren Mewada, Esraa Ali, and Biren Patel 104

Multiband Slot Microstrip Antenna for Wireless Applications �� 23 105
Mehaboob Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran 106

Effect of Encapsulating Materials on Monopole Antenna 107
Performance for Underwater Communication �� 35 108

Parasitic Antennas for Current and Future Wireless Communication 110
Systems: Trends, Challenges, and Emerging Aspects�� 43 111
Roktim Konch, Sivaranjan Goswami, Kumaresh Sarmah, 112
Kandarpa Kumar Sarma, and Nikos Mastorakia 113

Multiband Laptop Antenna with Enhanced Bandwidth 114
for WLAN/WiMAX/GPS Wireless Applications �� 55 115
Trushit Upadhyaya, Killol Pandya, Arpan Desai, Upesh Patel, 116
Rajat Pandey, and Merih Palandoken 117
Part II Performance Analysis of Micro-strip Antenna 118

Antenna Optimization Using Taguchi’s Method�� 69 119
Archana Tiwari and A. A. Khurshid 120
ix
123
122
121 x Contents
124
125 Novel Compact Frequency and Polarization Reconfigurable
A
126 Slot Antenna Using PIN Diodes for Cognitive Radio Applications �� 85
127 V. N. Lakshmana Kumar, M. Satyanarayana, Sohanpal Singh,
128 and Dac-Nhuong Le
129
Mathematical Analysis and Optimization of a Remodeled Circular
130 Patch for 5G Communication �� 97
131 Ribhu Abhusan Panda and Debasis Mishra
132
Study of Various Beamformers and Smart Antenna
133 Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile Communication�� 111
134 Elizabeth Caroline Britto, Sathish Kumar Danasegaran,
135 Susan Christina Xavier, A. Sridevi, and Abdul Rahim Sadiq Batcha
136
Microstrip Patch Antennas: Past and Present State of the Art �� 131
137 Manish Sharma
138 Part III Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) Antenna Design and Uses
139
Planar Design, Analysis, and Characterization of
140 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Antenna �� 149
141 Manish Sharma
142
Design of Smooth Curved Hexagonal-Shaped Four-Element
143 MIMO Antenna for WiMAX, Wi-Fi, and 5G Applications�� 163
144 S. Rekha, G. Shine Let, and Madam Singh
145 Quad-Port Orthogonal Wideband MIMO Antenna Employing Artificial
A
146 Magnetic Conductor for 60 GHz Millimeter-Wave Applications�� 179
147 G. Viswanadh Raviteja
148 Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model: Existing
5G
149 Channel Estimation Algorithms and Its Review �� 193
150 Nilofer Shaik and Praveen Kumar Malik
151 Part IV Fractal and Defected Ground Structure Microstrip Antenna

152 Dual-Band Compact Transparent Fractal Antenna
153 for Smart WLAN Applications �� 213
154 Minesh Thaker, Ashwin Patani, Arpan Desai, and Trushit Upadhyaya
155 Tapered Circular CPW-Fed Wideband Fractal Patch Antenna
A
156 for IoT Applications �� 223
157 Geeta Kalkhambkar, Rajashri Khanai, Pradeep Chindhi,
158 and Pradeep Kumar
159 Novel Ultra-Wideband Monopole Antenna with Defected
A
160 Ground Structure for X-Band and WiMAX Applications �� 233
161 T. Poornima and Korhan Cengiz
162
163
Contents xi 166
165
164

Design and Analysis of DGS-Based Fractal Antenna 167
168
for Metrological Satellite �� 247 169
Vimlesh Singh, Amit Kumar, and Mahesh Kumar Aghwariya 170
Part V Importance and Uses of Microstrip Antenna in IoT 171

Applications of Microstrip Antenna in IoT �� 259 172
Amit Kumar, Mahesh Kumar Agwariya, and Vimlesh Singh 173

Design of High Gain and Low Side Lobe Smart Antenna Array 174
for IoT Applications on Human Monitoring �� 267 175
Mihir Narayan Mohanty, Shaktijeet Mahapatra, Sarmistha Satrusallya, 176
and Amit Kant Pandit 177

Planar Multiband Smart Antenna for Wireless 178
Communication Applications�� 285 179
B. Elizabeth Caroline, B. Neeththi Aadithiya, J. Jeyarani, 180
and Abdul Rahim Sadiq Batcha 181
Part VI Ultra-Wide-Band Antenna Design for Wearable Applications 182
Low-Profile Compact EBG Integrated Circular Monopole

A 183
Antenna for Wearable Medical Application�� 301 184
Prasad Jones Christydass Sam, U. Surendar, Unwana M. Ekpe, 185
M. Saravanan, and P. Satheesh Kumar 186
Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna for Wearable Application�� 315 187

Pranita Manish Potey, Kushal Tuckley, and Anjali Thakare 188
Terahertz Antenna Technology for Detection 189

of Explosives and Weapons: A Concise Review�� 331 190
A. Praveena, V. A. Sankar Ponnapalli, and G. Umamaheswari 191
Part VII Microstrip Antenna Design for Various 192

and Miscellaneous Applications 193

Determination of Moisture Content from Microstrip 194
Moisture Sensor with Minimum Mean Relative Error�� 345 195
Sweety Jain 196
Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector 197

for 5G Smart Antenna Applications �� 359 198
J. V. Gaitonde and R. B. Lohani 199

Bandwidth Optimization of a Novel Slotted Fractal Antenna 200
Using Modified Lightning Attachment Procedure Optimization�� 379 201
Rohit Anand and Paras Chawla 202
203
204
207
206
205 xii Contents
208
209
Design and Fabrication of Axially Corrugated Gaussian
210 Profiled Horn Antenna�� 393
211 Prashant D. Sachaniya, Jagdishkumar M. Rathod, and Utkal Mehta
212
Antipodal Vivaldi Antennas Arranged in Circular Array for RADAR�� 405
213 Sasmita Mohapatra
214 Index�� 415

215
216
About the Editor 217
Praveen Kumar Malik is a professor in the School of Electronics and Electrical 218

Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India. He received 219
his B.Tech. in 2000, M.Tech. (Honors) in 2010, and Ph.D. in 2015 with specializa- 220
tion in wireless communication and antenna design. He has authored or coauthored 221
more than 40 technical research papers published in leading journals and confer- 222
ences by the IEEE, Elsevier, Springer, and Wiley. Some of his research findings are 223
published in top cited journals. He has also published three edited/authored books 224
with international publishers. Dr. Malik has guided several M.E./M.Tech. and 225
Ph.D. students. He is associate editor of different journals. His current interest 226
includes micro-strip antenna design, MIMO, vehicular communication, and IoT. He 227
has been as guest editor/editorial board member of many international journals, 228
invited keynote speaker at many international conferences in Asia, and invited pro- 229
gram chair, publications chair, publicity chair, and session chair at many interna- 230
tional conferences. Dr. Malik has been granted two design patents, and few more are 231
in the pipeline. 232
Joan Lu is in the Department of Computer Science and is the research group 233
leader of Information and System Engineering (ISE) at the Centre for High 234
Intelligent Computing (CHIC), having previously been team leader in the IT depart- 235
ment of Charlesworth Group publishing company. She successfully led and com- 236
pleted two research projects in the area of XML database systems and document 237
processing in collaboration with Beijing University. Both systems were deployed as 238
part of company commercial productions. Professor Lu has published seven aca- 239
demic books and more than 200 peer-reviewed academic papers. Her research pub- 240
lications have 1388 reads and 185 citations by international colleagues, according 241
to incomplete statistics from the research gate. Professor Lu has acted as the founder 242
and a program chair for the International XML Technology Workshop for 11 years 243
and serves as chair of various international conferences. She is the founder and 244
editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Information Retrieval Research and 245
serves as a BCS examiner of Database and Advanced Database Management 246
Systems, and is an FHEA. She has been the UOH principle investigator for four 247
xiii
xiv About the Editor
248 recent EU interdisciplinary (computer science and psychology) projects: Edumecca

249 (student responses system) (143545-LLP-NO-KA3-KA3MP), DO-IT (multilingual
250 student response system) used by more than 15 EU countries (2009-1-NO1-
251 LEO05-01046), and DONE-IT (mobile exam system) (511485-LLP-1-2010-NO-
252 KA3-KA3MP), HRLAW2016 - 3090 / 001 - 001.
253 B. T. P. Madhav was born in Andhra Pradesh, India, in 1981. He received his
254 B.Sc., M.Sc., MBA, and M.Tech. degrees from Nagarjuna University, A.P, India, in
255 2001, 2003, 2007, and 2009, respectively. He received his Ph.D. in the field of
256 antennas from KLEF. Currently he is working as professor and associate dean at
257 KLEF. He has published more than 496 papers in international and national journals
258 and conferences. He has a Scopus and SCI publications of 336 with H-Index of 32
259 and total citations are more than 3842. Madhav is reviewer for several international
260 journals by IEEE, Elsevier, Springer, Wiley, and Taylor and Francis and has served
261 as reviewer for several international conferences. His research interests include
262 antennas, liquid crystals applications, and wireless communications. He is a mem-
263 ber of IEEE and life member of ISTE, IACSIT, IRACST, IAENG, and UACEE, and
264 fellow of IAEME. Madhav has received several awards, such as record holder in the
265 Indian Book of Records and Asian Book of Records, outstanding reviewer award
266 from Elsevier, and best researcher and distinguished researcher awards from K L
267 University. He has received best teacher award from KLU for 2011, 2012, 2013,
268 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2019; excellent citation award from IJIES; and
269 outstanding faculty award from Venus International; and many more. Madhav is the
270 editorial board member for 46 journals. He has authored 15 books and published 12
271 patents. He has guided three Ph.D. scholars for awards, three of his Ph.D. scholars
272 submitted their theses, and six scholars are pursuing Ph.D.
273 Swetha Amit received her Ph.D. in electronics engineering from Jain University,
274 Bangalore, in 2018; M.Tech. in communication systems from R. V. College of
275 Engineering, Bangalore, securing gold medal in 2009; and B.E. from AIT,
276 Chikmagalur, in 2005. She is presently working as assistant professor in the
277 Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, M S Ramaiah
278 Institute of Technology, Bangalore. Her research work is on antenna design, wear-
279 able and textile antenna, SAR analysis and reduction of radiation in human body,
280 liquid antennas, and metamaterials. Dr. Amit was awarded first place jointly with a
281 startup company Avgarde Systems Pvt Ltd for winning Defense India Startup
282 Challenge (DISC 4) 2021. She has published over 35 articles in journals and confer-
283 ences, has patents to her credit, and written book chapters, in addition to guest lec-
284 tures. She has two ongoing government-funded projects with AICTE MODROBS
285 and VGST K_FIST Level 2 for 50 Lakhs. Dr. Amit has several consultancy projects
286 and a YouTube Channel “Antenna’s Enclave.”
About the Editor xv
Geeta Kalkhambkar is working as a Ph.D. scholar in the Department of 287

Electronics and Telecommunication at KLE Dr. MSSCET, Belagavi, India, and 288
research and development head at Sant Gajanan Maharaj College of Engineering, 289
Mahagaon, Maharashtra. Her research interest includes studies on multifrequency, 290
ultra-wideband antennas computational electronics, fractal and slotted antennas, 291
and miniaturized antennas for Internet of Things applications. She has contributed 292
over eight research papers and published two books. 293
Author Query
Chapter No.: 0005144000
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Part I 1
Overview and Introduction of Microstrip 2
Antenna 3
Microstrip Antenna: An Overview and Its 1
Performance Parameter 2
Hirendra Das, Mridusmita Sharma, and Qiang Xu 3
1 Introduction 4
Antennas are the most critical components in modern age for wireless communica- 5
tions. The first wireless electromagnetic system was demonstrated in 1886 [1], and 6
in 1901, Marconi succeeded in sending signals over long distances from England to 7
Newfoundland, Canada. In 1950, the idea of microstrip antenna was first introduced 8
[2]; however, it took almost 20 years for researchers to practically realize the con- 9
cept, thanks to the development of printed circuit board (PCB) in the 1970s [3]. The 10
necessity for having antennas with low profile, low weight, low cost, easy integra- 11
tion into arrays and microwave-integrated circuits, or polarization diversity, encour- 12
aged the researchers to develop microstrip antennas [4, 5]. The compatibility of 13
microstrip antennas with integrated electronics is very evident and is a great impe- 14
tus to antenna designers particularly so, now that a large variety of new substrate 15
materials are commercially available in the market. Unlike other antennas, microstrip 16
patch antennas can be configured with either the transmitting or receiving modes of 17
operations. The limitations of the original microstrip antennas such as narrow 18
bandwidth, poor polarization purity, spurious feed radiation, limited 19
H. Das (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication Technology, Gauhati University,
Guwahati, Assam, India
e-mail: hirendra@gauhati.ac.in
M. Sharma
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Gauhati University,
Q. Xu
Department of Engineering and Technology, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, UK
e-mail: Q.Xu2@hud.ac.uk
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 3

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76636-8_1
4 H. Das et al.
20 power-handling capacity, and tolerance problems have been overcome by continu-

21 ous research, design developments, and performance optimizations. This leads to
22 the design of novel microstrip antenna configurations with accurate and versatile
23 analytical models for the understanding of inherent limitation of microstrip anten-
24 nas to satisfy increasingly stringent system requirements [6, 7]. The three main
25 fundamental disadvantages of microstrip antenna are narrow bandwidth, low gain,
26 and relatively large size. Among these three, narrow bandwidth is the most signifi-
27 cant one and can be directly improved by increasing the substrate thickness.
28 However, with increasing thickness of the substrate, the radiation power decreases
29 [8]. Different ways are proposed by the researchers to improve the bandwidth of the
30 antenna without compromising the radiation power, including impedance matching
31 networks using stub [9, 10]; novel designs [11, 12]; using different shapes and sizes
32 of shots on the patch or in the ground plane such as U, step U, half step U, and
33 L-shaped rectangular microstrip antenna [13]; W-shaped patch antenna [14]; M-slot
34 folded patch antenna [15]; microstrip antennas using magneto-dielectric substrate
35 [16]; complementary rhombus resonator [17]; nanomaterial-based microstrip
36 antenna [18]; etc. The low-gain problem can be solved by using cavity backing,
37 which eliminates the bidirectional radiation to provide higher gain compared to
38 conventional microstrip antenna [19]. The large size of the microstrip antenna par-
39 ticularly at lower microwave frequencies is another limitation which could be
40 addressed by inductive or capacitive loading techniques [20] to fabricate electrically
41 small microstrip antenna. In some other studies, works are also reported on different
42 composite metamaterial resonators and magneto-dielectric substrate-based
43 microstrip antennas for size reduction.
44 It is evident from the above discussion that continuous improvements and perfor-
45 mance enhancement of microstrip antenna are ongoing to meet the demands of
46 compact, highly efficient, lightweight, and low-cost devices. Lately, the demand of
47 compact wireless designs has necessitated the importance of continuously size-
48 decreasing configurations. Emerging novel nanomaterials could also play an impor-
49 tant part in the development of next-generation microstrip patch antennas. However,
50 it is important to have a balance among bandwidth, gain, and size of microstrip
51 antenna. In this chapter, we will discuss the basic theory and different design and
52 performance parameters of microstrip antennas followed by a state-of-the-art review
53 of the recent trends in this area.
54 2 D
esign and Performance Parameters of Microstrip
55 Antenna: An Overview
56 Due to features like compact design, efficiency, high performance, lightweight, low
57 cost, etc., microstrip patch antennas (MPA) have become common elements in mod-
58 ern transmit-receive systems. The microstrip antennas are often termed as microstrip
59 patch antenna (MPA). The radiating elements and feed lines are usually photo
60 etched on the dielectric substrate. The basic structure of a rectangular microstrip
61 patch antenna is shown in Fig. 1a. Depending on the shape of the patch, the antenna
Microstrip Antenna: An Overview and Its Performance Parameter 5
Fig. 1 (a) Schematic of a rectangular microstrip patch antenna (b) Shapes of microstrip
patch element
may be square, rectangular, thin strip (dipole), circular, elliptical, triangular, or any 62
other configuration as shown in Fig. 1b. The length “L” defines the resonant fre- 63
quency of the antenna, and width “W” determines the radiation which in turn deter- 64
mines the bandwidth and gain of the antenna. There are many feeding methods 65
which can be used in microstrip antennas. The traditional microstrip antennas have 66
the impedance bandwidth of only a few percent and radiation pattern with omnidi- 67
rection, which obviously does not meet the requirements of various wireless appli- 68
cations. To solve this problem, a variety of different design topologies have been 69
used with different microstrip antenna element structures and different microstrip 70
array arrangements to meet the requirements of ultra-wideband (UWB), high-gain, 71
multi-polarized, and compact design. 72
2.1 Feeding Techniques 73
Feeding techniques are one of the most important things to be considered while 74
designing a microstrip antenna because many potential good designs have been 75
rejected because of their bad feeding quality. The four most commonly used feeding 76
techniques are microstrip line feed, coaxial feed, aperture coupling, and proximity 77
coupling. The schematic diagram of the four types of feeding techniques is given 78
in Fig. 2. 79
Microstrip line feeding is the most widely used technique because of its simplic- 80
ity in design and easy manufacturing process [21–23]. Figure 2a shows a patch with 81
microstrip line feed from the side of the patch. This type of feeding is used in both 82
single- and multi-patch (array) antennas. Coaxial feed which is also known as co- 83
planner feed is one of the cheapest and simplest ways to couple power to the patch 84
antenna through a probe. The N-coaxial connector is coupled to the ground plane, 85
and the center connector of the cable is soldered to the patch as shown in Fig. 2b. 86
6 H. Das et al.
Fig. 2 A schematic representation of different feeding techniques used in microstrip antenna
87 The coaxial feed connected at exactly 50 ohm does not require any external match-
88 ing network for impedance matching.
89 Proximity coupled, which is also known as electromagnetically coupled,
90 microstrip feed is shown in Fig. 2c. Two different substrates with different dielectric
91 constants are used at the top and bottom of this structure as ground plane. The patch
92 is at the top, and the microstrip line is connected to the power source lying between
93 the two substrates. The working principle is based on the capacitive behavior of the
94 patch and the feed strip line which can be used for impedance matching of the
95 antenna. This design is relatively complicated compared to the earlier two tech-
96 niques. Figure 2d shows the aperture coupling mechanism used for microstrip
97 antenna. A circular or rectangular aperture at the ground plane separates the upper
98 substrate εr1 with the patch on it and the lower substrate εr2 which contains the
99 microstrip feed line under it. A wider bandwidth can be achieved using this feeding
100 technique with improved polarization purity.
101 All the feeding techniques have their advantages and disadvantages and are used
102 based on the requirements. A comparison between different parameters of the four
103 feeding techniques can be seen in Fig. 3. From the pie chart, a comparison among
104 return loss, bandwidth, and impedance of the four feeding techniques could be
105 obtained. Microstrip feed provides balanced characteristics among the four, except
106 the bandwidth. Aperture feed provides the best bandwidth, whereas return loss is
107 maximum for coaxial feeding technique. The discussion and comparison of feeding
108 techniques are very important as they affect important parameters of the microstrip
109 antenna such as the bandwidth, patch size, VSWR, and return loss up to a great
110 extent. Table 1 shows an overall comparison among the parameters of different
111 feeding techniques.
Fig. 3 Comparison of return loss, bandwidth, and impedance parameters of different feeding
techniques
Table 1 Parameters of different feeding techniques: a comparison t1.1
Characteristic Microstrip feed Aperture feed Coaxial feed Proximity feed t1.2
Bandwidth 2–5% 21% 2–5% 13% t1.3
Return loss Less Less More More t1.4
Impedance matching Easy Easy Easy Easy t1.5
Reliability Better Good Poor Good t1.6
Resonant frequency More Least Less Highest t1.7
VSWR < 1.5 ~2 1.4–1.8 < 1.23 t1.8
Polarization Poor Excellent Poor Poor t1.9
2.2 Performance Parameters 112
2.2.1 Directivity and Gain 113
The directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity U in a 114
given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all 115
directions. 116
Mathematically it can be represented as: 117
4 U
Directivity D (1)
Prd
118
Here, Prd is antenna input power. 119

Gain can be defined as the directivity reduced by losses on the antenna structure. 120
Losses are represented by radiation efficiency er (0 ≤ er ≤ 1). Mathematically: 121
Gain G e r D (2)
122
Continuous works are being reported by the researchers to enhance the directiv- 123
ity and gain of the MPA. A narrow bandwidth (BW) and unidirectional dual-layer 124
8 H. Das et al.
125 microstrip patch antenna with small-sized design for specific use in security and
126 military systems were designed in 2014 [24], where they have achieved a gain of
127 5.2 dB with directivity 7.6 dB by using a dual substrate layer of FR-4 of thickness
128 of 1.6 mm. Another report proposed two MPA arrays with enhanced gains of 12.41
129 and 10.11 dB as compared to 5.06 dB of conventional microstrip antenna array [25].
130 In a recent study, enhancement of gain up to 5.54 dB was reported using proximity
131 coupled MPA operating in 7.067GHz–7.40 GHz frequency range [26].
132 2.2.2 Return Loss
133 The return loss of MPA can be given by the measure of how properly the devices or
134 lines are matched. For a mismatched load, the whole input power is not delivered to
135 the load, and a fraction of the power is returned, which is termed as return loss.
136 Mathematically it can be given by:
Pin
R L dB 10 log10 (3)
Prd
137
138 where RL → return loss in dB

139 Pin → incident radiation
140 Prd → reflected power.
141 From Eq. 3, return loss can also be defined as the logarithmic ratio of the antenna
142 input power from the transmission line to the antenna’s reflected power.
SWR
R L 20 log10 (4)
143 SWR 1
144 Here, SWR is the standing wave ratio. Return loss is an important parameter to
145 describe the quality of the MPA, and several studies can be found in this area
146 [27–29].
147 2.2.3 Radiating Pattern and Efficiency
148 It is defined as the ratio of radiating power to the incident power of the antenna. The
149 value of radiating efficiency lies between 0 and 1, and “d” is measured in terms of
150 percentage (%). Mathematically it is given by:
Prd
er = (5)
Pin
151
152 Here, er → radiating power. It is less than 100% due to the losses in the antenna.
Fig. 4 (a) 3D Radiation pattern and (b) efficiency vs. frequency graph of a microstrip antenna
Antenna efficiency is given by the radiation efficiency multiplied by the imped- 153
ance mismatch, which is always less than the radiating efficiency. Researchers are 154
continuously working to enhance the efficiency of MPA using different designs and 155
other techniques, which can be found in various reports [30–33]. The 3D simulated 156
radiation pattern and efficiency of a novel microstrip patch antenna designed at 157
1.84 GHz is shown in Fig. 4a and b, respectively. From the radiation pattern, it can 158
be observed that the maximum gain for the microstrip antenna is 2.86 dB. 159
2.3 Microstrip Antenna Topologies: A Review of Literature 160
A wide variety of MPA design topologies, along with different microstrip antenna 161
element structures and array arrangements, have been investigated throughout the 162
years by the researchers to achieve high gain and ultra-wideband operations. The 163
lowest frequency for which microstrip antenna is designed and fabricated is 164
450 MHz, published in 2017 [34]. The highest-frequency microstrip antenna pub- 165
lished till date is 60 GHz antenna reported in 2019 [35]. They measured a band- 166
width of 4.92 GHz for this antenna that covers channels 2 and 3 of 60 GHz WLAN/ 167
WPAN applications. A novel wideband quasi-Yagi microstrip antenna design with 168
operating frequency in the range of 4.4–9.6 GHz and gain higher than 5 dB at most 169
frequency band was reported [36]. Works are being reported on the design of a 170
wideband planar microstrip-fed quasi-Yagi antenna using two rows of directors to 171
achieve a higher gain [37]. This proposed structure results a frequency range of 172
1.84–4.59 GHz and a gain of about 4.5–9.3 dB. 173
The current emerging wireless systems and radar applications require wide fre- 174
quency bands, which encourages the researchers to design wideband antennas. In a 175
recent study, researchers have proposed a compact high-gain quasi-Yagi antenna 176
array using split-ring resonator (SRR) at an operating frequency of 2.45 GHz [38]. 177
The SSR antenna could be used to suppress mutual coupling with possible high 178
gain. Ground-plane slot microstrip antennas have the advantages of large bandwidth 179
and good impedance matching [39]. Works are also being proposed by researchers 180
10 H. Das et al.
181 on combining different types of MPA and frequency selective surfaces (FSSs) to
182 enhance certain antenna characteristics [40, 41]. Researchers have also used FSS
183 superstrate layer to increase the impedance bandwidth as well as the gain of an
184 aperture coupled microstrip patch antenna [42]. Other significant works and recent
185 developments are also being reported on the use of microstrip antennas for broad-
186 band applications [43, 44], mobile and satellite 5G communication [45, 46], radio-
187 frequency identification [47], WLAN/WiMAX applications [48], automobile
188 application [49], and so on.
189 In recent times, researchers are also exploring the idea of nanomaterial and low-
190 dimensional structure-based efficient microstrip antenna for a wide range of appli-
191 cations. Tools like physical vapor deposition (PVD) and chemical vapor deposition
192 (CVD) can be used to deposit the required amount of conductive patch material on
193 the dielectric substrate instead of the conventional lithographic process or removing
194 the unwanted metal from a dielectric substrate. Nano-thin films as radiating patch
195 used to fabricate aperture coupled microstrip patch antenna (ACMPA) by research-
196 ers were reported in 2012 [50]. A nanotechnology-based proximity coupled patch
197 antenna in the X band frequencies was reported in 2013 [51]. They have discussed
198 the effect of nano-thin films as radiating patch on the antenna resonant frequency
199 and bandwidth. Nano-fillers such as fumed silica and aluminum oxide were used
200 with RT/duroid 5880 to fabricate antenna substrates with compact dimensions [52].
201 Silver nanoparticles are used to fabricate flexible microstrip antenna using a poly-
202 mer substrate [53]. An inkjet printer was used to print the antenna using the silver
203 nanoparticles. The said antenna is flexible and weighs only 0.208 g, which makes it
204 suitable for applications in wearable electronic devices. Works are also reported on
205 the use of carbon nanotube-based patch for microstrip antenna design to enhance
206 the gain of the system [54]. The reported multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)-
207 based microstrip patch antenna was fabricated using spin coating technique operat-
208 ing in the frequency range of 8.5–11 GHz, which exhibits an increased impedance
209 bandwidth of 20%. In a recent study, researchers have reported investigation of
210 graphene-based microstrip radiating structure for possible use in L- and S-band
211 applications [55]. They obtained a multiband and tunable frequency response by
212 changing the reflection coefficient by varying the chemical potential of graphene.
213 The designed antenna showed the highest gain of 9.42 dB at a resonance frequency
214 of 3.25 GHz.
215 3 Design Parameters of Microstrip Antenna
216 The performance of MPA depends on different design parameters. One major design
217 parameter is the choice of the substrate. Substrate dielectric constant and thickness
218 are two major parameters for the selection of substrate. A few popular substrates for
219 MPA with the most pertinent parameters, such as substrate name, thickness, dielec-
220 tric constant, frequency range, and loss tangent, are given in Table 2.
Table 2 Different substrates with most pertinent parameters t2.1
Substrate Thickness (mm) Dielectric constant (εr) Frequency (GHz) Loss tangent (tanδ) t2.2
Duroid 5880 0.127 2.20 0–40 0.0009 t2.3
RO 3003 1.575 3.00 0–40 0.0010 t2.4
RO 3010 3.175 10.2 0–10 0.0022 t2.5
RO 4350 0.168 3.48 0–10 0.0037 t2.6
HK 04 J 0.025 3.50 0.001 0.0050 t2.7
IS 410 0.05–3.2 0.10 5.40 0.0350 t2.8
FR4 0.05–100 4.70 0.001 – t2.9
DiClad 870 0.091 2.33 0–10 0.0013 t2.10
RF-60A 0.102 6.15 0–10 0.0038 t2.11
NH 9320 3.175 3.20 0–10 0.0024 t2.12
Polyguide 0.102 2.32 0–10 0.0005 t2.13
Apart from the abovementioned substrates, many others are also present in the 221
market. From the above, RO series along with FR4 is very popular for microstrip 222
antenna design. The bandwidth of the antenna related to the material substrate is 223
given by the following equation: 224
r t
96
r 0
BW (6)
2 4 17 r r
225
where “t” is the thickness of the substrate and “λ0” is resonance frequency wave- 226
length. The term r r is known as miniaturization factor or refractive index, 227
which determines the size of the antenna. 228
The dimensions of the patch (length and width) are also vital for antenna perfor- 229
mance. “W” is always related to the radiation edge, whereas “L” is always related 230
to the non-radiating edge. The width for an efficient radiator is given by: 231
1
c r 1 2
W (7)
2 fr 2
232
where c → velocity of light 233

fr → antenna operating frequency 234
εr → dielectric constant. 235
The length of the patch is given by: 236
c
L 2 l
2 fr e
(8) 237
12 H. Das et al.
238 Here, εe is the effective dielectric constant, and Δl represents the line extension
239 at the ends given by Hammerstad as:
e 0.3 w / t 0.264
l 0.412 h
240
e 0.258 w / t 0.8 (9)
241 where “t” is the substrate thickness.
242 4 Conclusions
243 A brief overview of microstrip antenna with different performance and design
244 parameters is provided in this chapter. From the above discussion, it can be observed
245 that using different substrates and feeding techniques and controlling the perfor-
246 mance parameters, MPAs can be designed with different topologies and structures
247 to meet the modern-day requirements such as high flexibility, high gain and band-
248 width, compact, lightweight, and low cost. A state-of-the-art literature review is also
249 included in the chapter to outline the continuous research development works in this
250 field and future prospects for these structures. It is also observed from the study that
251 extensive works are ongoing nanomaterial-based microstrip antennas, which are
252 showing promising improvements in recent years. These new classes of materials
253 could be a game changer for developments of next-generation microstrip antennas.
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A Compact Dual-Fed Self-Diplexing 1
Antenna for Wireless Communication 2
Application 3
Alpesh Vala, Amit V. Patel, Rashmi Vaghela, Keyur Mahant, Hiren Mewada, 4

Esraa Ali, and Biren Patel 5
1 Introduction 6
Modern wireless communication system requires a multi-band antenna system with 7

better performance in terms of gain, size, and isolation among the frequency band 8
[1, 2]. The wireless device operated at different frequencies requires the dual-band 9
antenna with high isolation between ports. To reduce the requirement of the diplexer, 10
the idea of self-diplexing antenna is used nowadays. By reducing the required com- 11
ponent, it results in a less-dense RF front-end as well as a lower cost. 12
Various efforts are put by the researcher for the development of diplexer and 13
triplexer antennas. A substrate integrated waveguide (SIW)-based self-triplexer 14
antenna is proposed in [1]. Cavity-backed slot antenna concept is used for the real- 15
ization of the antenna. A self-diplexer antenna concept using half-mode SIW 16
(HMSIW) is proposed in [2]. A tunable self-diplexing patch antenna is proposed by 17
[3], in which two U-shapes are etched on the radiating patch and fed by two ports. 18
A. Vala · A. V. Patel (*) · R. Vaghela · K. Mahant

Chandubhai S Patel Institute of Technology, Charotar University of Science and Technology
(CHARUSAT University), Anand, Gujarat, India
e-mail: alpeshvala.ec@charusat.ac.in; amitvpatel.ec@charusat.ac.in; keyurmahant.ec@
charusat.ac.in
H. Mewada
Electrical Engineering Department, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University,
Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: hmewada@pmu.edu.sa
E. Ali
Aviation Science Faculty, Amman Arab University, Amman, Jordan
B. Patel
General Dynamics Mission System, Fairfax, VA, USA

Switzerland AG 2022
16 A. Vala et al.
19 A multilayer patch antenna with additional filtering techniques to improve the port’s
20 isolation is given in [4, 5]. A nonplanar self-diplexing antenna is proposed in [6, 7].
21 A self-diplexing patch antenna design based on slot antenna concept is proposed
22 in this paper. A circular patch is divided into two parts, with the slot on the top
23 plane. Rectangular and tilted shape slots are created on top of the patch, excited by
24 two separate feed lines to resonate at two different frequencies in S-band 2.4 GHz
25 (2–4 GHz) and C-band 4.3 GHz (4–8 GHz). A high return loss and better isolation
26 between two input ports are achieved by properly optimizing the antenna dimensions.
27 2 Realization of Self-Diplexing Antenna
28 To realize the self-diplexing antenna, initially, a circular patch antenna is designed

29 for the cutoff frequency of 2.4 GHz. Equation 1 is used to calculate the diameter of
30 the patch. Inset type of feeding is used in a proposed antenna. Figure 1a shows the
31 patch antenna design with its associate dimension. Simulation is carried out with the
32 high-frequency structure simulator (HFSS) software which used the finite element
33 method. Simulation result of the structure for return loss is shown in Fig. 1b. It pro-
34 vides resonance at 2.4 GHz of frequency.
F
a=
 1
 2h   πF   2
1 +  ln   + 1.7726  
 πε ϒ F   2h   (1)

8.791 × 10 9
F=
35 fr ε r
36 Here in Eq. 1, a is the patch’s radius, εr is the dielectric constant, fr is the reso-
37 nance frequency, and h is the height of the substrate. Fr4 is used as a substrate mate-
38 rial having a dielectric constant of 4.4.
39 For the realization of the self-diplexing antenna, the above structure is divided
40 into two parts, as shown in Fig. 2. Dimensions of Fig. 2 are tabulated in Table 1.
41 Separate excitation is provided to both positions, as shown in Fig. 2. For the realiza-
42 tion of the antennas, two rectangle type slots are provided in the first part. In the
43 second part of the antenna, the tilted type of slots is introduced. A detailed dimen-
44 sion of the proposed antenna is tabulated in Table 1.
45 A simulated S-parameter result of the proposed antenna is shown in Fig. 3. It
46 shows that it provides the resonance at 2.4 GHz of frequency when the excitation is
47 provided at port 1 and resonates at 4.3 GHz of frequency while the excitation is at
48 the port 2. Isolation among the port is near 20 dB, as shown in Fig. 3.
49 Figure 4 indicates the simulation result of the radiation pattern and gain at the
50 required frequency of operation. It provides 3.26 dBi gain at 2.4 GHz of frequency
51 and 3.72 dBi at 4.3 GHz of frequency. A 3D polar plot for the same is shown in Fig. 3.
A Compact Dual-Fed Self-Diplexing Antenna for Wireless Communication Application 17
Fig. 1 (a) Circular patch antenna (b) Simulated return loss
3 Hardware Realization 52
For the proof of concept, the proposed structure is fabricated and tested. Figure 5a 53
shows the realized hardware of the proposed design. Agilent RF analyzer N9912A 54
is used for the measurement. It is a two-port network analyzer with a frequency 55
range of 2 MHz–6 GHz. A test setup for the same is shown in Fig. 5b. A measured 56
result of the realized structure is shown in Fig. 6. It indicates a similar performance 57
as a simulated one. 58
A comparison has been carried out of the proposed antenna with previously pub- 59
lished diplexer antennas in size, resonance frequency, and gain. A comparison table 60
for the same is tabulated in Table 2. The proposed structure provides small size and 61
better gain. 62
18 A. Vala et al.
Fig. 2 Geometry of the

self-diplexing antenna
Fig. 3 Reflection coefficient value of the proposed antenna
Table 1 Dimensions of self-diplexing antenna t1.1
Parameters Height of Wf1 and Wf (width of Lf1 and Lf (length of S1,S2 S3,S4(mm) t1.2
patch h the microstrip line) the microstrip line) (mm) t1.3
(mm) (mm) (mm) t1.4
Value 1.6 3.05 24.76 and 21 14.8, 10, 2 t1.5
1.5 t1.6
Fig. 4 (a) 3D polar plot of simulated proposed antenna at 2.4 GHz and 4.3 GHz (b) Radiation
pattern of simulated proposed antenna at 2.4 GHz and 4.3 GHz
4 Parametric Analysis of the Proposed Structure 63
Parametric analysis is carried out by changing the length and width of the slot. In 64
this section, the effect of the length and width on the antenna performance is dis- 65
cussed. Initially, the length and width of the first antenna are changed. Figure 7a 66
indicates the return loss value for different slot lengths, and Fig. 7b indicates the 67
return loss value for different slot widths. 68
The numerical value of the above analysis is tabulated in Tables 3 and 4. It shows 69
that by changing the slot’s length, it is possible to optimize the resonance frequency. 70
Here the length slot is varied from 8.00 mm to 11.0 mm. The corresponding results 71
indicate that it is possible to change the resonance frequency from 2.4 GHz to 72
2.9 GHz. Similarly, the resonance frequency can be optimized by changing the 73
width of the slot. Figure 8a and b indicates return loss value of various width and 74
slot on antenna one. 75
The numerical value of the above figure is tabulated in Tables 5 and 6. It shows 76
that by changing the slot’s length, it is possible to optimize the return loss value of 77
the resonance frequency. Here the length slot is varied from 12.00 mm to 15.0 mm. 78
20 A. Vala et al.
Fig. 5 (a) Realized structure of the proposed antenna (b) Measurement setup of the pro-
posed antenna
Fig. 6 Measured return loss of the antenna
Table 2 Comparison of the proposed antenna with previously published work t2.1
Resonance frequencies (GHz) Gain (dBi)

Reference Area fr1,fr2 fr1 fr2 t2.2
[8] 0.70 λ × 1.9 λ 6.44, 7.09 3.1 2.78 t2.3
[9] 0.42 λ × 0.85 λ 5.1, 5.2 2.02 2.96 t2.4
[10] 0.49 λ × 0.7 λ 2.1, 2.5 1.96 2.97 t2.5
[11] 0.65 λ × 1.04 λ 3.9, 4.63 3.82 4.23 t2.6
Proposed antenna 0.32 λ × 0.56 λ 2.4, 4.3 3.26 3.72 t2.7
Fig. 7 Return loss value by changing (a) length of the slot (b) width of the slot
Table 3 Parametric analysis by changing the length of the slot t3.1
Slot length (mm) 11.0 10.0 9.00 8.00 t3.2

Parameters Frequency(GHz) 2.57 2.4 2.78 2.99 t3.3
Return loss (dB) −23 −28.9 −21.57 −18.57 t3.4
Gain (dB) 2.83 3.26 2.822 2.87 t3.5
Table 4 Parametric analysis by changing the width of the slot t4.1
Slot width (mm) 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 t4.2

Return loss (dB) −20.67 −24.72 −28.92 −22.92 t4.4
Gain (dB) 3.33 2.71 3.26 3.14 t4.5
Fig. 8 Return loss value by changing (a) width of the slot (b) length of the slot
Table 5 Parametric analysis by changing the length of the slot t5.1
Slot length(mm) 12.0 13.0 14.8 15.0 t5.2

Parameters Frequency (GHz) 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3 t5.3
Return loss (dB) −21.25 −20.00 −21.00 −27.00 t5.4
Gain (dB) 3.609 2.636 3.722 2.892 t5.5
Table 6 Parametric analysis by changing the width of the slot t6.1
Slot width(mm) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 t6.2

Return loss (dB) −30.00 −31.45 −21.00 −18.46 t6.4
Gain (dB) 3.492 2.636 3.722 2.978 t6.5
22 A. Vala et al.
79 The corresponding results indicate that it is possible to change the return loss value
80 of resonance frequency from 20 dB to 27 dB. Similarly, the return loss value of
81 resonance frequency can be optimized by changing the slot’s width.
82 5 Conclusion
83 A compact, high-gain dual-fed self-diplexing antenna is designed and developed in

84 this chapter. The structure is realized by dividing a circular patch antenna into two
85 parts. Rectangular and tilted slots are placed on top of the structure to realize the
86 dual-band response. HFSS software is used for the simulation of the design. The
87 proposed design resonates at two frequencies, 2.4 GHz and 4.3 GHz, with more
88 than 20 dB return loss. Sufficient isolation of 20 dB is achieved between two ports.
89 Hardware is developed to prove the concept; the measured result of the proposed
90 structure is quite similar to the simulated one. Parametric analysis is carried out to
91 tune the resonance frequency and to achieve a better return loss.
92 References
93 1. Vala, A., Patel, A.: A multi-band SIW based antenna for wireless communication. Int.
94 J. Electron. Lett. 9, 1–9 (2020)
95 2. Vala, A., Patel, A.V., Mahant, K., Chaudhari, J., Mewada, H.K.: HMSIW-and QMSIW-based
96 antenna for wireless communication application. Circuit World. (2021)
97 3. Boukarkar, A., Lin, X.Q., Jiang, Y., Yu, Y.Q.: A tunable dual-fed self-diplexing patch antenna.
98 IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 65(6), 2874–2879 (2017)
99 4. Montero de Paz, J., Muñoz, E.U., Martínez, F.J.H., Posadas, V.G., Muñoz, L.E.G., Vargas,
100 D.S.: Multifrequency self-diplexed single patch antennas loaded with split ring resonators.
101 Prog. Electromagn. Res. 113, 47–66 (2011)
102 5. Herraiz-Martinez, F.J., Ugarte-Munoz, E., Gonzalez-Posadas, V., Garcia-Munoz, L.E.,
103 Segovia-Vargas, D.: Self-diplexed patch antennas based on metamaterials for active RFID
104 systems. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 57(5), 1330–1340 (2009)
105 6. Boyle, K.R., Udink, M., de Graauw, A., Ligthart, L.P.: A dual-fed, self-diplexing PIFA and RF
106 front-end. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 55(2), 373–382 (2007)
107 7. Chang, C.-C., Row, J.-S.: Dual-feed dual-polarized patch antenna with low cross polarization
108 and high isolation. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 57(10), 3405–3409 (2009)
109 8. Luo, G.Q., Hu, Z.F., Dong, L.X., Sun, L.L.: Planar slot antenna backed by substrate integrated
110 waveguide cavity. IEEE Antenna Wirel. Propag. Lett. 7, 236–239 (2008)
111 9. Herraiz-Martinez, F.J., Ugarte-Munoz, E., Gonzalez-Posadas, V., Garcia-Munoz, L.E.,
112 Segovia-Vargas, D.: Self-diplexed patch antennas based on metamaterials for active RFID
113 systems. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 57(5), 1330–1340 (2009)
114 10. Boukarkar, A., Lin, X.Q., Jiang, Y., Yu, Y.Q.: A tunable dual-fed self-diplexing patch antenna.
116 11. Nakano, M., Arai, H.I.R.O.Y.U.K.I., Chujo, W., Fujise, M.A.S.A.Y.U.K.I., Goto, N.: Feed
117 circuits of double-layered self-diplexing antenna for mobile satellite communications. IEEE
118 Trans. Antennas Propag. 40(10), 1269–1271 (1992)
Multiband Slot Microstrip Antenna 1
for Wireless Applications 2
1 Introduction: Background 4
4G internet networks are expected to have a data speed of 1 Gbps, while non- 5
stationary networks will have a fixed data speed of 100 Mbps. Long-distance com- 6
munication is possible only because of wireless communications and antenna being 7
the main element of the system, which converts electric power into radio waves and 8
vice versa. Wireless communication has seen an increase in the number of users, 9
and there have been restrictions on available bandwidth, so commercial operators 10
have large-capacity network with good-quality coverage. There are many merits 11
which are associated with the use of MSA, for example, it’s possible to achieve 12
antenna design which will provide more gain, compact design, narrow bandwidth, 13
and low profile. The main requirements of an antenna to be used for commercial 14
applications include impedance matching and bandwidth enhancement. There is a 15
direct relation between antenna size and resonance frequency of the antenna. As the 16
frequency increases, the size of the antenna becomes smaller. While designing 17
MSA, we have to choose the shape of the patch and feeding method based on the 18
desired applications. The performance of an antenna can be affected in many ways, 19
due to different shapes of the antenna. Different dielectric substrates have varying 20
dielectric constants which influence the antenna design parameters as well as 21
antenna performance. There are different feeding techniques available to feed the 22
antenna in order to allow it to radiate. The main motivation of this chapter is in the 23
use of MSA, which provides a huge range of advantages in communication systems 24
that have ultimately led to more demand of antennas for commercial purposes with 25
M. Mujawar (*)
Goa College of Engineering, Ponda, Goa, India
T. Gunasekaran
Higher College of Technology, Muscat, Oman

Switzerland AG 2022
24 M. Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran
26 more enhanced features like multiband, wider bandwidth, and low profile.
27 Conventionally, there was a need for specific antenna for specific communication
28 application, since the antenna used to operate on one or two frequencies. This has
29 been a problem in the implementation of the antenna on the devices, since these
30 antennas had occupied a lot of space on the device. To get rid of this problem, there
31 was a need for a single antenna which could operate at wide bands of frequencies,
32 which can be obtained using multiband antennas. One of the methods to obtain such
33 antenna is by using defective ground plane and creating slots on the patch. Defected
34 ground structure is a technique which helps to improve the operation of an antenna
35 by purposely changing the ground-plane element of MSA.
36 2 Review of the Existing Techniques
37 This paper [1] describes the MSA, which is rectangular in shape and can be oper-
38 ated on wide range of frequencies. The optimization of the antenna has been carried
39 out for a wide range of frequencies, which shows the improvement in various
40 parameters of the antenna. The gain of the antenna was increased along with the
41 surface current by making four slots of L shape on the patch. The feeding technique
42 used in this project was inset feedline; the substrate used was RT-duroid having
43 dielectric constant of 2.2. The simulation software used for the project was CST. This
44 paper [2] deals with MSA, which is compact and has slots that improve the perfor-
45 mance of the antenna for a wide range of applications, including X-band and
46 LTE. This antenna operates on a wide range of frequencies, having the substrate
47 material FR4 with 4.4 dielectric constant. In this project, U- and Y-shaped slots were
48 created on the patch for the antenna, which was kept under test. The feeding tech-
49 nique used in this project was inset feedline. The simulation software used for the
50 project was CST. The antenna which was kept under test had resonated at 7.98GHz
51 with −20 dB, 4.1 GHz with −13.7 dB, and 2.4 GHz with −21.3 dB return loss with
52 frequencies, respectively. This paper [3] describes an antenna, which is specifically
53 designed to operate in C-band and S-band. The main aim of this paper was to reduce
54 the size of the antenna in comparison to other multiband antennas, and it was
55 achieved. In order to operate on multiple frequency bands, this antenna utilized the
56 technique of stubs. It had T- and E-shaped stubs, which helped to operate on multi-
57 ple frequency bands and also reduced the size of the antenna. The software used in
58 the project was HFSS. The main aim of this antenna was achieved, as it resonated at
59 desired frequencies. This paper [4] deals with an antenna having fractal slots, which
60 is operated at a frequency of 4.1 GHz. E shape has been mounted on the patch which
61 is resonating at the center. FR4 has been selected as substrate, having a height of
62 2 mm. This antenna has been miniaturized with the slots, specifically of H and L
63 shape, to about 60%, which has a wide range of applications such as in C-band,
64 S-band, GPRS, GSM, and 4G. In this paper [5], wideband antenna has been
65 designed, which is operating in the frequency range of 800 MHz–9 GHz. this
66 ensures that antenna can be operated in almost ten bands. For the construction of
Multiband Slot Microstrip Antenna for Wireless Applications 25
antenna, inverted F-, L-, and C-type shapes were used. The main outcomes of this 67
antenna were the possibility to obtain a gain of 2 dB, reflection coefficient of less 68
than −10 dB, and all the bands with a bandwidth of 3 dB. This paper [6] deals with 69
antenna, which will be desired for 4G applications. It uses substrate material such 70
as RT-duroid. The software used for antenna design is IE3D. It has been constructed 71
using slots of L, Z, and U shape. Using this antenna, it was possible to achieve 72
VSWR less than 2 and return loss to be −20 dB. This paper [7] deals with the con- 73
struction and design of an antenna that is widely used for the transmission and 74
reception of TV signals. The antenna structure with defected ground plane widely 75
improves the overall performance of MSA. This antenna can be operated on multi- 76
ple frequency bands, which includes C- and S-band frequencies. The substrate 77
material used for the implementation of the antenna is FR4, with substrate thickness 78
to be 1.7 mm and having a dielectric constant of 4.4. The antenna parameters have 79
been analyzed using CST software. This paper [8] describes multiheaded starfish- 80
shaped multiband microstrip patch antenna for satellite communication. This 81
antenna could help us to achieve a reflection coefficient of less than −10 dB. It 82
could resonate at 9.13 GHz, 7.81 GHz, 10.18 GHz, and 3.04 GHz frequencies. This 83
paper [9] describes a quad-band CPW-fed slot antenna array for LTE and WiMAX 84
application. This antenna mainly consists of slot, which is tapered and etched on the 85
antenna, so that it could support a wide range of frequencies (3.45, 2.6, 0.8, and 86
1.8 GHz), which operate on multiple frequency bands for different applications. It 87
has a reflection coefficient of less than −10 dB, and simulated radiation patterns 88
were omnidirectional, which is desired in case of mobile terminals. This paper [10] 89
describes a modified planar inverted F antenna with triple-band for Wi-Fi and LTE 90
applications. It provides a detailed study and implementation of the planar inverted 91
F antenna. The construction of the antenna involves two L-shaped open and shared 92
short arms. This antenna is designed taking into consideration various factors, 93
which yield antenna having less reflection coefficient and omnidirectional radiation 94
patterns with good gain, which operates on three different frequency bands that sup- 95
port LTE and Wi-Fi applications. This paper [11] describes the design of multiband 96
microstrip patch antenna for WiMAX, C-band, and X-band applications. The feed- 97
ing technique used in the construction of this antenna is microstrip feedline. The 98
substrate material used in the construction of this antenna is FR4. The multiband 99
characteristic created by two different slots employed on the radiating patch. This 100
antenna covered three frequency bands: from 3.2 to 3.4 GHz for WiMAX, from 6.57 101
to 6.8 GHz for C-band applications, and from 7.24 to 7.57 GHz for X-band satellite 102
communication. The provided return losses are better than −23 dB at 3.32 GHz, 103
−15.74 dB at 6.67 GHz, and − 22.4 dB at 7.39 GHz. The VSWR is less than 2 at all 104
operating resonance frequencies. This paper [12] describes a multiband PIFA with 105
a slot on the ground plane for wireless applications. The software used for the opti- 106
mization of the antenna is HFSS. Various parameters of the antenna have been ana- 107
lyzed by using HFSS. It was possible to obtain acceptable return loss over multiple 108
frequency bands. This antenna was built using the substrate material of FR4. It 109
basically describes PIFA antenna, whose parameters have been varied to obtain a 110
suitable antenna for wireless applications. This paper [13] describes dual-band 111
112 microstrip patch antenna. This antenna has been constructed using microstrip patch,
113 which is square in shape and operating on dual frequencies. It is operating on C- and
114 X-band. The simulation software used was HFSS. Using this software, it was
115 possible to analyze various antenna parameters. It helped to obtain acceptable
116 reflection coefficient for both the frequency bands and VSWR within the acceptable
117 range for an ideal antenna, i.e., between 1 and 2. The frequencies at which the
118 antenna resonated at both bands are 6.7, 6.4, and 7.3. This paper [14] describes
119 compact triple C-shaped microstrip patch antenna for WLAN, WiMAX, and Wi-Fi
120 application at 2.5 GHz. The software used for the antenna design is computer simu-
121 lation technology microwave studio. The substrate material used for the construc-
122 tion of antenna is FR4. After obtaining the simulation results, it was analyzed that
123 return loss was –10 dB, and VSWR was within the range of 1–2.
124 3 Antenna Design Considerations of Proposed Work
125 This chapter proposes an inverted HE-shaped microstrip patch antenna for four dif-
126 ferent frequencies ranging from 2 to 8 GHz. It is designed on defective ground plane
127 so as to increase the bandwidth. This antenna has been mainly designed to operate
128 on multiple frequency bands, and the performance of the antenna with various sub-
129 strates such as RT-duroid, FR4, and Rogers has been analyzed. Detailed analyses of
130 antenna performance parameters like gain, directivity, return loss, and VSWR are
131 obtained. The software used for the construction of the antenna is IE3D. The main
132 objectives of the chapter are (a) to design a microstrip patch antenna using three
133 different substrates, (b) to optimize the dimensions of the antenna to find the desired
134 results, (c) to observe the results for individual antenna design, and (d) to compare
135 the results of all the three designs.
136 4 Antenna Structure
137 The overall structure of the antenna includes H- and E-shaped slots, which are basi-
138 cally in the inverted orientation. The performance of the antenna has been enhanced
139 with the use of different substrates with fixed height. This antenna is constructed at
140 four different frequencies to obtain the desired multiband characteristics within the
141 frequency band for wireless applications. This antenna configuration mainly
142 involves MSA and inverted HE slot, which helps to operate on multiple frequency
143 bands. Patch antenna shown below is designed using FR4 with dimensions of
144 [−W/2, W/2] and [−L/2, L/2] and the ground plane with dimensions as [−Wg/2,
145 Wg/2] and [−Lg/2, Lg/2], where L is the length and W is the width of the patch,
146 whereas Lg is the length and Wg is the width of the ground plane. The patch is cut
147 on the substrate. The dimensions of the microstrip feedline are [−(Wf/2), (Wf/2)]
148 and [−(Lf/2), (Lf/2)] (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
10mm
4mm
4mm
8mm
1mm
5mm
Fig. 1 Dimensions of HE slot with FR4
11mm
5mm
5mm
9mm
1mm
6mm
Fig. 2 Dimensions of HE slot with Rogers
The proposed antenna can be operated on multiple frequencies with the forma- 149
tion of inverted H- and E-shaped slots. The horizontal slots operate at 3–3.7 GHz. 150
The vertical slot of the H shape operates at 4.5–5.5 GHz. The three vertical slots of 151
E shape operate from 5.9 GHz to 6.3 GHz. With the introduction of defect in the 152
ground plane, it leads to bandwidth enhancement. Mathematical analyses with the 153
help of antenna design equations have been carried out to obtain the desired design. 154
13mm
7mm
7mm
11mm
2mm
7mm
Fig. 3 Dimensions of HE slot with RT-duroid
Table 1 Patch and the ground-plane dimensions t1.1
Sr. Patch length in Patch width in Ground-plane length Ground-plane width t1.2
no Substrate mm (L) mm (W) in mm (Lg) in mm (Wg) t1.3
1 FR4 29 38 47 56 t1.4
2 Rogers 31 41 49 59 t1.5
4350 t1.6
3 RT-duroid 39 48 57 66 t1.7
155 IE3D software has been used to analyze various antenna parameters, and optimiza-
156 tion of the antenna helps to get the desired results. The antenna has been designed
157 with three different dielectric substrates and analyzed for the frequency ranging
158 from 2 GHz to 8 GHz. Substrate thickness is taken at a height of 3 mm for all three
159 substrates. FR4, Rogers, and RT-duroid have dielectric constant of 4.4, 3.48, and 2.2
160 and loss tangent of 0.002, 0.02, and 0.0004, respectively (Table 1).
161 Table 2 gives the remaining parameters of the designed antenna like slot width,
162 slot length, and feedline.
Table 2 Dimensions of the slot and feedline t2.1
Parameters (mm) FR4 Rogers 4350 RT-duroid t2.2

Wf 16 19 27 t2.3
Lf 4.59 5.71 8.42 t2.4
Ls 30 32 40 t2.5
Ws 39 42 49 t2.6
Fig. 4 Return loss of the proposed antenna with FR4 substrate
5 Results 163
5.1 Return Loss (dB) 164
The return loss of the proposed antenna with FR4 substrate is shown in Fig. 4. The 165
antenna resonates over four frequencies, i.e., 2.2 GHz, 3.3 GHz, 5.3 GHz, and 166
6.0 GHz. The return loss for all frequencies varies from −13 dB to −22 dB; the 167
maximum value of return loss for this design is −21.22 dB. 168
The simulated results of the antenna designed on Rogers 4350 substrate are 169
shown in Fig. 5. The antenna resonates over four frequencies, i.e., 2.2 GHz, 3.6 GHz, 170
5.3 GHz, and 6.2 GHz. The return loss for all frequencies varies from −13 dB to 171
−18 dB; the maximum value of return loss for this design is −17.48 dB at 2.2 GHz. 172
Figure 6 shows the graph of return loss of an antenna designed on RT-duroid 173
substrate. The antenna resonates over four frequencies, i.e., 2.2 GHz, 3.6 GHz, 174
5.3 GHz, and 5.9 GHz. The return loss for all frequencies varies from −14 dB to 175
−26 dB. All frequencies achieve a high value of return loss, which means that this 176
antenna radiates maximum power, for all the frequencies. Maximum return loss is 177
achieved at −25.66 dB at 5.9 GHz. 178
Fig. 5 Return loss of the proposed antenna with Rogers 4350
Fig. 6 Return loss of the antenna designed on RT-duroid
179 5.2 VSWR
180 VSWR plays a very important role in determining the performance of the antenna.
181 Antenna having VSWR within the range of 0–2 is considered to be a good design.
182 The VSWR plot of an antenna designed on FR4 substrate is shown in Fig. 7. The
183 minimum value of VSWR is 1.18, which is obtained at 6.0 GHz.
184 Figure 8 shows the VSWR graph for an antenna designed on Rogers 4350 sub-
185 strate. VSWR achieved for the frequencies 2.2 GHz, 3.6 GHz, 5.3 GHz, and 6.2 GHz
186 are 1.32, 1.57, 1.82, and 1.43, respectively.
187 Figure 9 shows the graph of VSWR, designed on RT-duroid substrate. The values
188 of VSWR achieved for this design are 1.2, 1.5, 1.2, and 1.1 for the four different
Fig. 7 VSWR of the antenna designed on FR4
Fig. 8 VSWR of the antenna designed on Rogers 4350
frequencies. These VSWR values are close to 1. Hence, we can say that the mis- 189
match between the antenna and the feed is minimum. 190
As can be seen in Table 3, return loss obtained for the antennas designed with 191
different substrates is below –10 dB. Antenna with return loss below –10 dB is con- 192
sidered to be a perfect antenna desirable for wireless applications. When the antenna 193
was designed using RT-duroid substrate and resonated at four different frequencies, 194
the return loss was maximum. The antenna which was designed with FR4 offered 195
minimum return loss. 196
Fig. 9 VSWR of the antenna designed on RT-duroid
Table 3 Return loss and VSWR t3.1
Substrate Frequency (GHz) Return loss (dB) VSWR t3.2

FR4 2.2 −13.53 1.57 t3.3
3.3 −17.48 1.31 t3.4
5.3 −14.18 1.4 t3.5
6 −21.22 1.18 t3.6
Rogers 4350 2.2 −17.11 1.32 t3.7
3.6 −13.08 1.57 t3.8
5.3 −10.74 1.82 t3.9
6.2 −14.89 1.43 t3.10
RT-duroid 2.2 −18.38 1.2 t3.11
3.6 −14.09 1.5 t3.12
4.8 −19.84 1.2 t3.13
5.9 −25.66 1.1 t3.14
197 The return loss value of the antenna using Rogers 4350 substrate was in between
198 RT-duroid and FR4.The antenna designed with RT-duroid substrate also offered
199 VSWR approximately equal to 1 for the desired range of frequencies.
200 Table 4 gives the values of gain, directivity, and bandwidth. The maximum gain
201 and directivity for FR4 is observed at 5.3GHz, which is 4.60 dBi and 6.39 dBi,
202 respectively. The maximum bandwidth of 570 MHz is seen at 5.9 GHz. Antenna
203 designed with RT-duroid has maximum values at a frequency of 3.6 GHz with a
204 gain of 5.1 dBi, directivity of 5.55dBi, and bandwidth of 512 MHz.
205 It is seen that Rogers 4350 has good gain and directivity compared to FR4 and
206 RT-duroid, whereas greater bandwidth is achieved with RT-duroid.
Table 4 Gain, directivity, and bandwidth t4.1
Substrate Frequency (GHz) Gain (dBi) Directivity (dBi) Bandwidth (MHz) t4.2
FR4 2.2 4.31 5.48 290 t4.3
3.3 3.28 5.14 229 t4.4
5.3 4.60 6.39 320 t4.5
5.9 3.21 6.50 570 t4.6
Rogers 4350 2.2 5.18 5.49 200 t4.7
3.6 3.47 4.79 300 t4.8
5.3 4.07 5.44 500 t4.9
6.2 3.79 5.46 600 t4.10
RT-duroid 2.2 4.91 4.44 491 t4.11
3.6 5.12 5.55 512 t4.12
4.8 3.39 3.49 339 t4.13
5.9 4.96 5.03 496 t4.14
6 Conclusion 207
The proposed antenna works on four different frequencies. This antenna has been 208
designed with different substrate materials to enhance the performance of the 209
antenna. The operation of this antenna on multiple frequency bands was possible 210
with the introduction of H- and E-shaped slots on the microstrip patch. Bandwidth 211
enhancement was possible with defected structures on the ground plane. The thick- 212
ness of the substrate was kept constant throughout the design, and analyses of the 213
antenna with different substrates were done. From the comparison of simulation 214
results obtained for the antenna, it is clear that antenna designed with RT-duroid 215
substrate offers better performance results. The antenna designed using RT-duroid 216
substrate is more preferred because this antenna can offer good performance in 217
terms of various antenna parameters such as bandwidth, VSWR, and return loss. 218
Antenna can be designed with different patch shapes and different shapes of the slot 219
so as to get better performance. Aperture coupled feed can be used as a feeding 220
technique which can give very high bandwidth of about 21%. 221
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Effect of Encapsulating Materials 1
on Monopole Antenna Performance 2
for Underwater Communication 3
1 Introduction 5
It is realized that 70% of the Earth involves water, and the greatest merchandise 6
transportation is finished over the sea; thus, sea communication is a critical part in 7
everyday life. Truly a huge number of ships or other vessels are far away in the 8
ocean. Consequently, dependable oceanic communications are considered to play 9
an imperative part in sea operations [1]. Because of progression in unmanned auton- 10
omous vehicles, robots venture to every part of the ocean without any supervision 11
or control from the administrator. There is a requirement for communication of 12
information, which is gathered by these unmanned autonomous vehicles with the 13
host ship or to a ground station, yet their correspondence over the ocean is affected 14
by different variables, for example, at the point when the electromagnetic waves 15
spread over the ocean surface, there exists reflection, dispersion, and diffraction [2]. 16
This chapter deals with wireless communication of autonomous underwater vehicle 17
(AUV) [3, 4] with a ground station or aboard a ship for 2.4 GHz band. A design of 18
an elementary-enclosed Marconi antenna operating at 2.4 GHz is simulated in 19
CADFEKO simulator, and the results are analyzed. Autonomous underwater vehi- 20
cle (AUV) explores by submerging below the sea even when no instructions are 21
provided by the administrator. AUVs have six degrees of freedom, namely, surge, 22
sway, heave, roll, pitch, and yaw. AUVs have a vital part for a nation that has a vast 23
sea area. AUV is broadly utilized for sea investigation and contour mapping and as 24
a method for defense under the sea. Due to advancements in AUVs, they are utilized 25
for various research and military tasks for their broad information-gaining 26
M. Mujawar (*)
Goa College of Engineering, Ponda, Goa, India
T. Gunasekaran
Higher College of Technology, Muscat, Oman

Switzerland AG 2022
27 capacities; this obtained information is sent to the host transport, which is basically
28 the ship utilizing EM waves on the plane of the sea, yet the nature of the EM wave
29 is corrupted due to the accompanying components which influence the transmission
30 and reception of EM waves on the sea plane. Doppler shift plays a very important
31 role in the transmission and reception of EM waves because a signal having a high
32 frequency is affected by this mechanism due to movement of the sea, rough plane of
33 the sea due to wind additionally affects the transmission and reception of the EM
34 waves, distance communication is also affected by the reflection which is occurring
35 above sea, and losses are due to interference at the sea level [5]. Various networks
36 using sensors working on the plane of the ocean have been helplessly set up to send
37 EM waves to various communication systems located near the plane of the ocean,
38 close to level of the ocean, or when the seaside height is low [6]. When signals need
39 to be transmitted over very long distances, line of sight is required by the signals,
40 which need frequency to be very high. Additionally, changes in the boundary layer
41 of the atmosphere cause signal reflections and straightforwardly affect wave behav-
42 ior and propagation paths, resulting in blurring [7]. Thinking about marine condi-
43 tion, the state of the ocean, also taking into consideration cyclonic winds, has a very
44 close impact on both the transmission and reception of EM waves on the plane of
45 the ocean. The said impacts are explicitly an issue for significant distance commu-
46 nication (past several hundred meters or 2 or 3 km). One of the important plans is to
47 relocate the autonomous unmanned vehicles and unmanned surface vehicles or
48 main ship adjacently with a particular ultimate objective to improve the radio chan-
49 nel. This causes wastage of time as well as resources. For instance, fuel will be used
50 more because the movement between the vehicles will be longer. Spacecraft inter-
51 face association is a commonplace methodology that has a number of obstructions,
52 including incomplete satellite inclusion by most structure frameworks with little
53 impression, as well as tolerably high expenses and generally low information rate
54 [8]. There is a significant improvement in the radio channel which is used for com-
55 munication with the help of communication relays; however, it needs a raised stage
56 to give adequate location. To relieve these problems, it is desirable to construct
57 antennas specifically for autonomous unmanned vehicles, which relatively have
58 more gain, resulting in transmission and reception of signals at greater separations
59 of up to 100 m. The parameters of the antenna are restricted by the autonomous
60 unmanned vehicles because the sizes of the autonomous unmanned vehicles are
61 typically small. The antenna is covered using a covering material to protect it below
62 the water surface whenever an autonomous unmanned vehicle navigates. Delrin is
63 the typical covering material used because of its excellent performance in underwa-
64 ter application. There may be loss in signal quality because of this material; conse-
65 quently in this research, distinctive material are utilized for embodying the antenna,
66 and the best material for antenna is decided by considering the value, which is
67 obtained by designing the antenna in simulation software FEKO. The antenna will
68 be operating at a frequency band of 2.4 GHz.
Effect of Encapsulating Materials on Monopole Antenna Performance for Underwater… 37
Table 1 Antenna covering materials used t1.1
Sr. Dissipation Dielectric constant at Mass density Water absorption t1.2

no Material factor 2.4 Ghz kg/m3 24 hours t1.3
1 PET 0.002 3.74 1380 0.1 t1.4
2 PETG 0.02 2.64 1380 0.2 t1.5
3 ULTEM 0.0015 4.07 1270 0.25 t1.6
4 Hydex 301 0.025 3.74 1200 0.19 t1.7
5 Tecaform 0.001 4.07 1410 0.18 t1.8
AH t1.9
6 PVC 0.0096 3.509 1100–1450 0.02 t1.10
7 Delrin 0.005 4.07 1410 0.25 t1.11
2 Antenna Encapsulating Materials Used 69
While picking the covering material for the embodiment of the antenna, several 70
standards have been considered; before selecting the covering material, we need to 71
make sure that the material can withstand critical conditions below the surface of 72
the water as the autonomous unmanned vehicles can move somewhere below the 73
sea surface without contorting or disfiguring. The material strength should be strong 74
enough to bear the critical conditions, and it should be free from corrosion, since the 75
vehicle can stay below water surface for weeks. In the below table, we have enlisted 76
covering materials which are considered suitable for underwater applications 77
(Table 1). 78
3 Antenna Design 79
A basic monopole antenna [7, 8] is intended for a frequency of 2.4 GHz; the con- 80
ducting rod is placed on the ground plane, which is circular; and its height and 81
diameter are simulated for a frequency of 2.4 GHz. The antenna has been covered 82
with the covering material whose length is 10 m. The investigation is accomplished 83
for characteristics of its frequency and theta versus gain. The antenna which uses a 84
covering material and also the antenna which does not use a covering material have 85
been shown in Fig. 1. The wavelength of an antenna can be calculated as the ratio of 86
the speed of light to the frequency [9]; as we already know, the antenna is operating 87
at a frequency of 2.4 GHz. In order to calculate the diameter of the conducting 88
ground plane, we need to take the ratio of thrice wavelength to twice. The height of 89
the covering material for the antenna is now fixed, yet the width of the covering 90
material is varied with respect to its position from the antenna for different covering 91
materials listed in the table below, and analyzed values are noted. 92
Fig. 1 Antenna structure a

(a) covering material not conducting rod
used. Antenna structure (b)
covering material used 1 wavelength
4
ground plane
monopole antenna
t
d
encapsulation for monopole
conducting ground plane
Frequency versus Gain when encapsulation thickness is 5 mm and it is

placed at a distance 0 mm from monopole
4.5
4
3.5
delrin
3
hydex
gain in dB
2.5
PET
2
PETG
1.5
PVC
1
Tecaform
0.5
Ultem
0
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
Frequency in GHz
Fig. 2 Gain vs frequency chart for the different materials when the encapsulation of 5 mm thick-
ness is placed 0 mm away from the monopole antenna
93 4 Results
94 Figure 2 shows the gain vs frequency simulation result, when the encapsulation of
95 5 mm thickness is placed at a distance of 0 mm away from the monopole antenna
96 for different materials. We can see that the highest gain at 2.4 GHz is for PET with
97 a gain of 4.25537516 dB and the lowest is for PETG with a gain of 3.71669396 dB. PET
98 encapsulation gives 0.53 dB gain more as compared to PETG.

4.5
4
3.5
delrin
3
hydex
gain in dB
2.5
PET
2
PETG
1.5
PVC
1
Tecaform
0.5
Ultem
0
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
Frequency in GHz
Figure 3 shows the gain vs frequency simulation result for when the encapsula- 99
tion of 5 mm thickness is placed at a distance of 5 mm away from the monopole 100
antenna for different materials. The highest gain at 2.4 GHz is for Tecaform with a 101
gain of 3.97090007 dB, and the lowest gain is for Hydex with a gain of 102
3.82773938 dB. The difference between the gains from Tecaform encapsulation is 103
only 0.14 dB; we can also see that more or less all the materials exhibit similar gain. 104
Figure 4 shows the gain vs frequency simulation result when the encapsulation 105
of 8 mm thickness is placed at a distance of 5 mm away from the monopole antenna 106
for different materials. The highest gain at 2.4 GHz is for Tecaform with a gain of 107
4.00149462 dB, and the lowest gain is for Hydex with a gain of 3.62640553 dB. We 108
can see that Tecaform encapsulation gives a 0.62 dB more gain compared to Hydex 109
encapsulation. 110
Figure 5 shows the gain vs frequency simulation result, when the encapsulation 111
of 11 mm thickness is placed at a distance of 5 mm away from the monopole 112
antenna, for different materials. The highest gain at 2.4 GHz is for PET with a gain 113
of 3.84855183 dB, and the lowest gain is for PETG with a gain of 2.39470329 dB. The 114
difference in the observed gain is very high for PET and PETG encapsulation about 115
1.45 dB, whereas all other encapsulation materials have gain similar to PET. 116
Figure 6 shows the gain vs frequency simulation result, when the encapsulation 117
of 5 mm thickness is placed at a distance of 10 mm away from the monopole 118
antenna, for different materials. The highest gain at 2.4 GHz is for Tecaform with a 119
gain of 4.07821083 dB, and the lowest gain is for PET with a gain of 3.96754903 dB. It 120
can be seen that the gain difference between Tecaform encapsulation and PET is 121
only 0.11 dB; we can also see that more or less all the materials exhibit similar gain. 122
Frequency versus Gain when encapsulation thickness is 8 mm and is

placed at a distance 5mm from monopole
4.5
4
3.5
delrin
3
hydex
gain in dB
2.5
PET
2
PETG
1.5
PVC
1
Tecaform
0.5
Ultem
0
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
Frequency in GHz
Frequency versus Gain when encapsulation thickness is 11 mm and is

4.5
4
3.5
delrin
3
hydex
gain in dB
2.5
PET
2
PETG
1.5
PVC
1
Tecaform
0.5
Ultem
0
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
Frequency in GHz

4.5
4
3.5
delrin
3
hydex
gain in dB
2.5
PET
2
PETG
1.5
PVC
1
Tecaform
0.5
Ultem
0
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
Frequency in GHz
5 Conclusion 123
As can be observed from the results, it has been clear that if we keep the separation 124
between the covering material and the antenna fixed at a particular value, for exam- 125
ple, around 5 mm from the antenna, and the covering material width is shifted for 126
various covering materials, the antenna would have less gain, while the width of the 127
covering material is more. As we practically know, the antenna will be mounted on 128
the autonomous unmanned vehicles, which will be exploring below the plane of the 129
sea. So antenna should be strong enough to withstand the strong winds and pressure 130
created by the water under several critical conditions; so for this purpose, it will be 131
very effective to have more width for the covering material. It is likewise seen from 132
the software that the antenna will have more gain when the separation of the cover- 133
ing material from the antenna is less, that is, 0 mm, for the condition when the width 134
of the covering material is fixed at 5 mm and the separation values between the 135
antenna and covering material are different. When we compare the plots of gain vs 136
frequency of the various covering materials, it is clear that antenna gain is more, that 137
is, 4.25 dB, for the PET covering material when the separation between the antenna 138
and PET was 0 mm. 139
140 References
141 1. Yang, K., Roste, T., Bekkadal, F.: Channel characterization including path loss and Doppler
142 effects with sea reflections for mobile radio propagation over sea at 2 GHz. In: Wireless
143 Communications and Signal Processing (WCSP), International Conference (2010)
144 2. Dong, F., Lee, Y.H.: Non-Line-of-Sight Communication Links over Sea Surface at 5.5GHz.
145 Microwave Conference Proceedings (APMC) (2011)
146 3. Zhang, Q., Yang, K., Shi, Y., Xidang: Oceanic Propagation Measurement in the Northern Part
147 of the South China Sea. Yan School of Marine Science and Technology, OCEANS 2016 –
148 Shanghai on, 10–13 April 2016
149 4. Mujawar, M.: Design and analysis of log-periodic dipole antenna as a proximity Fuse A
150 tenna. In: 2020 International Conference on Industry 4.0 Technology (I4Tech), Pune, India,
151 pp. 182–185 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/I4Tech48345.2020.9102636
152 5. Aboderin, O., Pessoa, L.M., Salgado, H.M.: Wideband dipole antennas with parasitic elements
153 for underwater communications. OCEANS 2017 – Aberdeen, Aberdeen, pp. 1–6 (2017).
154 https://doi.org/10.1109/OCEANSE.2017.8084865
155 6. Homer, D.P., Healey, A.J.: Use of artificial potential fields for UAV guidance and optimization
156 of WLAN communications. 2004 IEEWOES, Centre for AUV Research Naval Postgraduate
157 School, Monterey CA 93943
158 7. Pasya, I., Zali, H.M., Saat, M., Ali, M.T., Kobayashi, T.: Buffer layer configuration for wide-
159 band microstrip patch antenna for underwater applications. 2016 Loughborough Antennas &
160 Propagation Conference (LAPC), Loughborough, pp. 1–5 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/
161 LAPC.2016.7807577
162 8. Inácio, S.I.: Antenna design for underwater radio communications. OCEANS 2016 – Shanghai,
163 Shanghai, pp. 1–6 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/OCEANSAP.2016.7485705
164 9. Swetha, K., Jayasree, P.V.Y., Saradhi, V.: Orthogonal mode dual band MIMO antenna system
165 for 5G smartphone applications using characteristic mode analysis. Circuit World, Vol. ahead-
166 of-print No. ahead-of-print (2021). https://doi.org/10.1108/CW-11-2020-0319
167
Parasitic Antennas for Current and Future 1
Wireless Communication Systems: Trends, 2
Challenges, and Emerging Aspects 3
Roktim Konch, Sivaranjan Goswami, Kumaresh Sarmah, 4

Kandarpa Kumar Sarma, and Nikos Mastorakia 5
1 Introduction 6
Antennas are generally classified according to their physical structure or operating 7

frequencies. Depending upon the structure, these are categorized as wire antennas, 8
aperture [1] antennas, reflector antennas, lens antennas, microstrip antennas, and 9
array antennas. Due to its unique radiation properties, these antennas are used in 10
different applications. When input power is fed to an antenna, some power gets 11
reflected back to the source, while the other part is transmitted through the antenna. 12
In that transmission, some portions are lost due to conduction, while the remaining 13
part of the power is radiated to the medium from the antenna. This radiation occurs 14
from a radiating surface in the form of electromagnetic waves. Therefore, the radiat- 15
ing structure plays a crucial role in an antenna system; the radiating surface deter- 16
mines the antenna’s resonance frequency, gain, and polarization [2]. 17
The parasitic element plays a crucial role in enhancing the efficiency of an 18
antenna [3]. The parasitic element-based antenna design concept is very old. It was 19
first proposed by H. Yagi and S. Uda in 1926, a very popular type of antenna called 20
R. Konch (*) · S. Goswami · K. K. Sarma

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Gauhati University,
e-mail: roktim@gauhati.ac.in; g.sivaranjan@gauhati.ac.in; kandarpaka@gauhati.ac.in
K. Sarmah
Department of Electronics and Communication Technology, Gauhati University,
e-mail: kumaresh@gauhati.ac.in
N. Mastorakia
Technical University Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
e-mail: mastor@tu-sofia.bg

Switzerland AG 2022
44 R. Konch et al.
21 Yagi-Uda antenna. Yagi-Uda antennas consist of a parallel set of linear dipole radia-
22 tors typically reflector, driven dipole, and directors. The reflector element is a little
23 longer [4] than the driven dipole, whereas the directors are a little shorter. These
24 combinations of elements opened a new era of antenna design. Parasitic elements
25 are passive structures present in the radiating system and have an effect on the radia-
26 tion of the system. Each of these elements absorbs and re-radiates the radio waves
27 from the driven element with a different phase, modifying the dipole’s radiation
28 pattern. It is similar to an end-fire array, meaning that radiation pattern is along the
29 axis of the array in the direction of director elements. The Yagi-Uda antenna is a
30 widely used early radar system, television broadcasting system, etc. Micostrip
31 antenna was proposed in 1952 as a solution for wireless communication through
32 portable devices [5]. Various techniques have been reported for the improvement of
33 microstrip antennas in terms of size reduction, diversity of the far-field radiation
34 pattern, enhancing bandwidth up to ultra-wideband, and resonance at multiple fre-
35 quencies. Some of the approaches include the use of modification geometry [6],
36 multilayer substrate [7], introducing cut slots of various sizes and shapes on the
37 ground plane or near the top of the active patch [8], etc. Currently, parasitic-based
38 designs for high-performance and low-size antennas have attracted the attention of
39 researchers around the world. A number of novel techniques have been proposed
40 worldwide in the last few decades to enhance the performance of the antennas.
41 Microstrip parasitic antennas have received wide attention in the past few decades
42 due to their advantages such as steerable radiation patterns [9], multiband function
43 [10], ultra-wideband application [11], and polarization diversity [12], which can
44 reduce the size [13], complexity [14], and cost of an antenna while improving the
45 total performance of a communication system. A simple design of a parasitic ele-
46 ment-based microstrip antenna structure is shown in Fig. 1.
47 In [15], authors presented a simple patch antenna surrounded by a parasitic ele-
48 ment that can broaden the resonance frequency of the antenna. It has been recog-
49 nized as a pioneer work in the use of parasitic elements for designing antennas with
50 tunable parameters. The planar version of the Yagi-Uda antenna is introduced in
51 [16]. After that, many similar structures have been proposed by different researchers
Fig. 1 Simple microstrip patch antenna surrounded by parasitic elements

Parasitic Antennas for Current and Future Wireless Communication Systems: Trends… 45
[17]. Yet performance improvement is required for meeting the increasing demand 52
of greater reliability. Nowadays, planer and stack parasitic element structures along 53
RF switches [18] are extensively used in microstrip antennas. The switch parasitic 54
antenna (SPA) is one of the most popular structures reported in the recent times. 55
The key objective of the chapter is to provide a practical insight into the design 56
and application of the parasitic block-based microstrip antennas. So far, a brief 57
introduction to the trends and practices of parasitic element-based design of 58
microstrip antenna has been covered. This is followed by a brief theoretical over- 59
view of the parasitic structures along with the analysis and several experimental 60
techniques for the antenna characteristics reported by previous works. Electrically 61
steerable passive array radiator antenna and its widely used parasitic structure are 62
discussed. In this discussion, microstrip parasitic-based antenna design and its 63
future perspective in terms of a new adaptable modern wireless communication 64
system have been highlighted. Introducing reconfigurable intelligent surfaces and 65
its future prospects in the next-generation wireless communication system is also 66
discussed. 67
2 P
erformance Enhancement of the Microstrip Antenna by 68
Using Parasitic Elements 69
In this section, we discuss the different configurations of the parasitic elements and 70
their contributions to performance improvement of the microstrip patch antenna. 71
For the analysis of various antenna structures, each of the designs is categorized in 72
terms of bandwidth enhancement, steerable radiation pattern, and parasitic element- 73
based reconfigurable structures. 74
2.1 Bandwidth Enhancement 75
The bandwidth (BW) of a microstrip antenna rises with the increase in thickness (h) 76
or with a decrease in the dielectric constant (ε). However, increasing the thickness, 77
surface wave propagation takes place, resulting in degradation in antenna perfor- 78
mance. Therefore, parasitic coupling multiple resonator techniques using microstrip 79
patches for broadband operation are preferred. Only one patch is fed. Further, the 80
other patches are parasitically coupled. The coupling between the multiple resona- 81
tors has been realized by either using a little gap [19] between the patches or directly 82
connecting the patches through a thin microstrip line [20]. A patch closer to the 83
active one gets excited through the coupling between the two patches. These are 84
called parasitic patches. If the resonance frequencies f1 and f2 of these two patches 85
are closer to each other, then broad BW is obtained as shown in Fig. 2 [21]. If the 86
46 R. Konch et al.
Fig. 2 VSWR plots of two coupled resonators having (a) BW (…) individual resonators and (---)
overall response (b) A simple coaxial feed microstrip antenna
87 BW is narrow for the individual patch, then the combination of f1 and f2 results in
88 broader BW.
89 Based on the position of the parasitic element, it is divided into gap-coupled,
90 direct-coupled, or hybrid-coupled [22]. In gap-coupled microstrip antennas, the
91 structure is excited at the fundamental TM10 mode and has one λ/2 cycle variation
92 in the field along its length and has uniform field along its width [21]. The edges
93 along the width and length are correspondingly known as radiating and non-
94 radiating edges [22–24] as shown in Fig. 3. Either one or two parasitic equal rectan-
95 gular patches can be placed along one or both of the radiating edges of the fed
96 rectangular patch with a small gap between them. The BW of the gap-coupled
97 antenna can be increased further by choosing the parasitic patches of different sizes.
98 In the non-radiating edges, the coupling between the parasitic elements is smaller as
99 compared to the coupling along the radiating edges, because the field varies in the
100 non-radiating edge in a sinusoidal pattern and is uniform along the radiating edges.
101 In direct-coupled [25] approach, a thin microstrip line is connected in between the
102 fed patch and parasitic patch. The strip is usually located at the midpoint of the
103 widths of the patches, so the antenna is symmetric with the fed-point axis. In the
104 hybrid type, the coupling between the patches is through the gap as well as through
105 the connecting strip. Similar configurations can be constructed for patches and para-
106 sitic elements of various sizes and shapes.
107 2.2 Parasitic Antenna Arrays with Steerable Radiation Pattern
108 The energy radiated by an antenna is represented by the radiation diagram of the
109 antenna. Radiation is the term used to represent the emission or reception of an
110 electromagnetic wavefront at the antenna, specifying its strength. From the radia-
111 tion pattern, one can understand the function and directivity of an antenna. Figure 4a
112 shows a simple patch antenna fed by a microstrip line. A RF switch [18] is
Non-radiating edge
gap coupled
Radiating edge gap

coupled
Direct couple patch
Fig. 3 Parasitic coupling for broad BW (a) Gap coupling (b) Direct coupling
connected in between the active patch and parasitic patch. If the RF switch is OFF 113
and the input power is fed into the antenna, then the radiation occurs from the active 114
patch together with the mutually coupled parasitic patch. When the RF switch is 115
ON, some current flows through the switch into the parasitic patch; these combina- 116
tions of the radiating surfaces increase the resonance length of the antenna and 117
produce an overall change within the radiation pattern. Using this ON or OFF tech- 118
nique, the radiation pattern of an antenna can be changed in a desired direction as 119
shown in Fig. 4b. Based on this technique, different shapes and combinations of 120
parasitic patch have been reported [26]. Also there is a change in cross-pole. For 121
simplicity, here only co-pole radiation pattern is given. 122
In [27–29], it is reported that when a parasitic structure is present near the patch 123
or at the ground plan of the microstrip patch antenna, there is a change in the radia- 124
tion pattern of the antenna. When a parasitic antenna is used, the antenna radiates 125
more power in a specific direction and less power in some other directions. This 126
results in a radiating power variation in a direction. Moreover, this steerable 127
48 R. Konch et al.
Fig. 4 A simple example (a) A microstrip-fed patch antenna with RF switch (b) Co-pole radia-
tion pattern
128 property of the radiation pattern helps in beam-space multi-input multi-output

129 (MIMO) [30].
130 2.3 Parasitic Element-Based Reconfigurable Antenna
131 Design of reconfigurable antennas is one of the emerging areas of research world-
132 wide due to its multirole properties. Depending on the performance of the antenna,
133 it can be classified as frequency reconfigurable [31], radiation pattern
reconfigurable [32], polarization reconfigurable [33], and hybrid reconfigurable 134

[34] type. The dynamic tuning can be achieved by manipulating a certain switching 135
mechanism through controlling electric, mechanical, and physical or optical 136
switches [35]. Among them, electric switches are the most popular in constituting 137
reconfigurable antennas due to their efficiency, reliability, and ease of integrating in 138
microwave circuitry. The combination of parasitic elements and RF switches leads 139
to configurability properties of the antenna. 140
In [31, 36], the operating frequency of the antenna has been shifted to some other 141
frequency by using PIN diodes as a microwave switch. This frequency configuration 142
is achieved by altering the electrical length of the antenna. Similarly, changing the 143
radiating structure of the antennas leads to a change in radiation pattern [26]. 144
Polarization reconfiguration allows to change the polarization of an antenna by 145
altering the vertical orientation of the E field and without altering the resonant fre- 146
quencies and shape of the radiation diagram [33]. 147
3 N
ext-Generation Communication Design 148
and a Passive Radiator 149
To increase the capacity and higher data rates, wireless system designers recently 150
have drawn attention to the reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS) [37, 38, 39] to 151
create smart wireless communication. In a smart radio environment, surfaces are 152
able to control the propagation of incident electromagnetic waves in a programma- 153
ble way to actively adjust the channel realization, which turns the wireless channel 154
into a controllable system block that may be optimized to boost the overall system 155
performance [40]. MIMO technology is already a part of the high data rate of wire- 156
less communication systems as well as radar systems. One of the most common 157
applications of MIMO technology is to utilize spatial diversity in order to enhance 158
data rate and reliability of a wireless communication system [41]. However, there 159
are many challenges in the implementation of a MIMO system in many scenarios, 160
especially with regard to patch antenna design [42]. First of all, unavailability of 161
sufficient space impedes the design of efficient and decorated MIMO antennas [43]. 162
Second, traditional MIMO requires each antenna to be fed by a unique RF chain. It 163
makes the system costly and bulky [42]. 164
In order to overcome these two limitations, a number of reduced complexity and 165
antenna-decoupling schemes have been proposed. Among them, beam-space MIMO 166
has attracted the attention of many researchers worldwide. Beam-space MIMO is 167
viewed by many researchers as the next-generation implementation technique for 168
massive MIMO. Most of the works related to beam-space MIMO consider switched 169
parasitic array (SPAs) and electronically steerable passive array radiators (ESPARs) 170
[37]. An SPA involves an active radiating element and several physically separated 171
parasitic elements, which can be either connected or disconnected with the active 172
radiating elements using PIN diode switches. To control the switches, the system 173
50 R. Konch et al.
174 requires an extra power, and failure of any switches disrupts the system perfor-
175 mance. An ESPAR, on the other hand, is a smart antenna [44] whose beam pattern
176 can be controlled. ESPAR also contains an active element and switched parasitic
177 elements. However, the parasitic elements are loaded with adjustable reactive ele-
178 ments so that the input impedances of the elements can be controlled. To meet the
179 exponential increase in the demand of the recent wireless data services, massive
180 MIMO with antenna arrays deployed at both base station and user terminals is able
181 to increase the capacity of the channel. To increase the radio frequency transmission
182 or more reliable circuitry, there are a few major limitations in an electromagnetic
183 wave, such as diffraction, scattering effect, and signal being weaker after traveling
184 through obstacles such as buildings in the urban area. As a result, it is not possible
185 to ensure a global coverage of wireless services in 5G and beyond using conven-
186 tional cellular techniques. So the current progress of the RIS technique provides a
187 revolutionarily new solution to implement the problem by artificially controlling the
188 propagation environment of the radio signal. In general, a RIS is contained in a large
189 number of low-cost and energy-efficient reconfigurable reflecting elements that can
190 reflect the transmitting electromagnetic waves with a smart controller. These intel-
191 ligent systems provide an extra high-quality channel link to overcome unfavorable
192 propagation conditions of wireless communication systems (Fig. 5).
193 The dissipated electromagnetic wave in the sky and signal loss due to the obsta-
194 cle in direct line of sight communication can be reduced using the RIS system.
Fig. 5 Next-generation communication system using RIS antenna

Table 1 Summary of the important work and contribution t1.1
Important t1.2
Description work Contribution t1.3
BW improvement with [21] A stable radiation pattern over the resonance t1.4
parasitic elements frequency t1.5
[23] Dual polarization antenna using RF switch t1.6
[24] Circularly polarized wideband antenna by using t1.7
inner and outer parasitic elements t1.8
Beam steering with parasitic [45] Flexible and wearable antenna using partially t1.9
elements reflective surface with a parasitic patch array t1.10
[47] A novel null steering antenna for angle-of-arrival t1.11
(AoA) estimation t1.12
[18] Planer application of the RF switches and its t1.13
modeling t1.14
Reconfigurable antenna with [44] Theory of mode analysis of ESPER for a RF t1.15
parasitic elements MIMO system t1.16
[35] Different switching techniques used in t1.17
reconfigurable antennas t1.18
[33] Reconfigurable antenna and its used in wireless t1.19
communication t1.20
Reconfigurable intelligent [40] Working principle of RIS t1.21
surface (RIS) [41] Next-generation wireless design and use of RIS t1.22
[42] High-speed data rate and upcoming challenges t1.23
[38, 46] Practical implementation of RIS t1.24
Switch reconfigurable antennas can be used to cope up with the requirement of the 195
environment, including operating from car, confined by ceilings, clothes [45], build- 196
ing facades, etc. Since RIS is used as a passive component, it consumes very less 197
energy as compared to conventional wireless systems [46]. Since RIS only reflects 198
the electromagnetic wave, it can support full-duplex and full-band transmission. 199
The advantage is the absence of analog-to-digital/digital-to-analog converters and 200
power amplifier for which it is low cost and reliable. The contributions of the vari- 201
ous recent works in this direction are summarized in Table 1. 202
4 Conclusion 203
In this chapter, the design considerations for some trending applications of the 204
microstrip parasitic patch have been discussed. The proper design of antenna can fit 205
into the next-generation efficient and high data rate wireless communication sys- 206
tems. Parasitic element-based microstrip antenna design and its radiation principle 207
have been discussed. Also, introducing the new trends of RIS and its importance in 208
the next-generation communication systems have been covered. From the literature, 209
it is observed that the objective is to focus on designs that provide low radiation loss, 210
higher bandwidth, compact, and smaller size and help in energy conservation. The 211
52 R. Konch et al.
212 chapter has focused on the works dealing with microstrip antennas with parasitic
213 elements used for bandwidth enhancement, beam width and radiation steering,
214 reconfigurable structures, and reconfigurable intelligent surface systems. Further,
215 the coverage has included ESPARs, which have far-reaching consequences and are
216 critical for a range of applications.
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Multiband Laptop Antenna with Enhanced 1
Bandwidth for WLAN/WiMAX/GPS 2
Wireless Applications 3
Trushit Upadhyaya, Killol Pandya, Arpan Desai, Upesh Patel, Rajat Pandey, 4

and Merih Palandoken 5
1 Introduction 6
Wireless communication systems rely on Internet access technology where portable 7

devices incorporating recent technologies are in immense demand as they satisfy 8
the requirements of high-quality wireless links for higher data rates. Apart from 9
adequate performance, wireless devices should be compact and thin to get fitted in 10
laptops, tablets, and notebooks. These devices should also adopt technological 11
advancements to cater to the growing communication needs. The literature depicts 12
that planar monopole antennas are an appropriate candidate for tri-band perfor- 13
mance where various resonant frequencies could be attained by structural changes. 14
The planar monopole antenna could be understood as the wire element of an ideal 15
monopole with a planar element. It offers various advantages such as compact in 16
size, wide impedance bandwidth, and omnidirectional radiation pattern. 17
In [1], a compact monopole antenna was proposed for WLAN and WiMAX 18
applications. In design, a toothbrush-shaped patch, U-shaped patch, and a meander 19
line were provided for a tri-band generation. The detailed review of this literature 20
shows targeted resonances could be achieved by changing the dimensions of the 21
structure. The tri-band monopole antenna with good impedance matching was pre- 22
sented in [2]. A compact radiator was introduced in the structure to satisfy the 23
requirement of impedance matching. The planar monopole antennas could fulfill 24
T. Upadhyaya (*) · K. Pandya · A. Desai · U. Patel · R. Pandey

Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa, Gujarat, India
e-mail: trushitupadhyaya.ec@charusat.ac.in; killolpandya.ec@charusat.ac.in; arpandesai.ec@
charusat.ac.in; upeshpatel.ec@charusat.ac.in; rajatpandey.ec@charusat.ac.in
M. Palandoken
Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir, Turkey
e-mail: merih.palandoken@ikc.edu.tr

Switzerland AG 2022
56 T. Upadhyaya et al.
25 the demand for wireless devices that are embedded in laptops, tablets, and note-
26 books. A miniaturized novel inverted F antenna for laptop computers was discussed
27 in [3]. In this antenna, two meander shorting strips with a C-shaped radiator are
28 proposed to obtain dual-band operations. Similarly, an ultrathin inverted E-shaped
29 novel antenna was proposed for wireless applications [4]. Two radiating strips are
30 provided for wider impedance bandwidth at targeted frequencies in this design. In
31 [5], an open-slot, dual-wideband, low-profile, L-shaped antenna has been presented
32 for LTE/WWAN application-based tablet devices. Two inverted L-shaped open slots
33 were provided, where a longer inverted L (IL) shape was utilized for the lower fre-
34 quency band, and shorter IL was utilized for higher frequency band optimization.
35 Compact wideband monopole antenna for LTE/GSM/UMTS applications was pre-
36 sented in [6]. A distributed inductive strip was engineered with the design for size
37 reduction and better impedance matching.
38 There is some evidence of multiband operations by planar antennas in the litera-
39 ture. A uniplanar eight-band antenna with adequate size reduction was discussed in
40 [7]. In this design, a printed coupling circuit was introduced by utilizing a printed
41 loop, which was integrated with a shorted strip to resonate the structure for LTE/
42 GSM/UMTS band applications. A frequency reconfigurable antenna for LTE/
43 WWAN applications was proposed in [8]. The geometry includes a loop feeding
44 strip where the radio frequency (RF) switch was engineered for resonance mode
45 variation. Due to such arrangement, the model provided multiband operations with
46 reasonably good gain and radiating efficiency. A dual-strip monopole antenna was
47 presented in [9]. A monopole antenna was resonating for GSM and UMTS band
48 applications. In this structure, an antenna is embedded between hinges and a metal
49 cover. Due to this design, the operating bandwidth could be enhanced with moder-
50 ate radiation efficiency. The researchers have reported another technique where the
51 branch strip of an antenna was inductively coupled to achieve the desired bandwidth
52 and size miniaturization. Due to this branch strip, an additional resonance was
53 excited near a resonance mode that increases the bandwidth of the lower band [10].
54 Planar antennas having dual-wideband characteristics were designed [11]. In this
55 design, feeding strip, tuning strip, and parasitic strip were provided to reduce ground
56 effects for the betterment of antenna performance. The size miniaturization is very
57 essential for any antenna development. Such kind of compact antenna model was
58 proposed in [12], where radiating branches and stubs were directly connected with
59 a monopole. With this geometry, the effective size could be reduced to 60%. Few
60 researchers have worked on specific antenna structures where two antennas were
61 combined for 4G/5G applications [13]. The meandered structure and various stubs
62 played a vital role in achieving resonances at desired frequencies. In [14], the half-
63 loop antenna structure was discussed for tablet devices. In this structure, the metal
64 casing was utilized to make the model thinner. The literature describes multiple
65 variants of technologies for achieving the multiband planar antennas [15–29]. These
66 antennas incorporate modifications in the electrical length of the conducting resona-
67 tor by altering the conducting surface path. The alterations primarily involve the
68 introduction of the slots on conducting patches of various structures (Table 1).
Multiband Laptop Antenna with Enhanced Bandwidth for WLAN/WiMAX/GPS… 57
Table 1 Comparison of proposed laptop antenna with other antennas t1.1
Resonance Antenna t1.2

Ref. frequencies (GHz) dimensions (mm3) Gain (dBi) Bandwidth (%) t1.3
[1] 0.7, 0.92, 1.7, 1.9, 35 × 10 × 0.8 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.2, 28, 44 (covering few t1.4
2.3 1.6, 2, 1.8 bands only) t1.5
[2] 0.83, 1.95, 2.35, 60 × 200 × 4 −0.9, 0.1, −0.95, 36.47,59.37 t1.6
2.66 −0.98 t1.7
[3] 0.85, 0.92, 1.79, 60 × 200 × 0.8 0.6, 0.5, 1.2, 2.2, 22.59, 37.22 t1.8
1.92, 2.045 1.8 t1.9
[4] 2.4, 2.59, 2.95, 3.7, 50 × 200 × 1.6 1.89, 1.61, 0.97, 14.16, 6.78, 6.21, t1.10
4.56, 5.5 0.98, 1.72, 1.92 3.15, 7.77, 8.18 t1.11
[5] 0.46, 0.7, 0.9, 1.5, 200 × 150 × 1.5 1.8, 3.5, 3.2, 2.83, 4.35, 34.2, 90.6, 23.2 t1.12
1.9, 3.3, 5.5 3.65, 5.9, 5 t1.13
[6] 0.86, 0.91 128.3 × 50 × 1.6 −12.56, −4.98 – t1.14
[7] 2.4, 5.2 260 × 200 × 1.6 4.8, 6.8 3.6, 7.5 t1.15
Proposed 1.57, 2.4, 3.5, 5 50 x 200 x 1.56 6.2, 6.5, 6.2, 8.2 20.6, 46.44, 20.94, t1.16
7.26 t1.17
Fig. 1 Antenna design configuration (a) Top view (b) Back view
2 Antenna Structure and Parametric Variation 69
The designed antenna is presented in Fig. 1 along with the physical size notations. 70
The antenna is having a size of 50 × 200 m2. The electrical dimensions of the 71
antenna are in the order of 0.86λ × 0.21λ mm2 at the lowest frequency, which is 72
considered large in terms of the typical resonator size, but the objective of the pre- 73
sented design is to incorporate the proposed antenna in the laptop configuration, 74
which has a larger base sheet dimension. 75
76 The antenna was designed by making use of the standard FR4 laminates. These
77 laminates offer the benefits of cost-effectiveness in bulk production. The disadvan-
78 tage of FR4 laminates is the high losses at frequencies about 1 GHz; however, the
79 tradeoff between cost and losses is needed to be considered while engineering the
80 antenna structure. The surface-mountable antenna has multiple slits that are respon-
81 sible for the generation of multiple resonance modes. The dimensions of the con-
82 ducting slits on the top of the substrate are further engineered to improve the
83 impedance bandwidth at each exciting mode. The antenna is excited using offset
84 feed. The feed dimensions are calculated to present 50 Ω impedance to the SMA
85 connector. The engineered feed offers better radiation characteristics of the antenna.
86 The surface current density on the slits of the antenna can be effectively varied by
87 altering the electrical dimension of the feedline at target resonance. The partial
88 ground plane has been employed to improve the bandwidth of the patch resonator;
89 however, the partial ground plane does offer the disadvantage of reducing the
90 antenna F/B ratio. The antenna dimensions are selected after carrying out paramet-
91 ric variation and observing its effect on the reflection coefficient. The four parame-
92 ters including PL13, PL14, PW13, and GL are varied after which the optimized parameters
93 are decided.
94 Figure 2a indicates that the variation of PL13 leads to a change in the reflection
95 coefficient values along with the impedance bandwidth of the antenna. When the
96 length of PL13 decreases, the bandwidth and reflection coefficient are smaller as
Fig. 2 Performance analysis of antenna in terms of |S11| by varying (a) PL13 (b) PL14 (c)
PW13 (d) GL
Table 2 Antenna dimensions (in mm) t2.1
SW 200 Pi7 19 Pw1 92.9 Pw9 85 t2.2

SL 50 Pi8 26 Pw2 2.1 Pw10 10 t2.3
Pi1 13 Pi9 2 Pw3 66 Pw11 11 t2.4
Pi2 6 Pi10 6 Pw4 59 Pw12 58 t2.5
Pi3 4 Pi11 3 Pw5 11 Pw13 15 t2.6
Pi4 5 Pi12 13 Pw6 56 Pw14 26 t2.7
Pi5 5 Pi13 3 Pw7 31 Pw15 2 t2.8
Pi6 10 Pi14 17 Pw8 39 Gi 14 t2.9
compared to the values when the size of the PL13 increases. The optimum value of 97
PL13 is selected as 3 mm. The variation of PL14 and PW13 helps in achieving the accept- 98
able values of reflection coefficient at the second band, while bandwidth at the 99
respective bands is not much affected. The value of PL14 and PW13 is selected as 100
6 mm. Ground length (GL) variation helps in achieving the required bands of opera- 101
tion. The GL is chosen as 14 mm to accomplishing the proposed application bands. 102
The optimized parameters of the antenna are shown in Table 2. The top and bottom 103
view of an antenna fabricated on the FR4 substrate is illustrated in Fig. 3. 104
3 Results and Discussion 105
The fabricated antenna is tested in terms of reflection coefficient and radiation pat- 106
terns using Keysight VNA 9912A and anechoic chamber, respectively. The reflec- 107
tion coefficient plot of the radiator is depicted in Fig. 4, where antenna bandwidth 108
spans from (20.6%) 1.3–1.6 GHz, (46.44%) 2.0–3.21 GHz, (20.94%) 3.42–4.22 GHz, 109
and (7.26%) 4.91–5.28 GHz below the −10 dB level which covers GPS, ISM, 110
WiMAX, and WLAN bands, respectively. 111
The current distribution pattern at 1.49 GHz depicts that current is concentrated 112
near the edges toward the right, middle, and upper left side connected arms as shown 113
in Fig. 5a. At 2.59 GHz, the majority of the current flows in the lower arm of the 114
antenna, while a small amount of current is observed at the other parts of the antenna 115
as illustrated in Fig. 5b. The measured |S11| shows a great correlation with the simu- 116
lated values. 117
Figure 5c depicts that maximum current distribution at 3.87 GHz is on the feed- 118
line and toward the right lower side of the antenna, while at 5 GHz, the current is 119
concentrated at the feedline and right lower side of the radiator, whereas at 5 GHz, 120
the current is concentrated near the feedline and right lower side as illustrated from 121
Figs. 5d and 6. 122
The 2D radiation pattern measured in an anechoic chamber at E and H plane 123
shows that at all frequencies, the antenna shows an omnidirectional pattern which 124
makes the antenna suitable for its use in laptop applications since it can detect the 125
Fig. 3 Fabricated prototype of the proposed antenna (a) Top view (b) Back view
Fig. 4 Reflection coefficient of the antenna [simulated (solid) and measured (dashed)]
Fig. 5 Surface current densities at (a) 1.498 GHz (b) 2.59 GHz (c) 3.87 GHz (d) 5 GHz
signals from all sides. Simulated 2D patterns are in good association with the mea- 126
sured patterns. The setup for radiation pattern measurement is illustrated in Fig. 7. 127
Figure 8 shows the measured gain where an average gain value of more than 5 128
dBi is observed at bands of concern, which matches well with the simulated gain. 129
The 75% efficiency is achieved for the antenna. The characteristics of the antenna 130
are illustrated in Table 3. 131
Fig. 6 2D radiation patterns at (a) 1.498 GHz (b) 2.59 GHz (c) 3.87 GHz (d) 5 GHz [simulated
(solid) and measured (dashed)]
Fig. 7 Radiation pattern measurement setup in anechoic chamber (a) E plane (b) H plane
Fig. 8 Gain and efficiency of the antenna
4 Conclusion 132
A quad-band flat-plate antenna operating at (20.6%) 1.3–1.6 GHz, (46.44%) 133

2.0–3.21 GHz, (20.94%) 3.42–4.22 GHz, and (7.26%) 4.91–5.28 GHz bands suit- 134
able for integrated or internal laptop applications is proposed. The bandwidth of the 135
Table 3 Antenna characteristics t3.1
Center Peak gain Efficiency Radiation t3.2

Impedance bandwidth (%) frequency (dBi) (abs) pattern t3.3
S M (GHz) S M S M t3.4
1.3–1.6 GHz 1.31–1.59 GHz 1.498 6.2 5.5 0.84 0.81 Omnidirectional t3.5
(20.6%) (19.3%) t3.6
(46.44%) (34.7%) t3.8
(20.94%) (19.14%) t3.10
4.91–5.28 GHz 4.88–5.20 GHz 5 8.2 8.2 0.78 0.75 Omnidirectional t3.11
(7.26%) (6.34%) t3.12
136 antenna at the proposed bands is sufficient enough to cover the GPS, ISM, WiMAX,
137 and WLAN bands. The omnidirectional radiation pattern, economical antenna
138 material, gain, and efficiency values more than 5 dBi and 75%, respectively, with
139 ease of integration make the antenna suitable for its use in midsize laptop applica-
140 tions. The simulated and experimental results are presented, where a good correla-
141 tion is observed. The antenna could be made low profile in order to make it useful
142 for mini tablets and laptops.
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Part II 1
Performance Analysis of Micro-strip 2
Antenna 3
Antenna Optimization Using Taguchi’s 1
Method 2
Archana Tiwari and A. A. Khurshid 3
1 Introduction 4
Wireless communication has been widely used all over the world. Antenna is the 5
key component of wireless communication, and hence it has attracted the interest of 6
researchers from industry and academics toward antenna design [1]. Antenna 7
requirements for wireless communication include features like miniaturization, 8
flexibility, high data rate, etc. [2]. The flexibility feature of antenna can open the 9
possibility of flexible antennas to be integrated into clothing or wearable devices 10
[3]. These antennas should have the ability to adopt any arbitrary shape during vari- 11
ous movements of the body, specifically for the wearable devices [4, 5]. Critical 12
parameters of flexible antenna design are as follows [6, 7]: 13
(i) Selection of flexible substrate 14

(ii) Antenna’s performance when the antenna is flexed or bent 15
(iii) Reconfigurability 16
(iv) Fabrication method 17
(v) Specific absorption rate (SAR) 18
(vi) Close proximity with human body 19
This will allow exploiting the area of clothing and other flexible materials to cre- 20
ate efficient antennas in critical applications including communication and tracking 21
for defense or safety and monitoring of patients in a hospital or workforce in indus- 22
tries [8, 9]. 23
A. Tiwari (*) · A. A. Khurshid

Department of Electronics Engineering, Shri Ramdeobaba College of Engineering and
Management, Nagpur, India
e-mail: tiwariar@rknec.edu; khurshidaa@rknec.edu

Switzerland AG 2022
70 A. Tiwari and A. A. Khurshid
24 The aim is to achieve the compactness of antenna without affecting the perfor-
25 mance of antenna. Microstrip patch antenna with rectangular shape is considered
26 for the performance analysis as a case study. The antenna performance is dependent
27 on the following parameters [10]:
28 (i) Width of patch
29 (ii) Ground plane
30 (iii) Feed point location
31 (iv) Height of substrate
32 (v) Dielectric constant
33 (vi) Loss tangent
34 (vii) Probe diameter
35 (viii) Cover/coating
36 Parametric variations of above parameters can lead to performance improvement
37 in terms of resonance frequency, return loss, gain, bandwidth, etc. The parametric
38 variations need to be done in a systematic way, which can be done by optimization.
39 Optimization can be achieved by various methods like genetic algorithm, Taguchi’s
40 optimization, simulated annealing, artificial neural network, gradient-based tech-
41 niques, particle swarm optimization, etc. [11].
42 Taguchi’s optimization technique is explained in the further part of the book
43 chapter, where orthogonal array is used for optimization. Orthogonal array method
44 is more preferred over other two methods, like trial-and-error approach and full
45 factorial experimentation method, because it reduces the number of experiments to
46 be performed and requires less time and resources [12].
47 2 Microstrip Patch Antenna
48 Microstrip patch antennas are more preferred because of its features like light
49 weight, low profile, ease of fabrication, etc. Microstrip antennas are of various types
50 like circular, triangular, rectangular, etc., out of which rectangular-shaped patch is
51 the simplest one. The basic structure of rectangular patch with inset feed is shown
52 below in Fig. 1.
53 The rectangular patch is designed taking into consideration the frequency of
54 resonance (fr) as 2.45 GHz, which is assigned for ISM (Industrial Scientific Medical)
55 band. The substrate material is selected as FR4, which is an easily available mate-
56 rial. The dielectric constant (εr) is 4.4 and height of substrate (h) is 1.59 mm. After
57 considering fr, εr and h, the rectangular patch parameters can be calculated using the
58 following formulas:
c 2
Width of patch w p
2 fr  r 1
59 (1)
Antenna Optimization Using Taguchi’s Method 71
Fig. 1 Rectangular microstrip patch antenna with inset feed

Where; a, width of substrate; b, length of substrate; c, height of substrate; a1, width of patch;
b1, length of patch; u, width of feedline; v, length of feedline; u1, width of slot between patch
and feed; v1, length of slot between patch and feed
where: 60
c – velocity of light 61
c
Length of patch L p 2 L
2 fr  eff
(2) 62
r 1 r 1
Effective dielectric constant  eff
2 h
2 1 12
wp
(3) 63
wp
eff 0.3 0.264
h
Extended length L 0.412h
wp
eff 0.258 0.8
h (4) 64
Width of substrate ws 6h 6h w p
(5) 65
Length of substrate Ls 6h 6h L p
(6) 66
The width and length of the patch are calculated as 37.26 mm and 29.72 mm by 67
using formulas 1 and 2, respectively. The width and length of the substrate is calcu- 68
lated as 56.34 mm and 48.80 mm using formulas 5 and 6, respectively. Hence, the 69
size of the antenna is found out to be 56.34 × 48.80 × 1.59 mm3. But for wearable 70
device application, the compact size of the antenna is desirable. Hence, miniaturiza- 71
tion is achieved by using Taguchi’s optimization method. 72
73 3 Taguchi’s Optimization Method
74 Optimization techniques are basically classified into two types, i.e., local optimiza-
75 tion technique and global optimization technique. Gradient-based techniques come
76 under local optimization technique, whereas global optimization technique is used
77 in particle swarm optimization, genetic algorithm, Taguchi’s method, simulated
78 annealing, and artificial neural network. For achieving optimization there are vari-
79 ous methods like trial-and-error approach, full Factorial experimentation and
80 orthogonal array method. Orthogonal array method basically reduces the trial
81 experiments by the systematic selection of input parameters, whereas in other two
82 methods, the number of experiments to be performed is more, which requires more
83 time and resources. Hence, orthogonal arrays are more preferred over other meth-
84 ods. Taguchi’s method is selected for optimization. The process flow of Taguchi’s
85 method is explained in Flow Chart 1.
86 The first step of the process flow of Taguchi’s method is to design an orthogonal
87 array (OA) to select a fitness function. Orthogonal array consists of:
88 N – rows or number of experiments
89 k – columns or number of input parameters
90 s – levels of parameters
91 t – strength (0 ≤ t ≤ k)
92 Hence, orthogonal array is in the form OA (N, k, s, t). In the orthogonal array, the
93 number of experiments to be performed is decided by Rao’s inequality equations,
94 and the parameters of OA must satisfy the equations of existence and construction
95 as shown in Eqs. 7 and 8 [13].
u
k
N s 1 , if t 2u, u 0
i
i 0 i
96 (7)
u
k k 1
N s 1 s 1 , if t 2u 1, u 0
i u 1
i 0 i u
97 (8)
98 4 I mplementations of Taguchi’s Method for Rectangular

99 Patch Antenna
100 The antenna size is targeted to be reduced without affecting the performance of the
101 antenna, like frequency of resonance, return loss, and gain. This is achieved using
102 parametric variations by systematic section method, i.e., using OA of Taguchi’s
103 optimization method. The parameters which are considered for variation are width
104 of patch, ground plane, and position of feed for FR4 as substrate material. The
105 ground-plane variation is further divided into two parameters, such as width and
106 length of ground plane. As in the design, full ground plane is used; hence, the size
Flow Chart 1 Process flow of Taguchi’s method
of the ground plane is the size of the substrate. Also the position of feed is further 107
divided into two parameters, such as width of slot and width of feed. 108
The OA for the rectangular patch antenna is considered for the following param- 109
eters of antenna: 110
P1 – width of patch 111

P2 – width of ground plane 112
P3 – length of ground plane 113
P4 – width of slot 114
P5 – width of feed 115
The above five parameters of antenna are considered for five different levels, 116
which is given in Table 1. The OA (25, 5, 5, 2) designed is shown in Table 2. 117
For the designed OA (25, 5, 5, 2) shown in Table 2, a total of 25 design experi- 118
ments are simulated in the first iteration. The first iteration results found in terms of 119
resultant frequency and return loss, after simulations, are presented in Table 3. 120
The parametric variations observed from Table 3 simulation experimentation are 121
as follows. 122
Table 1 Parameters of antenna with five different levels t1.1
Ground plane Feed point location

Width of Width of Length of Width of Width of
Factor patch substrate substrate slot feed t1.2
levels P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 t1.3
1 18.63 23.4 39.26 0.25 1.515 t1.4
2 27.94 35.1 44.17 0.37 2.27 t1.5
3 37.26 46.8 49.07 0.5 3.03 t1.6
4 46.57 58.5 53.83 0.62 3.79 t1.7
5 55.89 70.2 58.89 0.75 4.545 t1.8
Table 2 OA (25, 5, 5, 2) t2.1
Elements
Experiment P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 t2.2
E1 1 1 1 1 1 t2.3
E2 1 2 2 2 2 t2.4
E3 1 3 3 3 3 t2.5
E4 1 4 4 4 4 t2.6
E5 1 5 5 5 5 t2.7
E6 2 1 2 3 4 t2.8
E7 2 2 3 4 5 t2.9
E8 2 3 4 5 1 t2.10
E9 2 4 5 1 2 t2.11
E10 2 5 1 2 3 t2.12
E11 3 1 3 5 2 t2.13
E12 3 2 4 1 3 t2.14
E13 3 3 5 2 4 t2.15
E14 3 4 1 3 5 t2.16
E15 3 5 2 4 1 t2.17
E16 4 1 4 2 5 t2.18
E17 4 2 5 3 1 t2.19
E18 4 3 1 4 2 t2.20
E19 4 4 2 5 3 t2.21
E20 4 5 3 1 4 t2.22
E21 5 1 5 4 3 t2.23
E22 5 2 1 5 4 t2.24
E23 5 3 2 1 5 t2.25
E24 5 4 3 2 1 t2.26
E25 5 5 4 3 2 t2.27
4.1 Effect of Width of Patch 123
The width of the patch has significant effect on the performance of antenna such as 124
input impedance, resonance frequency BW, and gain of the antenna. For the five 125
different values of width of patch, performance variation is observed in terms of 126
resonance frequency of antenna, and it is found that if the width of the patch is 127
decreased from 44.71 mm to 22.35 mm, the resonance frequency of the antenna is 128
increased from 2.43 GHz to 2.53 GHz. So as the width of the patch increases, reso- 129
nance frequency decreases; hence, it will increase the gain and bandwidth of the 130
antenna. 131
4.2 Width of Slot 132
Feed point location of patch is another important parameter, and in the discussed 133
optimization method, it is governed by the parameter width of slot. For the five dif- 134
ferent widths of slot from 0.25 mm to 0.75 mm variations, the resonance frequency 135
is observed to be varied from 2.43 GHz to 2.53 GHz. 136
4.3 Width of Feed 137
Width of feed is also considered as one of the parameters for optimization, and it is 138
observed that if the width of feed is increased from 5.98 mm to 8.97 mm, the reso- 139
nance frequency is decreased from 2.53 GHz to 2.43 GHz. 140
In the first iteration, it is observed that experiments 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, and 22 have 141
given minimum fitness function and high signal-to-noise ratio, which is shown in 142
Table 4. Optimization results are considered based on resonance frequency and 143
return loss parameter. It is evident from the identified experiments that the first 144
design experiment from the first iteration gives optimized results in terms of return 145
loss parameter and directivity. 146
The optimum design selected with parameters is shown in Table 5. After simula- 147
tion of experiment 1, the size of the antenna is optimized as 39.26 × 23.4 ×1.59 mm3 148
at a resonance frequency of 2.44 GHz with a return loss of −24.93 dB and opera- 149
tional bandwidth of 4.09%. 150
The optimized antenna fabricated on FR4 substrate with dielectric constant 4.4 151
has a loss tangent of 0.02. The optimized antenna’s front and back sides after simu- 152
lation and fabrication are shown in Fig. 2. 153
The measurement of the optimized antenna is performed with the use of VNA 154
from Keysight technologies with a 50 Ω SMA connector to the microstrip feedline. 155
Figures 3 and 4 show the return loss plot vs frequency and Smith chart plot of 156
Table 3 First iteration results of OA after simulation t3.1
Width Length Width t3.2

of Width of of Width of t3.3
patch substrate substrate of slot feed t3.4
(a1) (a) (b) (u1) (u) Resultant Return Fitness S/N t3.5
Experiments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 frequency loss function ratio t3.6
E1 18.63 23.4 39.26 0.25 1.515 2.44 −24.93 0.01 40 t3.7
E2 18.63 35.1 44.17 0.37 2.27 2.48 −20.02 −0.03 30.46 t3.8
E3 18.63 46.8 49.07 0.5 3.03 2.48 −11.8 −0.03 30.46 t3.9
E4 18.63 58.5 53.83 0.62 3.79 2.54 −10.96 −0.09 20.91 t3.10
E5 18.63 70.2 58.89 0.75 4.545 2.58 −12.7 −0.13 17.72 t3.11
E6 27.94 23.4 44.17 0.5 3.79 2.42 −23.69 0.03 30.46 t3.12
E7 27.94 35.1 49.07 0.62 4.545 2.44 −28.71 0.01 40 t3.13
E8 27.94 46.8 53.83 0.75 1.515 2.38 −8.91 0.07 23.10 t3.14
E9 27.94 58.5 58.89 0.25 2.27 2.4 −29.32 0.05 26.02 t3.15
E10 27.94 70.2 39.26 0.37 3.03 2.42 −23.81 0.03 30.46 t3.16
E11 37.26 23.4 49.07 0.75 2.27 2.4 −10.76 0.05 26.02 t3.17
E12 37.26 35.1 53.83 0.25 3.03 2.38 −14.39 0.07 23.10 t3.18
E13 37.26 46.8 58.89 0.37 3.79 2.36 −16.44 0.09 20.91 t3.19
E14 37.26 58.5 39.26 0.5 4.545 2.36 −23.7 0.09 20.91 t3.20
E15 37.26 70.2 44.17 0.62 1.515 2.3 −7.64 0.15 16.48 t3.21
E16 46.57 23.4 53.83 0.37 4.545 2.3 −29.79 0.15 16.48 t3.22
E17 46.57 35.1 58.89 0.5 1.515 2.32 −10.89 0.13 17.72 t3.23
E18 46.57 46.8 39.26 0.62 2.27 2.26 −8.08 0.19 14.42 t3.24
E19 46.57 58.5 44.17 0.75 3.03 2.56 −22.19 −0.11 19.17 t3.25
E20 46.57 70.2 49.07 0.25 3.79 2.34 −14.96 0.11 19.17 t3.26
E21 55.89 23.4 58.89 0.62 3.03 2.66 −22.45 −0.21 13.55 t3.27
E22 55.89 35.1 39.26 0.75 3.79 2.48 −18.94 −0.03 30.46 t3.28
E23 55.89 46.8 44.17 0.25 4.545 2.32 −19.98 0.13 17.72 t3.29
E24 55.89 58.5 49.07 0.37 1.515 2.58 −10.89 −0.13 17.72 t3.30
E25 55.89 70.2 53.83 0.5 2.27 2.58 −18.99 −0.13 17.72 t3.31
157 simulated and fabricated antenna, respectively. Comparative analysis of simulated

158 and measured results of the antenna is shown in Table 6.
159 5 F
lexible Antenna and Implementation of Taguchi’s
160 Method for Rectangular Patch Antenna
161 To cope up with the design requirements of flexible antenna, flexible substrate is
162 required. Some identified alternative flexible substrate materials with their com-
163 parative studies are shown in Table 7.
164 Textile polyester material is considered as flexible antenna substrate with dielec-
165 tric constant of 2.75 and thickness of 1.5 mm, for further designing procedure. The
Table 4 Results with minimum fitness function and maximum S/N ratio t4.1
Antenna parameters Exp 1 Exp 2 Exp 3 Exp 6 Exp 7 Exp 10 Exp 22 t4.2
(a) Width of substrate 23.4 35.1 46.8 23.4 35.1 70.2 35.1 t4.3
(mm) t4.4
(b) Length of 39.26 44.17 49.07 44.17 49.07 39.26 39.26 t4.5
substrate (mm) t4.6
(a1) Width of patch 18.63 18.63 18.63 27.94 27.94 27.94 55.89 t4.7
(mm) t4.8
(u1) Width of slot of 0.25 0.37 0.5 0.5 0.62 0.37 0.75 t4.9
feed t4.10
(u) Width of feedline 1.515 2.27 3.03 3.79 4.545 3.03 3.79 t4.11
(mm) t4.12
εr 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 t4.13
Feed type Inset Inset Inset Inset Inset Inset Inset t4.14
feed feed feed feed feed feed feed t4.15
Height of substrate 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 t4.16
(mm) t4.17
Length of patch (mm) 29.72 29.72 29.72 29.72 29.72 29.72 29.72 t4.18
Length of feedline 16.62 16.62 16.62 16.62 16.62 16.62 16.62 t4.19
(mm) t4.20
∆L (mm) 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 t4.21
εr (effective) (mm) 4.082 4.082 4.082 4.082 4.082 4.082 4.082 t4.22
Effective length (mm) 30.3 30.3 30.3 30.3 30.3 30.3 30.3 t4.23
Electrical length (mm) 87.38 87.38 87.38 87.38 87.38 87.38 87.38 t4.24
Results achieved after simulation t4.25
Resultant frequency 2.44 2.48 2.48 2.42 2.44 2.42 2.48 t4.26
(GHz) t4.27
Return loss −24.93 −20.02 −11.8 −23.69 −28.71 −23.81 −18.94 t4.28
parameters of antenna are calculated, and for compactness, Taguchi’s method is 166
implemented on flexible textile polyester substrate-based rectangular patch antenna. 167
As discussed earlier, Taguchi’s optimization procedure includes orthogonal array 168
design with consideration of different antenna parameters. Five parameters of 169
antenna are considered for five different levels as shown in Table 8. 170
The orthogonal array is considered for N, rows or number of experiments; k, 171
columns or number of input parameters; s, levels of parameters; and t, strength 172
(0 ≤ t ≤ k) with the values N = 25, k = 5, s = 5, and t = 2. Hence, for the designed 173
OA (25, 5, 5, 2), 25 design experiments are simulated in the first iteration. The first 174
iteration results found after simulations are presented in Table 9. 175
In the first iteration, experiments 1, 2, 3, 6, 10, 14, and 15 have given minimum 176
fitness function and high signal-to-noise ratio, which is shown in Table 10. 177
Optimization results can be considered based on resonance frequency and return 178
loss parameter. From the identified experiments, best result is then considered based 179
on minimum fitness function and maximum S/N ratio, and better return loss. 180
It is evident from the identified experiments that the 15th design experiment from 181
the first iteration has given optimized results in terms of return loss parameter, 182
Fig. 2 Simulated and fabricated antenna, front and back side

Fig. 3 Return loss vs frequency plot of simulated and fabricated antenna
Fig. 4 Smith chart of simulated and fabricated antenna
resonance frequency, and compactness. After simulation of experiment 15, the 183
return loss found is −17.39 dB at a resonance frequency of 2.46 GHz for a compact 184
size of 49.39 x 40.35 mm2, which is comparatively small than the size obtained by 185
considering formulae which is 62.71 x 53.89 mm2. The return loss vs frequency plot 186
is shown in Fig. 5. Gain plot is shown in Fig. 6, which shows a maximum gain 187
of 6 dBi. 188
It is observed that after application of Taguchi’s optimization, the first iteration 189
results indicate a percentage reduction of around 58.97% in size. In order to comply 190
with the requirements of various wearable devices or other biomedical applications, 191
the design can be simulated for further set of iterations to achieve compactness. The 192
results presented are exemplary, and the designers can apply the same as per their 193
requirements. 194
t5.1 Table 5 Results with minimum fitness function and maximum S/N ratio
Antenna parameters Experiment t5.2
(a) Width of substrate (mm) 23.4 t5.3
(b) Length of substrate (mm) 39.26 t5.4
(a1) Width of patch (mm) 18.63 t5.5
(u1) Width of slot of feed 0.25 t5.6
(u) Width of feedline (mm) 1.515 t5.7
Dielectric constant εr (for FR4 material) 4.4 t5.8
Feed type Inset feed t5.9
Height of substrate (mm) 1.59 t5.10
Length of patch (mm) 29.72 t5.11
Length of feedline (mm) 16.62 t5.12
∆L (mm) 0.29 t5.13
Effective dielectric constant εr (effective) (mm) 4.082 t5.14
Effective length (mm) 30.3 t5.15
Electrical length (mm) 87.38 t5.16
Results after simulation t5.17
Resultant frequency (GHz) 2.44 t5.18
Return loss −24.93 t5.19
Operational bandwidth 4.09% t5.20
Table 6 Comparative analysis of simulated and measured results of the antenna t6.1
Real part of impedance t6.2

Proposed Resonance Bandwidth Return loss measured on Smith chart t6.3
antenna frequency (GHz) (%) (dB) (ohms) t6.4
Simulated 2.44 4.06 −24.93 47.26 t6.5
results t6.6
Measured 2.43 2.46 −30.35 49.9 t6.7
results t6.8
Table 7 Comparative study of flexible substrate materials t7.1
Paper reference [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] t7.2

Year of 2019 2019 2018 2019 2019 t7.3
publication t7.4
Substrate Fabric PDMS Paper Polyimide PET t7.5
material t7.6
Antenna type Textile PDMS Paper Kapton Polyester (PETP) t7.7
polyimide film-based t7.8
Antenna shape Inset feed Unit Square MIMO complex Rectangular t7.9
rectangular patch cell shape t7.10
Size (mm) 54 × 37 8×8 50x50 22 × 31 50 × 33 t7.11
Thickness (mm) 1.5 2 0.18 0.125 0.1 t7.12
Dielectric 2.75 2.63 2.8 3.4 3.8 t7.13
constant t7.14
Dielectric loss Not mentioned 0.076 0.15 Not mentioned 0.0021 t7.15
(tan δ) t7.16
Frequency 2.45 11.4 2.45 2.9–12 GHz 2.21–2.69 and t7.17
(GHz) 3.14–3.55 t7.18
Band Single Single Single Variable Variable t7.19
Table 8 Parameters of flexible antenna with five different levels t8.1
Ground-plane
Width of width of Length of Width of Length of
Factor patch substrate substrate slot slot t8.2
levels P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 t8.3
(a1) (a) (b) (u1) (v1) t8.4
1 44.71 62.71 53.89 0.25 8.97 t8.5
2 39.12 57.12 49.39 0.37 8.22 t8.6
3 33.53 51.53 44.89 0.5 7.47 t8.7
4 27.94 45.94 40.39 0.62 6.72 t8.8
5 22.35 40.35 36 0.75 5.98 t8.9
Table 9 Simulation results of flexible antenna after the first iteration of OA t9.1
Width Length Width t9.2

of Width of of of Length t9.3
patch substrate substrate slot of slot t9.4
(a1) (a) (b) (u1) (v1) Resultant Return Fitness t9.5
Experiment P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 frequency loss function S/N ratiot9.6
E1 44.71 62.71 53.89 0.25 8.97 2.43 −22.46 0.02 33.98 t9.7
E2 44.71 57.12 49.39 0.37 8.22 2.43 −19.72 0.02 33.98 t9.8
E3 44.71 51.53 44.89 0.5 7.47 2.43 −14.01 0.02 33.98 t9.9
E4 44.71 45.94 40.39 0.62 6.72 3.98 −28.34 −1.53 −3.694 t9.10
E5 44.71 45 36 0.75 5.98 5.06 −24.23 −2.61 −8.333 t9.11
E6 39.12 62.71 49.39 0.5 6.72 2.45 −10.59 −0.01 45.04 t9.12
E7 39.12 57.12 44.89 0.62 5.98 2.45 −7 −0.01 45.04 t9.13
E8 39.12 51.53 40.39 0.75 8.97 2.46 −7.41 −0.01 40 t9.14
E9 39.12 45.94 36 0.25 8.22 2.54 −3.49 −0.09 20.92 t9.15
E10 39.12 40.35 53.89 0.37 7.47 2.44 −32.66 0.01 40 t9.16
E11 33.53 62.71 44.89 0.75 8.22 2.48 −7.53 −0.03 30.46 t9.17
E12 33.53 57.12 40.39 0.25 7.47 2.48 −4.03 −0.03 30.46 t9.18
E13 33.53 51.53 36 0.37 6.72 2.57 −2.8 −0.12 18.42 t9.19
E14 33.53 45.94 53.89 0.5 5.98 2.46 −11.77 −0.01 40 t9.20
E15 33.53 40.35 49.39 0.62 8.97 2.46 −17.39 −0.01 40 t9.21
E16 27.94 62.71 40.39 0.37 5.98 4.91 −34.12 −2.46 −7.819 t9.22
E17 27.94 57.12 36 0.5 8.97 4.83 −20.66 −2.38 −7.532 t9.23
E18 27.94 51.53 53.89 0.62 8.22 2.5 −9.39 −0.05 26.02 t9.24
E19 27.94 45.94 49.39 0.75 7.47 2.5 −7.5 −0.05 26.02 t9.25
E20 27.94 40.35 44.89 0.25 6.72 4.86 −15.08 −2.41 −7.64 t9.26
E21 22.35 62.71 36 0.62 7.47 2.63 −1.86 −0.18 14.89 t9.27
E22 22.35 57.12 53.89 0.75 6.72 2.53 −5.15 −0.08 21.94 t9.28
E23 22.35 51.53 49.39 0.25 5.98 2.54 −3.55 −0.09 20.92 t9.29
E24 22.35 45.94 44.89 0.37 8.97 2.54 −3.81 −0.09 20.92 t9.30
E25 22.35 40.35 40.39 0.5 8.22 2.55 −2.23 −0.1 20 t9.31
Table 10 Identified experiments after optimization with minimum fitness function and maximum t10.1
S/N ratio t10.2
Antenna parameters Exp 1 Exp 2 Exp 3 Exp 6 Exp 10 Exp 14 Exp 15 t10.3
(a) Width of substrate 62.71 57.12 51.53 62.71 40.35 45.94 40.35 t10.4
(mm) t10.5
(b) Length of substrate 53.89 49.39 44.89 49.39 53.89 53.89 49.39 t10.6
(mm) t10.7
(a1) Width of patch (mm) 44.71 44.71 44.71 39.12 39.12 33.53 33.53 t10.8
(u1) Width of slot of feed 0.25 0.37 0.5 0.5 0.37 0.5 0.62 t10.9
(u) Width of feedline (mm) 8.97 8.22 7.47 6.72 7.47 5.98 8.97 t10.10
εr 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 t10.11
Feed type Inset Inset Inset Inset Inset Inset Inset t10.12
feed feed feed feed feed feed feed t10.13
(Continue)
Antenna parameters Exp 1 Exp 2 Exp 3 Exp 6 Exp 10 Exp 14 Exp 15

t10.14 Height of substrate (mm) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
t10.15 Length of patch (mm) 35.89 35.89 35.89 35.89 35.89 35.89 35.89
t10.16 Length of feedline (mm) 17.97 14.97 11.97 13.47 16.47 14.98 15.72
t10.17 ∆L (mm) 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
t10.18 εr (effective) (mm) 2.63 2.63 2.63 2.63 2.63 2.63 2.63
t10.19 Effective length (mm) 37.74 37.74 37.74 37.74 37.74 37.74 37.74
t10.20 Electrical length (mm) 105.51 105.51 105.51 105.51 105.51 105.51 105.51
t10.21 Results achieved after simulation
t10.22 Resultant frequency 2.43 2.43 2.43 2.45 2.44 2.46 2.46
t10.23 (GHz)
t10.24 Return loss (dB) −22.46 −19.72 −14.01 −10.59 −32.66 −11.77 −17.39
t10.25 Gain (dBi) 6.75 6.56 6.35 6.48 6 6 6
Fig. 5 Return loss vs frequency plot of optimized design of flexible antenna
Fig. 6 3D and 2D gain plot of optimized design of flexible antenna

195 References
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A Novel Compact Frequency 1
and Polarization Reconfigurable Slot 2
Antenna Using PIN Diodes for Cognitive 3
Radio Applications 4
V. N. Lakshmana Kumar, M. Satyanarayana, Sohanpal Singh, 5

and Dac-Nhuong Le 6
1 Introduction 7
Present days, wireless communications systems need advanced ways to bring speed 8
data communication and superior use of frequency spectrum in consonance to user 9
requirement. An auspicious surrogate that achieves these symptoms is cognitive 10
radio systems. As per the guidelines of FCC, CR means real-time scanning of a 11
channel or frequency spectrum and inhibits communications in terms of power and 12
frequency in order to avert unhealthy interference to other frequency users [1, 2]. 13
The authors in the paper [2] comment that, for a cognitive radio (CR) equipment to 14
function properly, it must fundamentally follow a series of steps: (1) sensing chan- 15
nel operation, (2) selecting which frequency part is applicable for transmission, (3) 16
communication starts through that channel, and (4) culture from earlier channel 17
activity. In CR, empty frequency slots of the spectrum are identified and allocated 18
to other users dynamically [3]. 19
The most important subsystem of CR is the antenna. It should be reconfigurable 20
in performance parameters like polarization, pattern, and frequency, depending on 21
V. N. Lakshmana Kumar (*) · M. Satyanarayana

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, M.V.G.R College of
Engineering(A), Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
e-mail: lakshmana@mvgrce.edu.in
S. Singh
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Mahatma Gandhi Institute of
Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
e-mail: spsingh@mgit.ac.in
D.-N. Le
Haiphong University, Haiphong, Vietnam
e-mail: nhuongld@dhhp.edu.vn

Switzerland AG 2022
86 V. N. Lakshmana Kumar et al.
22 the system’s needs [4]. In the paper [5], the authors have mentioned the capabilities
23 that are required for an antenna in order to play a vital role in CR systems. An
24 antenna design for spectrum sensing and communication is highly difficult. Many
25 researchers have been trying to cross the requirements for the design of such type of
26 antennas for CR systems.
27 The reconfiguration is accomplished through the reconstruction of the currents,
28 so that the EM fields of the effective interstitial antenna cause reversible variations
29 in the radiation properties or impedance of the antenna [6].These variations are
30 facilitated via different mechanisms. These are material adjustment, structural
31 changes, and switching. Different antennas are not required for covering different
32 frequency bands with this reconfigurability. There are disparate alternative methods
33 to achieve reconfigurable antenna. For example, the authors have proposed a
34 microstrip antenna with circular intersection truncation to obtain polarization recon-
35 figurability [7]. In [8], reconfigurability was achieved with tunable inductor. The
36 concept of placing switchable PIN diodes is explained to achieve dual-band absorber
37 in [9]. The combination of varactor diodes and PIN diodes for printed monopole
38 antennas resulted in a reconfigurable ultra-wideband MIMO antenna in [10].The
39 concept of DC-controlled varactor-based matching network is proposed to design
40 reconfigurable ultra-wideband antenna for cognitive radio applications [11]. To
41 achieve circular polarization, the idea of orthogonally placing stub and strip in the
42 ground plane of the microstrip patch antenna is presented in [12].
43 In this study, we have mentioned an investigation and composition of a compact
44 polarization and frequency reconfigurable slot antenna. This is reconfigured with
45 HPND4005 PIN diodes for CR applications.
46 2 Design
47 The proposed design is a compact polarization and frequency reconfigurable single-

48 slot microstrip antenna. The feedline of this antenna is λ/4. The current through the
49 antenna surface is linear when all the diodes are OFF, which increase the antenna
50 gain and efficiency. Figure 1 shows the structure of this antenna. The impedance of
51 the feedline is 50 ohms, and the resonant frequency is 5.2 GHz. FR4 substrate mate-
52 rial is used for the design of the proposed antenna with εr = 4.4 .The simulations are
53 carried out using high-frequency structure simulator (HFSS).
54 The dimensions of the proposed design are calculated using the equations in [6].
55 The polarization reconfiguration was achieved by placing four L-shaped microstrip
56 lines in the four corners of the patch antenna. The four L-shaped strip lines are of
57 different widths and lengths. The dimensions of L-shaped strip lines are chosen by
58 optimetrics in HFSS tool to achieve polarization reconfigurability. By changing the
59 effective electrical length, the L-shaped strip lines provide polarization
A Novel Compact Frequency and Polarization Reconfigurable Slot Antenna Using PIN… 87
Fig. 1 (a) Antenna design top view (b) Antenna design ground view
60 reconfigurability. These are interconnected with the patch by ON/OFF of the PIN
61 diode switches. When switches S1, S2, S3, and S4 are OFF, the proposed antenna
62 radiates with linear polarization. For circular polarization, switches S1, S2, S3, and
63 S4 are ON. The frequency reconfiguration was achieved by changing the state of
64 switch S5.
65 2.1 Design Equations
66 The proposed antenna design specifications are as follows. The substrate material is
67 FR4 epoxy with a dielectric constant of 4.4 and height of substrate (h) = 1.6 mm.
68 The operating frequency of the recommended antenna f0 is 5.2 GHz. The design
69 steps for the proposed antenna are as follows:
70 The width (W) of the patch is calculated using Eq. (1):
c
W (1)
2 f0
r 1
71 2
72 where c = 3 × 108 m/s and εr = 4.4.
73 The effective length of patch antenna depends on the resonance frequency (f0)
74 and is given by Eq. (2):
c
Leff (2)
2 f0 reff
75
1

1 r 1 12h 2
Where reff r 1 (3)
76 2 2 w
77 The E fields at the edges of the patch undergo fringing effects. Because of these
78 effects, the effective length of the patch antenna appears to be greater than its actual
79 length. So, the actual and effective length of a patch antenna can be related as:
L Leff 2L (4)

80
81 where L is the actual length, ΔL is a function of an effective dielectric constant εreff,
82 and w/h is the width-to-height ratio.
w
0.264
L reff 0.3 h
0.412 (5)
h reff
0 . 258 0.8
w
h
83
The calculated values of W and L are 17.5 mm and 12.56 mm, respectively, 84
which are named as Wp and LP in the following table. The quarter-wave impedance 85
transformer rule is used for calculating the feedline dimensions. The diagonal slot 86
length is chosen as 12 mm, which is the optimized value selected between λg/3 and 87
λg/2. λg, which is the guided wave length. 88
2.2 D
imensional Parameters for the Designed Antenna 89
(Table 1) 90
Table 1 Dimensions of the proposed antenna in mm t1.1
Ls Ws Lg Wg Lf Wf Lf1 Wf1 L1 t1.2

58.94 35.9 58.9 35.9 14 3.05 8.29 0.9 6 t1.3
W1 W11 L2 W2 W21 L3 W3 W31 L4 t1.4
8 2.1 6 7.5 2 5.5 7 1.5 5 t1.5
W4 W41 V1 Wp Lp Sw4 Sw5 Sw1 Sw2 t1.6
6 1 12 17.5 12.56 1.62*1.19 1*0.75 3.17*2.19 2.62*2.25 t1.7
Sw3 t1.8
2.12*2.25 t1.9
The S11 plot of the recommended antenna is shown in Fig. 2. This antenna operates 92
in different bands, achieved by changing the state of the PIN diode. When switches 93
S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5 are OFF, the minimum return loss of 13.2 dB is observed at 94
Fig. 2 S11 plot for four 0

switching states (0, OFF;
1, ON)
–5
–10
S11(dB)
–15
–20 00000
00001
–25 11110
11111
7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5
FREQUENCY(GHz)
Fig. 3 VSWR plot for 5

four switching states (0,
OFF; 1, ON)
4
VSWR
2
00000
1
00001
11110
0 11111
7 8 9 10 11 12
FREQUENCY(GHz)
95 a frequency of 10.75 GHz. When switches S1, S2, S3, and S4 are OFF and S5 is
96 ON, the antenna resonates at 10.5 GHz with a return loss of 19.36 dB .When the
97 state of switches S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5 changes to ON condition, the antenna reso-
98 nates at 10.9 GHz with a return loss of 27.42 dB. When S1, S2, S3, and S4 are ON
99 and S5 is OFF, the antenna resonates at 11.41 GHz with a return loss of
100 18.97 dB. Thus, the proposed antenna achieved frequency reconfiguration.
101 Figure 3 shows the VSWR plot for the four switching states. For all the states,
102 VSWR value less than 2 is achieved at different frequencies. The radiation pattern
103 for different switch conditions is shown in Fig. 4. They are plotted for phi (Φ = 00)
104 and for different values of “θ.” For S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5 ON-state combination,
105 maximum radiation is observed for θ = −200 direction.
106 The 3D polar plots of the recommended antenna for the two switching states are
107 shown in Fig. 5. A maximum gain of 3 dBi is achieved when S1, S2, S3, and S4 are
108 ON and S5 is in OFF condition, and maximum gain of 5 dBi is achieved when the
109 five switches are in the ON-state condition.
110 The proposed design switches from linear (LP) to circular polarization (CP),
111 when the switching states of S1–S4 are changed from OFF condition to ON condi-
112 tion. Figure 6 shows the axial ratio plot for the two mentioned states. The axial
113 ratios less than 3 dB are obtained at 9.75 GHz, 11.7 GHz, and 13.75 GHz, respec-
114 tively, for switches 11111 combination.
115 The surface current distribution of the suggested antenna is shown in Fig. 7. For
116 the switch state where S1, S2, S3, and S4 are OFF and S5 is ON, the maximum cur-
117 rent density of 1.57 × 102A/m is achieved, and for the another state where S1–S5 are
118 ON, the maximum current density is 2.47 × 102 A/m.
Fig. 4 Radiation pattern for (a) S1,S2,S3,S4, and S5 ON (b) S1,S2,S3,S4, ON; S5, OFF (c) For
S1,S2,S3,S4, and S5, OFF
4 Comparison of Parameters 119
Table 2 shows the comparison of parameters for different switch combinations. For 120
circular polarization, 11110 and 11111 switch combinations are desirable, and for 121
linear polarization, the other two combinations of the switches are selected. 122
Fig. 5 3D gain plot for (a) S1,S2,S3,S4, and S5, ON (b) S1,S2,S3,S4, ON and S5, OFF
Fig. 6 Axial ratio plot for 50

switch state 00001 and
45 00001
11111(0, OFF; 1, ON)
40 11111
35
AXIAL RATIO(dB)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
FREQUENCY(GHz)
Table 2 Performance comparison for different switching states t2.1
Switch state Resonant frequency(GHz) S11 (dB) Gain (dBi) Axial ratio (dB) t2.2
00000 7.4,10.75 −10.9,−13.2 3 45 t2.3
00001 9.1,10.5 −14.23,−19.36 3 30 t2.4
11110 11.4 −18.97 5 2 t2.5
11111 10.9 −27.42 5 1.5 t2.6
a
Jsurf (A/m)
1.5720E+002
1.4673E+002
1.3626E+002
1.2580E+002
1.1533E+002
1.0486E+002
9.4395E+001
8.3927E+001
7.3460E+001
6.2992E+001
5.2525E+001
4.2058E+001
3.1590E+001
2.1123E+001
1.0656E+001
1.8811E–001
b
Jsurf (A/m)
2.4797E+002
2.3146E+002
2.1495E+002
1.9844E+002
1.8194E+002
1.6543E+002
1.4892E+001
1.3241E+001
1.1590E+001
9.9391E+001
8.2882E+001
6.6374E+001
4.9865E+001
3.3356E+001
1.6847E+001
3.3857E–001
Fig. 7 J-surface plot for the switch state (a) 00001 (0, OFF; 1, ON) (b) 11111(0, OFF; 1, ON)
123 5 Conclusion
124 A novel antenna design for polarization and frequency reconfiguration is presented.
125 Microstrip patch antenna with diagonal slot and four L-shaped strip lines on the four
126 corners of the patch is designed. The frequency reconfiguration is obtained by put-
127 ting a switch on the diagonal slot, and polarization reconfiguration is obtained with
128 the help of the four switches on the four corners of the patch antenna, which connect
to the L-shaped strip lines. The simulated results indicate that both polarization and 129
frequency reconfiguration are achieved. Frequency reconfiguration gives resonant 130
frequencies in the X-band. Axial ratio less than 3 dB is also achieved for polariza- 131
tion reconfiguration. This antenna is useful in cognitive radio and satellite commu- 132
nication applications. 133
References 134
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cognitive secondary users”, (WOCC), 2011, pp.1–6. 136
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Fernando Lopez-Marcos, IEEE, 2015. 138
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Report, Washington DC, 2002. 140
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231–243 (2014) 142
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cognitive radio applications. IJIRSE. 2(4), 190–194 (2014) 144
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Pacific Microwave conference, December 2009 147
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Mathematical Analysis and Optimization 1
of a Remodeled Circular Patch for 5G 2
Communication 3
Ribhu Abhusan Panda and Debasis Mishra 4
1 Introduction 5
As per the need of time, antenna designs have evolved faster than expected. In the 6
past decade, there are many designs based on perturbed patch antenna for suitable 7
applications. As soon as 5G applications are incorporated in technology, designs of 8
planar antenna have taken shape with better efficiency. Novel planar antennas have 9
been designed for 5G communications [1–4]. Antisymmetric L-shaped probe feeds 10
have been included in the patch antenna for 5G application in the year 2018 [5]. 11
Circular polarization and the revitalization of dielectric resonating antenna have 12
been developed in the year 2019 [6, 7]. The 28/38 GHz frequency ranges have been 13
considered for designing planar antennas in the year 2018 and 2019 [8–10]. The 14
conventional patches have been modified in terms of design frequency and its cor- 15
responding wavelength for different applications. These modified structures resem- 16
ble bicircular shape [11], biconvex shape [12], and biconcave shape [13]. 17
Array of patches and fractal structure also have been designed for 5G application 18
with novel analysis [14–16]. A prominent integration of antenna design with differ- 19
ent optimization techniques has emerged in recent years. In 2020, hybrid topology 20
optimization has been used for a patch with novel discontinuities in it [17]. In 2019, 21
deep neural network has been implemented for an E-shaped patch antenna [18], and 22
an equilateral triangle antenna has been designed with a soft computing-based 23
model in the year 2018 [19]. In this paper, the mathematical approach to determine 24
the appropriate resonance frequency for a perturbed circular patch has been done on 25
the basis of available theories of cavity model of circular patches. The working 26
R. A. Panda () · D. Mishra

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, GIET University, Gunupur,
Odisha, India
e-mail: ribhuabhusanpanda@giet.edu

Switzerland AG 2022
98 R. A. Panda and D. Mishra
27 formula for the design of the patch is ascertained by machine learning algorithms
28 like linear regression, polynomial regression, logistic regression, naive Bayes clas-
29 sifier, and decision tree. The dataset including different values of maximum arc-to-
30 arc length is considered for optimization with different algorithms. A comparative
31 study of results determined from different optimization algorithms is also reported.
32 The design of the patch has been done on a substrate with dimension 40 mm×40
33 mm×1.6 mm, including FR4 epoxy material.
34 2 Mathematical Analysis of the Remodeled Circular Patch
35 2.1 Circular Disc Cavity
36 For a disc patch with height “h” smaller than the radius, TMz modes of vibration (Z
37 is taken perpendicular to the plane of the patch) can be considered in the cavity
38 model for mathematical analysis. In a disc patch, the top and bottom parts of its
39 metallization are bound by electric field, and the edge is bound by magnetic field.
40 Because “h” is very small, the electric field is considered in Z-direction, and mag-
41 netic field is in ρ and φ directions represented in cylindrical coordinate system
42 (CCS). The field inside the cavity can be calculated in terms of vector potential
43 Az [20] as
j 2 Az
E (1)
44  z
j 1 2 A2
E (2)
45  z
j 2 2
Ez 2 k Az (3)
46  z
1 A z
H (4)
47
1 A z
H (5)
48
49 Hz = 0 (6)
50 Electric and magnetic field are denoted as Eρ, Eϕ, Ez, Hρ, Hϕ, and Hz, respectively,
51 in cylindrical coordinate system.
52 The wave equation is given by
53 2 Az K r2 Az 0 (7)
54 where the magnitude of the propagation vector kr is given by

Mathematical Analysis and Optimization of a Remodeled Circular Patch for 5G… 99
K r r2  (8) 55
The boundary conditions which are applicable for circular patch are 56
E 0 for 0 r , 2 , z 0 (9) 57
E 0 for 0 r , 2 , z h (10) 58
H 0 for r , 2 , 0 z h (11) 59
2.2 Geometry of Proposed Design and Boundary Conditions 60
The remodeled shape of the patch is, by geometry, the intersection of two circular 61
shapes of radius “r” each, in such a way that the center of one circle lies on the cir- 62
cumference of the other, as shown in Fig. 1. The centers C1 and C2 are at distance 63
“r,” the radius of the circle. 64
The shape is a part of circular shape, so can be a circular waveguide. 65
2π
This design is encircled by two arcs of length r. 66
3
The angle produced by the arc with the axis is 67
r 3
cos1 cos1 170 (12)
r
3 68
The patch metallization is only in the region where “φ” varies between θ and π-θ. 69
The magnetic field that is produced in the ρ,φ region of the patch is now a lim- 70
ited space. 71
Thus, the boundary conditions become 72
E 0 for 0 r , , z 0 (13) 73
Fig. 1 Geometrical representation of the proposed patch shape

74 E 0 for 0 r , , z h (14)
75 H 0 for r , , 0 z h. (15)
76 2.3 Solution of Wave Equation
77 Solving Eq. 7, the expression for magnetic vector potential Az is given by
Az BJ m k p A2 cos m B2 sin m cos kz Z (16)

78
79 where B, A2, and B2 are constants m=0, 1, 2……; n=1, 2, 3 and are the values for
80 different modes for vibration
81 As k p 2 kz2 K r2 r2  (17)
82 Using boundary conditions (13, 14, 15), the result produced is
J mn k p 0 When r (18)

83
′
84 Considering X mn as the zeroes of the derivatives of Bessel’s function
85 J (kpρ), we get
mn
′

X mn
k (19)
86 r
87 Provided (A2 cos mϕ + B2 sin mϕ) ≠ 0 as coskzZ = 1 for z=0
88 As by the boundary condition Eqs. 13 and 14 the value of “φ” is limited, which
89 is between 170 and 1630, m has the minimum value to produce resonance:
180 0
is ≈ 11
90 170
91 2.4 Resonance Frequency
92 Using Eqs. 17 and 19, for the proposed biconvex patch, the resonance frequency can
93 be calculated by the formula

1 X mn
fmnp (20)
94
2
 r
1 c
(21)
 r 95
where “c” is the speed of light (EM radiation in air) and ϵr is the dielectric constant 96
m
of the patch material. Considering c 3 108 and ϵr = 4.4 , n=1 and m=11: 97
s

X mn 12 . 826 (22) 98
Taking r = 10.625 mm, fmnp = 27.47 GHz, which is established by the resonance 99

frequency. 100
3 Optimization for Maximum Arc-to-Arc Length 101
As explained in the previous section, the presence of a circular part in a design can 102
be a circular waveguide. In this case, the shape is produced by intersection of two 103
circles, and the possibility that the center of one circle falls on the circumference of 104
the other is one of the many. The mathematics discussed in the previous section is 105
feasible only when the maximum distance between two arcs is equal to the radius of 106
′
the circle. As stated in Eq. 20, the frequency of resonance depends on X mn and r as 107
other factors are constant for the same substrate. Here, the variables are “m” and the 108
arc-to arc distance “r”. With datasets that have been generated by simulation values, 109
the algorithms can be employed to calculate “r.” The machine learning mathematics 110
utilizes probability statistics to find out the best-suited value. There are different 111
algorithms like linear regression, logistic regression, polynomial regression, naive 112
Bayes classification, and decision tree. Each one has been explained in the follow- 113
ing part. 114
3.1 Linear Regression 115
This is a type of supervised machine learning algorithm that is used to analyze 116
incessant range of data. It performs tasks on one dependent variable and one or 117
more independent variable. If there is a single dependent variable, then simple lin- 118
ear regression occurs. Similarly, if there is more than one dependent variable, mul- 119
tiple linear regression occurs. This type of regression is used to find the linear 120
relationship of both input and output variables. The hypothesis function of linear 121
regression is 122
,
B n1 n 2.a (23)
,
123
where 124
Fig. 2 (a) Linear regression for maximum arc-to-arc length, (b) logistic regression for maximum
arc-to-arc length, (c) polynomial regression for maximum arc-to-arc length, (d) naive Bayes clas-
sifier, (e) decision tree, (f) comparative analysis of different algorithms
125 “a” = input data

126 B’ = labeled data
127 Ө1 = intercept
128 Ө2 = coefficient of data
, c 2  r
Relating to Eq. 20, B , a r, n1 0, n 2
,
129

. A variation is produced
f mn X mn
130 which is represented in Fig. 2a. It is observed that in case of linear regression, the
131 arc length varies linearly. The arc length and feed dimension have been considered
132 as input training data and dielectric constant as output labeled data. The accuracy
133 rate is more than 85%. The error rate of the proposed model has also been calcu-
134 lated. The most accurate value of arc length lies within the range of 10–11 mm, i.e.,
135 10.85 mm.
136 Mean Absolute Error: 0.34947547432692666
137 Mean Squared Error: 0.15705959804731964
138 Root Mean Squared Error: 0.39630745393863037
139 3.2 Logistic Regression
140 It is a type of supervised machine learning, which takes trained data as input and
141 predicts the target value. It is binary in nature and only contains Boolean values,
142 which are 0 and 1. It may contain unordered pair of data. It is of three types, bino-
143 mial, ordinal, and nominal, but for the data, ordinal and binomial logistic regression
144 can be considered. The mathematical equation uses sigmoid function:
1
g z (24)
1 e z 145
g(z) is used to find the threshold value based on the dependent variable of the com- 146
puted model. The plot, which has been illustrated in Fig. 2b, is obtained by using 147
sigmoid threshold function. The arc length, line of feed, and dielectric constant are 148
used for training and testing a model. Equation 20 can be remodeled as 149
2 a 2 k r (25) 150

c
where k′ is constant and . 151
fmn
The accuracy is more than 90% and the best arc length value is nearly 10.99 mm. 152
Here, the error rate is very less. 153
Mean Absolute Error: 1.0 154
Mean Squared Error: 1.5714285714285714 155
Root Mean Squared Error: 1.2535663410560174 156
3.3 Polynomial Regression 157
It is a regression analysis in which there is a relationship between independent input 158

variables and dependent output variables. The output of the model is determined by 159
the degree of the polynomial: 160
d 0 1.i n (26) 161
where 162
i = independent variable 163

d = dependent variable 164
β0 = an intercept 165
β1 = slope coefficient 166
n = error rate 167
The plot, which has been shown in Fig. 2c, is obtained by considering the degree 168
of polynomial function. The arc length, dimension of the feed, and dielectric con- 169
stant of the substrate are used for independent and dependent value of the computa- 170
tional model. The accuracy is more than 97%, and the best arc length value is nearly 171
10.99 mm. Here, the error rate is very less. 172
Mean Absolute Error: 0.23789618690576209 173

Mean Squared Error: 0.08814209614415353 174
Root Mean Squared Error: 0.29688734588081306 175
176 3.4 Naive Bayes Classifier
177 It is a conditional classifier based on probability statistics. The dataset evaluation

178 can be determined by response vector and feature matrix. Bayes theorem for finding
179 the probable values can be considered:
180 P A|B P B|A .P A / P B (27)
181 where
182 P(A|B) = posterior probability
183 P(B|A) = likelihood function
184 P(A) = prior probability
185 P(B) = probability of B
186 This uses the concept of probability statistics. The resultant plot is reported in
187 Fig. 2d. The arc length, dimension of feed, and dielectric constant of substrate are
188 used for input value, i.e., P(A), and output value, i.e., P(B), for the computational
189 model. The accuracy is more than 81% and the best arc length value is nearly
190 10.78 mm.
194 3.5 Decision Tree
195 It can be both supervised and unsupervised machine learning algorithm. Decision
196 tree is classified based on regression and classification. It is a tree-type flow struc-
197 tures which consist of
198 Internal Node: Attribute of model
199 Branch: Output of the test data
200 Leaf Node: Labeled data
201 Decision tree algorithm is used to find the final value, and the plot that has been
202 obtained by implementing this algorithm has been illustrated in Fig. 2e. The arc
203 length and dimension of feed are input data variable, and the dielectric constant is
204 the input value for model. The accuracy is more than 99% and the best arc length
205 value is nearly 10. 98 mm. Hence, there is very acute average error.
3.6 Performance Evaluation 209
Mathematical model for the proposed patch has been analyzed by using different 210
machine learning algorithms like linear regression, polynomial regression, logis- 211
tic regression, naive Bayes classifier, and decision tree. The major internal param- 212
eters that are to be observed are arc-to-arc length, dielectric constant, and feed 213
dimension. Evaluation of accuracy has been done, and also the error rate of the 214
model is calculated. The accurate value of the arc length lies within 10–11. 215
Different classifiers predict different values. It is observed that in polynomial 216
regression, the accuracy rate is very high, i.e., 99%, minimizing the error rate. 217
Root mean squared error (RMSE) is used to identify the deviation of data point 218
from regression line. Mean squared error (MSE) is used to find the difference 219
between the actual value and estimated values. Mean absolute error (MAE) is the 220
absolute average value between actual and predicted values. In this case, the suit- 221
able arc length is 10.625 mm, which gives the best result for computing our model. 222
The comparison statistics has been reported in Fig. 2f. As a result, of which it can 223
be concluded that among all types of learning algorithms, polynomial regression 224
gives accurate result. 225
4 Design of the Antenna 226
Design has been done using HFSS software, and the design parameters have been 227
shown in Fig. 3, and the dimensions are provided in Table 1. 228
High-frequency structure simulator (HFSS) that includes finite element method 229
is used for simulation. 230
Fig 3 Design using Ansys HFSS

t1.1 Table 1 Design parameters

Parameters Symbol Value (mm) t1.2
Maximum arc-to-arc length r 10.625 t1.3
Substrate width ws 40 t1.4
Substrate length wl 40 t1.5
Ground-plane width gw 40 t1.6
Ground-plane length gl 40 t1.7
Fig. 4 S-parameter of the proposed antenna with resonance frequency of 27.8GHz and bandwidth
of 5.2 GHz
231 5 Results
232 Figure 4 highlights the resonance frequency, -10dB bandwidth, and return loss of
233 the proposed patch. This result has been compared to four other results of the anten-
234 nas, which have been designed for this frequency range for 5G communication. The
235 comparison of works for the frequency 28 GHz has been shown in Table 2.
236 The antenna gain is 4.01 dB at the frequency of 27.8 GHz, as shown in Fig. 5.
237 The E-field and H-field polarizations have been shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respec-
238 tively. Figure 8a indicates standing wave measured in terms of voltage with a value
239 of 1.056. Radiation pattern in 3D and distribution of surface current have been
240 shown in Figs. 8b and 8c, respectively.
Table 2 Comparison of works at 28 GHz application t2.1
Return t2.2
loss Resonance Bandwidth Antenna gain Substrate material t2.3
Work S11 (dB) frequency (GHz) (GHz) (dB) and its cost t2.4
Ref 3 −18.25 28.06 1.1 6.8 Roger RT5880, high t2.5
Ref 4 −40.64 28 4.864 5.75 Roger RT5880, high t2.6
This −39.13 27.7 5.2 4.01 FR4 epoxy, low t2.7
work t2.8
Fig 5 Antenna gain at 27.7 GHz
6 Conclusion 241
With theoretical approach including a mathematical derivation and analysis with 242
different optimization algorithms, the appropriate dimension of a modified circular 243
patch resembling biconvex shape is determined, which provides a sharp resonance 244
frequency at 27.7 GHz with high gain. So, it can be used efficiently for 5G 245
communication. 246
Fig 6 E-plane polarization
Fig 7 H-plane polarization
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Study of Various Beamformers and Smart 1
Antenna Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile 2
Communication 3
Elizabeth Caroline Britto, Sathish Kumar Danasegaran, 4
Susan Christina Xavier, A. Sridevi, and Abdul Rahim Sadiq Batcha 5
1 4G/5G Technology 6
In today’s economy and lifestyles, mobile connectivity plays a critical role and has 7
grown rapidly over the last few decades. In the 1980s, the first generation (1G) was 8
deployed and provided speech chat, which was the only 1G operation. It was based 9
on analogue methodology [1, 2]. It had a simple mobile connectivity structure and 10
basics such as cellular architecture adoption, frequency band multiplexing, domain 11
roaming, mobile communication without interruption, etc. During the 1990s, the 12
second-generation wireless mobile infrastructure [3] based on digital cellular net- 13
works was a major success for global mobile connectivity systems. In October 14
2001, the third-generation system was launched in Japan [4] to offer data service 15
speeds of 144–384 kbps and 2 Mbps, respectively, in areas of outdoor and outdoor 16
coverage. 17
A word used to characterize the next full evolution of wireless connectivity is the 18
fourth generation (4G), also known as beyond 3G. [5]. A 4G framework will be able 19
to offer a robust alternative to the Internet protocol, where users will be provided 20
E. C. Britto (*) · S. K. Danasegaran

Department of ECE, IFET College of Engineering, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu, India
S. C. Xavier
Department of ECE, MAM College of Engineering and Technology,
Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
A. Sridevi
Department of ECE, M. Kumarasamy College of Engineering, Karur, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: sridevia.ece@mkce.ac.in
A. R. S. Batcha
Department of EEE, Mahsa University, Mahsa, Malaysia
e-mail: abdulrahim.b@mahsa.edu.my

Switzerland AG 2022
112 E. C. Britto et al.
21 with voice, data, and streamed multimedia content on an “anytime, anywhere” basis
22 and at faster data speeds than previous generations. This includes automatic roam-
23 ing between various networks, as well as user transparency. 4G will be able to offer
24 both indoor and outdoor speeds of between 100 Mbps and 1 Gbps, with premium
25 content and high security. The two candidates for 4G coverage are actually universal
26 interoperability for microwave connectivity [6, 7] and long-term evolution [8, 9].
27 5G will be substantially better than 4G, providing up to 20 Gigabits per second
28 (Gbps). While large-scale MIMO would improve spectrum and data bandwidth uti-
29 lization by 5G [10, 11], it is not easy to integrate multiple antenna systems into a
30 very tightly spaced cell phone. In response to the diversity antenna and 4G main
31 antenna, 5G mobile antenna packages would support additional operational bands
32 and resonant modes, which is a challenging problem for the 5G mobile antenna
33 design, taking into account the future requirements for large-scale multiband and
34 multimode MIMO implementations.
35 1.1 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output
36 A single antenna for transmission and a single antenna for reception are used by
37 conventional wireless communication networks. These systems are classified as
38 single-input and single-output (SISO) systems, and Fig. 1 indicates one such system.
39 Important improvement has been made in the development of systems seen in
40 Fig. 2 in recent years, which use multiple transmitter and receiver antennas to
41 achieve improved performance. These schemes are called MIMO systems. In broad-
42 band wireless networking, MIMO has recently gained interest, as it provides a sub-
43 stantial improvement in data throughput and connectivity range without extra
44 bandwidth or transmitting power. This is accomplished by higher spectral efficiency
45 (more bits per second per bandwidth hertz) and stability or variety of connections
46 (reduced fading). Due to its uses [12] in satellite media, cellular local area networks,
47 regional area networks, and mobile networking, MIMO technology has provoked
48 concern.
49 Multiple users can connect at about the same time and/or speed in a cellular wire-
50 less communication network. The more time and frequency resources are reused
51 more efficiently, the greater the performance of the network, given that the broad-
52 cast signals can be accurately detected. The time (time-division) or frequency
53 (frequency-division) or code will distinguish different users (code-division). In
54 MIMO networks, the spatial dimension creates an extra dimension to differentiate
55 consumers, allowing frequency and time resources to be utilized more vigorously,
56 therefore increasing network bandwidth.
Fig. 1 SISO wireless

systems DSP RF RF DSP
TX RX
Study of Various Beamformers and Smart Antenna Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile… 113
Fig. 2 MIMO wireless

systems RF1 RF1
DSP DSP
RFNt RFNr
TX RX
Fig. 3 Smart antenna a b

types (a) Switched
beamformer (b) Adaptive
beamformer
Spatial multiplexing(SM) and spatial diversity (SD) characterize MIMO sys- 57

tems. Signal copies are sent or obtained from more than one SD antenna [13]. With 58
SM [14, 15], the device concurrently retains over than one spatial source of data 59
onto one frequency over antenna elements. SM reaches higher capability [16], but 60
improved signal efficiency lags behind it. SM is forced to its limits, especially in 61
extensive network areas, as it demands high signal power, while SD increases signal 62
quality increases and the receiver side achieves a higher signal-to-noise ratio. 63
1.2 Smart Antenna System 64
A rising market for heterogeneous broadband services and applications would have 65
to be met by future mobile connectivity systems. It needs to provide high data rate 66
connectivity for growing wireless users, given the restricted bandwidth available. 67
The implementation of smart antennas is bound to enhance the total capacity and 68
efficiency of the device. In order to refine the transmitting and reception beam pat- 69
terns automatically, a smart antenna [17] integrates multiple antenna components 70
with a signal processing power. Smart antenna development [18, 19] provides a 71
dramatically improved approach that decreases the amount of interference and 72
improves the range of linking and enables channel frequency reuse. With this tech- 73
nology, the signal from each device is sent and received only in the direction of that 74
specific user by the base station (BS). This significantly decreases the power budget 75
of the connection as well as the total system intrusion. For each user in the system, 76
a smart antenna unit is composed of an array antenna controlling different commu- 77
nication beams. 78
Smart antennas, as seen in Fig. 3, are split into two classes. One approach is 79
referred to as switched beamforming [20–23] if the complicated weights are chosen 80
in unique, predetermined positions from a library of weights that shape beams. In 81
this method, based on the obtained wireless signal observations, BS essentially 82
83 switches between different beams. The other approach is called adaptive beamform-
84 ing [24, 25], in which the weights are measured in real time and adaptively modi-
85 fied. The BS shapes broader beams into the target user by adaptive beamforming
86 and nullifies the intervening users, greatly increasing the ratio of
87 signal-to-interference-plus-noise.
88 Smart antenna transmitters encrypt separate data streams on various paths, maxi-
89 mizing the data rate or redundantly encoding data on paths that fade individually to
90 shield the receiver from ruinous fades of the signal. This leads to an improvement in
91 the efficiency of the signal by more oriented propagation and also increases fre-
92 quency reuse capability. For a fixed number of customers and perhaps more devices
93 for a given data rate per account, this improved flexibility would contribute to higher
94 data rates. The utilization of smart antenna technologies allows clients to expand
95 their spectrum, enhance coverage efficiency, and allow more optimal use of channel
96 and bandwidth capacities with almost any wireless communication system. Smart
97 antenna systems include the benefits and features [26] of signal gain, greater range,
98 rejection of interference, improved performance, multipath rejection of spatial
99 diversity, power quality, and decreased service costs.
100 2 Beamforming Technology
101 Beamforming engineering experiments have provided insight into the motives and
102 implications of this study and are contrasted to newer technologies. This segment
103 consists of simple phased antenna array (PAA), beamforming network, and various
104 beamforming developments.
105 2.1 Phased Array Antenna Fundamentals
106 The phased array antenna (PAA) [27–30] consists of an array of radiating elements,
107 each with a phase shifter that enables the transmitting and/or receiving of electro-
108 magnetic waves through adequate integrated circuits. The array consists of two or
109 three components of the antenna as seen in Fig. 4. They are spatially organized and
110 electrically interconnected to create a directional pattern of radiation. Interconnection
111 between the components, called the feed network, will include the fixed phase of
112 each element and thus the name of the phased array.
113 To form a single array output, the signals induced by multiple elements of an
114 array are combined. It is claimed that the direction of the beam pointing is the direc-
115 tion in which the array has maximum reaction, and so it is the direction in which the
116 array has maximum gain. In order to steer the beams in the direction required,
117 beams are created to provide constructive/destructive interference by adjusting the
118 phase of the signal generated from each radiating unit. The phase shift φ between
Main Direction
θs
x x x x x x x
d d d d d d d
ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ Phase shifters
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Fig. 4 Phased array components
two consecutive components, as shown in Eq. (1), is constant and is called phase 119
increment: 120
360
ϕ= d sin (θ s )
λ (1) 121
where φis the phase change between two consecutive elements,dis the range amid 122
the two radiating components, and θs is the beam navigation angle. 123
The major advantages of PAA are the low side lobes’ high gain width, the ability 124
to allow the beam to jump in a few microseconds and system power from one target 125
to the next, and modes of tracking or sensing and multipurpose operation by emit- 126
ting several beams. While PAAs have significant advantages over mechanically 127
operated antennas, such as shifting speed and durability, issues of height, weight, 128
cost, and complexity have hindered traditional phased array antennas. As the PAA 129
for beamforming is used in fixed locations, there is no power over phase and ampli- 130
tude of the signal induced between the different elements of the array. 131
2.2 Beamforming Network 132
Beam-steering and beam-shaping circuits are referred to as beamforming networks 133

(BFN). BFN integrates the arrays of antenna with signal processor to dynamically 134
redirect the signal in retort to the orientation of arrival to pick up the signal and to 135
isolate the signal from the location of disturbance. BFN can perform a lot of pur- 136
poses such as beam-guiding, beam-shaping, beam-grinding, and multibeam trans- 137
mission. Signal magnitude and phase are governed independently by the BFN 138
according to the propagation of the signal in the expected direction. First, the num- 139
ber of antenna components with an electrical power splitter separates the input elec- 140
trical signal to be distributed. Nonetheless, where high-bit rate signals are considered, 141
electrical BFN has significant disadvantages. Electrical circuits tend to be dense, 142
143 lossy, heavy, and more sensitive to electromagnetic interference working at these
144 higher frequencies. Three beamforming techniques for array antennas are known as
145 RF, digital, and optical beamforming [31, 32] technique.
146 2.3 RF Beamforming Method
147 The most popular technique is RF beamforming, which is commonly used in small-
148 scale structures [33]. Figure 5 shows the simple beamforming network design using
149 RF technologies, assuming that there are M input beams and N output components
150 in a multibeam transmission array antenna. The standard type of matrix network
151 includes M × N phase-shifter elements, attenuators, and linkages to regulate the
152 phase and magnitude of the received signals and redirect the orientation of the con-
153 sumer. However, it has the downside that the hardware architecture becomes com-
154 plicated and cumbersome, and thus, costly hardware is required for large-scale
155 systems as the size of the antenna is increased.
Antenna
Elements
Attenuator
Phase shifter
Fig. 5 RF beamforming method setup

2.4 Digital Beamforming Method 156
Signal processing is performed in an arithmetical format for the automatic beam- 157
forming procedure, where highly scalable algorithms [34] are used to modify the 158
signal received at the BS. To form a very narrow beam against individual users in 159
the cell, this technology incorporates the inputs of multiple antennas. Figure 6 dis- 160
plays the basic configuration of the digital network for beamforming. The obtained 161
data are received digitally and require up-/downconverters and analogue-to-digital 162
converters in parallel. However, the digital computer’s speed limits the signal band- 163
width to 100 MHz [35]. 164
2.5 Optical Signal Processing Beamforming Method 165
Optical signal processing beamforming network (OSPBFN) provides both signal 166
delivery and optical domain processing functionality. The approach of optical signal 167
processing (OSP) substantially decreases the difficulty and speed of the traditional 168
device. Using OSPBFN techniques in the BS, the limitations described in electrical 169
BFN are overcome. For example, the optical frequency is reasonably greater than the 170
RF frequency by several folds; the OSPBFN itself is independent of the RF 171
Antenna
Elements
up/down up/down up/down up/down

converter converter converter converter
Analog to Analog to Analog to Analog to

digital converter digital converter digital converter digital converter
Parallel Digital signal Processing
Fig. 6 Digital beamforming techniques

172 frequency. Due to the obvious optical elements, benefits such as large bandwidth, low
173 mass, compact size, and sensitivity to electromagnetic interference are commonly
174 accepted. Furthermore, because of the use of parallel signal processing, the number
175 of hardware components M x N is diminished to M+N in the category of RF-BFN.
176 By way of spatial sequential signal processing, an OSP in a BFN achieves the
177 desired magnitude and phase variation for each array element. Individual optical
178 carriers at the control station correctly modulate the data corresponding to each
179 beam. These optical upconverted messages are transmitted through the optical fiber
180 to the base station (BS). An optical equivalent carrier is sent by another fiber to BS
181 as well. Each modulated optical signal is processed at BFN in the BS with spectral
182 conversion, and then converted RF signal is obtained by the heterodyne method
183 using optical backing carrier. In order to reach individual mobile terminals, the mul-
184 tibeam antenna nurtured by the transformed RF signals emits alone beam.
185 Figure 7 displays the condensed diagram of OSPBFN for eight antenna compo-
186 nents. The number of antenna components with an optical power splitter separates
187 the optically modulated input signal to be sent to the BS. These signals are con-
188 nected to amplitude controls, which regulate each signal’s amplitude levels and ulti-
189 mately decide the shape of the transmitted beam (i.e., the main lobe beam width and
190 the side lobe power levels) and are called beam-shaping operations. By adjusting
191 the amplitude of the optical signal applied to each antenna part, beam-shaping is
192 accomplished. This is achieved through optical attenuators in operation. An optical
193 phase shifter, which controls the phase of each signal and sets the direction of the
194 transmitted wave, is then related to each of the amplitude-regulated signals. The
195 location of the transmitted signal is determined by the differential phase delay. This
196 process is called steering with beams. Finally, after downconversion to electrical
197 signal by a picture detector, the individual controlled signals are added to their
198 respective element and sent out to the end-user.
199 3 Overview of Existing OSPBFN
200 Many applications like ad hoc mobile communication, remote-controlled net-

201 works, wireless satellite links, and 4G/5G handheld devices require the extensive
202 use of multi-antenna technologies with active phased array antennas. Most of the
Laser Electro-optic 1*8 Optical Amplitude Modulator

Phase Controller as Photo
Source modulator as Beam shaping 1*8 antenna
power splitter beam-steering section detector
section
Electrical input signal

to be transmitted
Fig. 7 Basic schematic diagram of an OSPBFN

signal processing algorithms used are based on arrival direction, and another 203
technique is adaptive beamforming algorithm. Usually in the available systems, 204
the arrival direction calculation algorithm is used first to calculate the incoming 205
signal direction of arrival; after that, system parameters are updated with the help 206
of adaptive beamforming algorithms. MMIC (monolithic microwave integrated 207
chip) methods require very complex, heavy, and costly beamforming networks to 208
arrange a great number of beams (BFNs). Although there has been a great deal of 209
activity in the research and development of digital-based BFNs, bandwidth is 210
still minimal. 211
The application of optical or photonic [36] technologies to microwave array 212
antennas has been researched over the past few decades. Optically controlled 213
smart antenna techniques are based on Fourier optics, fibers [37–46], optical 214
delay element [47–53], acousto-optic [54], fiber-optic prism [55], spatial light 215
modulator, spatial Fourier optical processing approach [56], chirped fiber grat- 216
ings, microelectromechanical system-spatial light modulation (MEMS-SLM) 217
[57, 58], fiber optic dispersive prism [59], and micro-ring resonator [60] and liq- 218
uid crystal-based beamformer. The amplitude and phase errors (tracking) of all 219
subsystems within the frequency spectrum of interest are a crucial requirement 220
within the OSPBFN. The radiated beam pattern that influences the average and 221
peak side lobe levels and the precision of the beam aiming is specifically influ- 222
enced by this definition. 223
4 Beamforming Algorithm 224
The smart antenna array is an amalgamation of different structured antenna part 225
arrays and digital signal processing techniques, adapting its weights to the common 226
parameter and adaptive algorithm types. The main goal of the beamforming is to 227
reduce the co-channel interference and methods of assigning the weight for the 228
algorithm [61]. Few quasi-algorithms like least mean square (LMS), minimum vari- 229
ance distortionless response (MVDR) algorithm, normalized least mean square 230
(NLMS), sample matrix inversion (SMI), constant modulus (CMA) algorithm, 231
recursive least square (RLS) and hybrid least mean square algorithm/SMI (LMS/ 232
SMI), maximal directivity (MD) algorithm, and hybrid MD/SMI algorithm, which 233
can be related by changing the number and displacement of radiating elements 234
between the array elements. There are many performance parameters to be mea- 235
sured, like stability of beam formation, width of the beam, maximum achievable 236
level of side lobes, null depth, and rate of convergence. All these algorithms work 237
on deciding and assigning the complex weights for every signal value, in which it 238
generates narrow beams for deliberate users and deep nulls in the direction of 239
interference. 240
241 4.1 LMS Algorithm
242 The use of this LMS algorithm to approximate the optimum conditions of an array
243 is normal, and its research has been of significant interest for some time. By com-
244 puting the mean of the quadratic mean square error (MSE) surface and then adjust-
245 ing the values by a small amount in the reverse direction of the gradient, the
246 algorithms change the weights for each iteration. The constant that defines this
247 quantity is known as the size of the phase. If the step size is relatively small, the
248 process contributes to suitable weights for such approximate weights.
249 A real-time, unregulated LMS algorithm is given to evaluate the optimum device
250 WMSE using the reference signal:
251
( n + 1) = s ( n ) − µ g ( s ( n ) ) (2)
252 where s(n + 1) represents the original weights computed at the (n + 1)th reiteration,
253 μis an optimistic scalar, and g(s(n)) is an impartial assessment of the MSE gradient.
254 For a presumed s(n), the MSE is quantified by
ξ ( s ( n ) ) = E ( r ( n + 1)  + s H ( n ) Rs ( n ) − s H ( n ) z − z H s ( n )
2
255   (3)
256 The gradient of MSE at the nth iteration is found by distinguishing the above equa-
257 tion wrt w, yielding
∇ wξ ( s ) = 2 Rs ( n ) − 2 z
258 (4)
259 At the (n + 1)threpetition, the array is operating with weights s(n) calculated at the
260 earlier reiteration; however, the array signal direction isx(n + 1), the reference signal
261 illustration is r(n + 1), and the assortment output is
y ( s ( n ) ) = s H ( n ) x ( n + 1)
262 (5)
263 The algorithm contains three steps in each recursion:
264 • Compute the processed signal with the current weights.
265 • Generate the error between the processed signal and the desired signal.
266 • Adjust the weights using the new error information by the gradient method [11].
267 For each iteration in VSLMS algorithm, the step-size parameters of weights are
268 updating [68]; variable step-size adaptive algorithms like variable step-size LMS
269 (VS-LMS), variable step-size sign LMS (VS-SLMS), and variable step-size nor-
270 malized LMS (VS-NLMS) are made with the variation of antenna elements and
271 spacing between them. The purpose of data reusing the least mean square (DRLMS)
272 is to increase the convergence rate by reusing the same dataset (i.e., input and refer-
273 ence signal) many times. DRLMS adaptive algorithm reuses the same dataset (n)
input and t(n) desired L time at the same time index n. The DRLMS algorithm with 274
L data reuse and coefficient is modified. 275
4.2 MVDR Algorithm 276
The aim is to maximize the response of the beamformer in such a way that the out- 277
put involves minimal contributions owing to noise and signal coming from places 278
besides the signal line expected. A linear filter vector is desired for this optimization 279
procedure; it is an explanation to the limited minimization s(f, θ)topic that agrees 280
−∗
signals from the 2direction of the look to pass with a defined gain:
σ MV = s ( fi ,θ ) R ( fi )( n ) s ( fi ,θ ) ,
281
Minimize: subject to 282
−∗
s ( fi ,θ ) D ( fi ,θ ) = 1
(6) 283
D ( fi ,θ )
where is the conventional steering vector. The solution is given by 284
R −1 ( fi ) D ( fi , ,θ )
s ( fi , ,θ ) =
D ∗ ( fi , ,θ ) R −1 ( fi ) D ( fi , ,θ )
(7) 285
It delivers adaptive steering vectors for the N hydrophone line array beamforming 286
of the received signals. Then, the adaptive beam at a steering θs is defined in the 287
frequency domain by 288
−∗
B ( fi ,θ ) = s ( fi ,θ ) x ( fi )
(8) 289
4.3 RLS Algorithm 290
The computational burden of the LMS algorithm varies on the array correlation 291
matrix’s actual values. In a framework that delivers an array correlation matrix with 292
massive eigenvalues, the clustering is based at a slow rate. With the RLS algorithm, 293
this problem is solved by substituting the gradient phase size μ with a gain matrix 294
R−1(n) at the nth iteration, generating the equation for weight update: 295
s ( n ) = s ( n + 1) − R −1 ( n ) x ( n ) ε ∗ ( s ( n − 1) )
(9) 296
−1
where Rn is given by 297
Rˆ ( n ) = δ 0 Rˆ ( n − 1) + x ( n ) x H ( n )
298
n
= ∑δ 0n − k x ( k ) x H ( k )
299 k =0 (10)
300 with δ0 denoting a real scalar less than but close to 1.
301 This is used for past data exponential weighting δ0, which is referred to as the
302 forgetting factor, as the equation of the update appears to deemphasize the old sam-
303 ples. This is being used for exponential grading of past results δ0, which is known as
304 the forgotten factor, as the update equation tends to deemphasize the old datasets.
305 The quantity 1/(1 − δ0) is in general denoted to as the algorithm memory. So, the
306 memory of the algorithm is close to 100 samples for δ0 = 0.99. Using the previous
307 samples and the present samples, the RLS algorithm updates the necessary inverse as
1  Rˆ −1 ( n − 1) x ( n ) x H ( n ) Rˆ −1 ( n − 1) 
Rˆ −1 ( n ) =  Rˆ −1 ( n − 1) − 
δ 0  δ 0 + x H ( n ) R −1 ( n − 1) x ( n ) 
ˆ
308 (11)
1
The matrix isadjustedas Rˆ −1 ( 0 ) = I e , ε 0 > 0
ε0
309 (12)
310 4.4 CMA Algorithm
311 Using the LMS algorithm, adaptive beamformer typically minimizes array perfor-
312 mance power subject to constraints. There are two important shortcomings with
313 these beamformers. At the beginning, the two signals are mutually associated; they
314 appear to cancel the signal of interest along with the disturbance. In multipath con-
315 texts, this has discouraged its use. Second, they are especially susceptible to imper-
316 fections in the array.
317 Any of the above alignments does not suffer from the CMA. It is unaffected by
318 correlated source issues since it does not use output power minimization to adopt
319 the array weights. Similarly, to set a constraint, it does not depend on array geom-
320 etry or benefit functionality and is thus unaffected by array imperfection. Such two
321 benefits make the CMA an enticing choice for traditional adaptive beamformers.
322 CMA is gradient-based and operates under the basis that current interference
323 induces array output amplitude changes that otherwise have constant modules. By
324 decreasing the price features, it updates the weights:
1 
( )  (13)
2
J (n) = E  y ( n ) − y0 2
2
325 2 
326 Using the following equation,

s ( n + 1) = s ( n ) − µ g ( s ( n ) )
(14) 327
where y(n) = sH(n)x(n + 1) is the array output after the nth iteration, y0 is the neces- 328
sary amplitude in the lack of imperfection, and g(s(n))signifies an estimate of the 329
cost function gradient. Similar to the LMS algorithm, the CMA uses an estimate of 330
the gradient by changing the true gradient with an instant value given by 331
g ( s ( n ) ) = 2ε ( n ) x ( n + 1)
(15) 332

where (
ε ( n ) = y ( n ) − y0 2 y ( n )
2
) (16) 333
The weight update equation of this case suits 334
s ( n + 1) = s ( n ) − 2 µε ( n ) x ( n + 1)
(17) 335
In appearance, this is similar to the LMS algorithm with reference signal where 336
ε(n) = r(n) − y(n). CMA suitable for eliminating correlated arrivals is an operative 337
constant modulated enveloped signal. 338
4.5 MD Algorithm 339
For adaptive beamforming in mobile communication, the maximum directivity 340

(MD) algorithm [62] is used to measure these magnitudes and phase weights. 341
Beamforming is usually carried out by complicated weighting and combing the 342
distinct antenna signals. This results in the array element G (𝛳), which defines the 343
characteristic of the antenna array’s spatial radiation. In this way, it is possible to 344
adjust the angular distribution of the radiation intensity in the transmit case and the 345
sensitivity in the receive case to the respective parameters. The yield of the beam- 346
former is assumed by 347
M
G (θ ) = ∑sm∗ e
j ( m −1)π sin (θ )
m =1 (18) 348
∗
w
where m is the complex weight that desires to be adjusted to optimize the radia- 349
tion pattern and M is the number of the antenna components of the array. Generally, 350
the number of nulls will usually differ from 0 to M-1. Equation (17) effects in the 351
more general expression: 352
M
G (θ ) = ∑sm∗ gm (θ )
m =1 (19) 353
354 where gm(θ)is the radiation features of array elements. The face of the complex fac-
355 tor of weight can be written as
− j ( m −1) Ωa
sm∗ = bm e
356 (20)
357 where Ωa = − π sin ψis the normalized wave number in azimuth direction and ψ is
358 the azimuth angle and bm is the magnitude of the signal. In the special case of eight
359 antenna elements, one look direction θLDand K null directions θ0K1 ≤ k ≤ K with K
360 between 1 and 7 are given. The linear equation system (LES) can be written as
 G (θ LD )   g1 (θ LD ) g2 (θ LD ) . g8 (θ LD )   s1 
∗
. 1
       
 ( 01 ) 
G θ  g1 (θ 01 ) g2 (θ 01 ) . . g8 (θ 01 )   s2  0
 .  = . . . . .   .  =.
       
 .   . . . . .   .  .
 G (θ ) 
 0 K 8 x 1
 g (θ ) g (θ )
 1 0K 2 0K . . g8 (θ 0 K ) 8 x 8  s8 8 x1  0 8 x1
  
361 (21)
362 In the corresponding angular direction, each row of the LES defines the constraints.
363 The LES has a differing number of rows due to the variance of null paths. The built
364 beam pattern is the best solution for the uplink channel of mobile communication
365 systems due to optimum directivity. The value of this algorithm is that, simply by
366 solving an LES, it produces the optimal solution. The complex weights of the
367 antenna array components are determined using unit response in the direction of the
368 look in this algorithm, which maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). So
369 this algorithm steers the peaks of the main lobe in the direction of the look and mini-
370 mums of the side lobes in the directions of interference while preserving maximum
371 directivity.
Table 1 LDs and NDs for two simultaneous signals using MD algorithm t1.1
Radiation pattern Signal LD ND1 ND2 ND3 ND4 ND5 ND6 ND7 t1.2
Figure 8a S1 20 37 0 −22 −37 65 48 −70 t1.3
S2 −20 42 02 78 15 -65 60 −32 t1.4
Figure 8b S1 37 20 0 −20 −57 63 −38 −72 t1.5
S2 −40 25 −10 07 10 −65 45 −25 t1.6
Figure 8c S1 55 04 16 −12 32 35 −55 80 t1.7
S2 −55 −40 −16 12 −04 32 55 −80 t1.8
Figure 8d S1 25 50 11 −36 −65 −22 72 −08 t1.9
S2 03 25 −15 45 −45 −60 60 80 t1.10
5 Result and Discussion 372
Using the MD/SMI algorithm, the beams are steered from +60° to -60°. Thus the 373
beam steering covers a 120° sector for a cellular base station. A maximum error of 374
5.5% in the beam direction occurs for look directions beyond +55° and -55°. The 375
desired look direction (LD) and null direction (ND) are tabulated in Table 1. In these 376
examples, the antenna’s simultaneous look directions for two beams are chosen as 377
(20°,−20°), (37°,−40°), (55°,−55°), and (25°, 03°). The gain difference between 378
the main lobe and the side lobes is found to be −10 dB. For two sets of LDs and 379
NDs, the radiation patterns are plotted in polar coordinates (Fig. 8a, b) and in rect- 380
angular coordinates (Fig. 8c, d). From the figures, it is clear that the nulls are found 381
to be at the exact angles of the given interference. 382
Table 2 depicts the comparisons between different adaptive beamforming algo- 383
rithms. The significances of MD algorithm are observed as follows: this algorithm 384
gives the maximum directivity, which results in a minimum bit error rate for the 385
reverse link of a CDMA-based mobile communication system. The algorithm pro- 386
vides an optimum solution for arbitrary spaced constraints while maintaining a 387
maximum possible directivity and doesn’t require additional reference signal. The 388
a 90 0.8 b 90 0.8 signal1

120 60 signal1 120 60
signal2 0.6 signal2
0.6
150 0.4 30 150 0.4 30

0.2 0.2
Amplitude
Amplitude
180 0 180 0
210 330 210 330
240 300 240 300

Signal1=(37;20,0,–20,–57,63,–38,–72)
270 Signal1=(20;37,0,–22,–37,65,–48,–70) 270 Signal2=(–40;25,–10,71,0,–65,45,–25)
Signal2=(20;42,02,78,15,–65,60,–32)
Azimuth angle in degree Azimuth angle in degree
c d 0
0 signal1
signal2
–10 –10
–20
Amplitude in dB
–20
Amplitude in dB
–30 –30
–40 –40
–50 –50
–60 –60
signal1 Signal1=(55;04,16,–12,–32,35,–55,70) Signal1=(25;50,11,–36,–65,–22,72,–08)
signal2 Signal2=(–55;35,–16,12,–04,32,55,–70) Signal2=(03;25,–15,45,–45,–60,60,80)
–70 –70
–80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80 –80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80
Azimuth angle in degree Azimuth angle in degree
Fig. 8 Radiation patterns with different LDs and NDs for two simultaneous signals (a) LD (20,
−20), (b) LD (37, −40), (c) LD (55, −55), and (d) LD (25, 03)
Table 2 Comparison of beamforming algorithms [61, 63–71] t2.1
Reference Scan Convergence rate / t2.2

Algorithm Amplitude response signal BER sector (°) computation t2.3
VSLMS Interference rejection Required Minimum −60 to Slow convergence t2.4
good +60 t2.5
VS-SLMS Interference rejection Required Normal −60 to Faster t2.6
good +60 t2.7
VS-NLMS High directivity Required Minimum −60 to Less computation t2.8
+60 t2.9
DRLMS Maximum in desired Required Low −50 to 50 Faster t2.10
direction and nulling t2.11
the interfering signal t2.12
LMS Maximum signal Required High −50 to 50 Slow/less t2.13
strength in the user computation t2.14
direction t2.15
MVDR Not available Required High +52 to Faster t2.16
−52 t2.17
RLS Interference rejection Required Low Not Faster/ more t2.18
better available computation t2.19
CMA Interference rejection Not High −55 to Not available t2.20
good required +55 t2.21
MD Interference rejection Not Minimum −60 to Not available/less t2.22
best required +60 computation- t2.23
solving LES t2.24
Hybrid Hybrid LMS and SMI Required Minimum −60 to Small time to t2.25
LMS/(SMI) +30 converge less t2.26
computation t2.27
389 weights can efficiently be calculated solving a set of LES. The approach can easily
390 be extended to apply for three-dimensional beams as well.
391 6 Conclusion
392 In this article, various beamformers and beamforming algorithms are discussed and
393 are capable of providing 3G/4G/5G wireless mobile applications in areas such as
394 channel bandwidth (frequency reuse), distortion elimination, power budget linking,
395 and high-speed networking. The analogy of various beamforming algorithms for
396 smart antennas was the idea of a fractal sequence of MD algorithms whose perfor-
397 mance is analyzed. It also decreases memory requirements to a larger degree.
398 Optical beamformers are known to provide ultrafast multibeam control for smart
399 antennas with an optimized radio link between the BS and the MS.
400 Acknowledgment We are gratefully thankful to the reviewers for their critical comments and
401 suggestions to improve the quality of the book chapter.
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Microstrip Patch Antennas: Past 1
and Present State of the Art 2
Manish Sharma 3
1 Introduction 4
Research for microstrip-fed antennas took an exponential rise when the US Federal 5
Communications Commission (FCC) in 2002 designated ultra-wideband unlicensed 6
bandwidth of 3.10 GHz–10.60 GHz. The UWB bandwidth constituted the features 7
such as application for short-range wireless communication, increase in the transfer 8
of data with high speed, utilization of very low power of consumption for its opera- 9
tion, very compact size of the antenna useful for its operation and for UWB applica- 10
tions, and ease of fabrication of the prototype which is applicable for different 11
imaging applications [1]. The UWB technology is well suited for applications 12
including WPAN (wireless personal area networks), WBAN (wireless body area 13
networks), WUSB (wireless universal serial bus), WSN (wireless sensor networks), 14
RFID (radio frequency identification), robotics, LTS (location tracking systems), 15
surveillance system, etc. The near-field and far-field results are well maintained 16
including stability of radiation patterns, larger bandwidth ratio, very low profile, 17
and simplest geometry. Generally, radiating patches such as circular-, semicircular-, 18
square-, rectangular-, triangular-, elliptical-horizontal-/vertical-, crescent-shaped 19
radiators and fractal geometries (Sierpinski, Minkowski) are few to name them. It 20
has been observed that the existing wireless communication module does interfere 21
with the operating bandwidth of UWB, and hence the need for bandstop filters is 22
required. These interfering bands are worldwide interoperability for microwave 23
access, wireless local area network, and satellite uplink/downlink frequency bands. 24
Also, the UWB overall working module requires no power amplifier due to the 25
M. Sharma (*)
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University,
Punjab, India
e-mail: manish.sharma@chitkara.edu.in

Switzerland AG 2022
132 M. Sharma
26 lower-power requirement features of UWB systems, and the UWB antenna is capa-
27 bly attaining as high as 20 Mb/s data rate speed. To eliminate the abovesaid interfer-
28 ence, various technologies have been reported which are discussed in the upcoming
29 sections. Section 2 addresses various UWB monopole antennas. Sections 3 and 4
30 discuss single- and dual-band-notched UWB antennas with extended bandwidth.
31 Section 5 also represents the triple-, quadra-, and penta-band-notched characteris-
32 tics of UWB antennas. Section 6 represents the characterization of various UWB
33 antennas in frequency, time, and space domain.
34 2 UWB Antennas
35 Microstrip patch antennas have a narrow bandwidth. To enhance the bandwidth

36 from narrow to wide, two techniques have been reported, i.e., impedance matching
37 and multiple resonances. Antennas with various radiating shapes along with modi-
38 fied ground plane to cover UWB bandwidth are studied by researchers on a different
39 substrate like RT/duroid 5880/5870, FR4, and silicon with a dielectric constant of
40 2.2, 2.3, 4.4, and 11.9, respectively [2–16].
41 2.1 Microstrip Feed
42 Figure 1a–w shows different shape UWB antenna configurations covering FCC-
43 specified impedance bandwidth (3.1 GHz–10.6 GHz) with fractional impedance
44 bandwidth of 109.48%. The shape of the designed radiating patches is square, rect-
45 angle, triangle, circular, annular ring, elliptical (horizontal and vertical), pentagon,
46 or hexagon, and the published results show that the UWB antennas maintain a wide
47 bandwidth (3.08 GHz–12.69 GHz) with an average gain of nearly 2.58 dBi.
48 Considering guide wavelength (λg in GHz), the dimensions of the radiating patch
49 are calculated by λg = c/fc√εreff, where c is the velocity of light in free space
50 (3 × 108 m/s), fc is the center frequency (i.e., 6.85 GHz), and εreff is the effective rela-
51 tive permittivity [2]. Planar octagonal-shaped patch is modified by etching minimal
52 distribution area of current so that RCS (RADAR cross-section) is reduced up to 25
53 dBsm, making it capable for stealth platform RADAR application [3]. Fork-shaped
54 radiating patch with rectangular ground plane provides dual-band operations cover-
55 ing 2.40 GHz–2.484 GHz (Bluetooth) and 3.10 GHz–10.6 GHz (UWB) frequency
56 bands [4]. Vase-shaped radiating patch provides fractional bandwidth of 136%
57 (3.0 GHz–15.6 GHz) [5]. Integration of the telecommunication system within the
58 garment and wearable merchandise is fabricated, known as textile antenna [6].
59 Antenna with a dimension of 40 × 38 mm2 consisting of a regular dodecagon on
60 each side measuring 5.17 mm [7] is used to reveal breast tumor in the vicinity of
61 UWB range, and care has also been taken by confining the specific absorption rate
62 (SAR) within admissible range surrounding tissues and the skin. By joining two
Microstrip Patch Antennas: Past and Present State of the Art 133
a b c d e f g h i j
k l m n o p q r s
Radiating Patch
Ground
Substrate
t u v w
0
–5
2.684GHZ 12.182GHZ
–10
S-parameter
–15
–20
UWB Bandwidth
–25 3.10GHz-10.60GHz
–30
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Frequency (GHz)
x
Fig.1 (a–w) Microstrip-fed UWB monopole antennas and fabricated prototype (x) Simulated
impedance bandwidth of antenna (p)
distinct semi-ellipses through their major axes and triangular-shaped groove at the 63
ground plane [8], Bluetooth and UWB antenna fabricated and exhibit good omnidi- 64
rectional pattern in H-plane and dipole-like pattern in E-plane at 2.45 GHz and 65
3.10 GHz. At higher frequencies, it is also observed that the cross-polarization in 66
both E- and H-planes increases due to an increase in the area of radiation. Embedding 67
an elliptical patch with a trapezoid, wide-slot UWB antenna with a compact dimen- 68
sion of 30 × 30 mm2 is designed. Furthermore, the microstrip line is tapered for 69
impedance matching, and the hexagonal slot is etched from a finite ground plane 70
placed on another side of the substrate, resulting in fractional impedance bandwidth 71
of 145% (2.90 GHz–18.00 GHz), and thus wide-slot antenna for UWB application 72
is obtained [9]. Dipole-like radiation pattern in E-plane and the omnidirectional pat- 73
tern are obtained in H-plane with a dome-topped bowl-shaped radiating patch mea- 74
sured at 3.40 GHz and 8.00 GHz [10]. An M-shaped radiating patch replacing 75
134 M. Sharma
76 conventional monopole antenna with modified cutting rectangular slots in the

77 ground plane and beak-shaped radiating patch with two rectangular slots on the
78 radiator along with hexagonal-shape defected ground structure (DGS) are designed
79 [11, 12] for UWB application. Another MIMO ultra-wideband antenna with dual
80 monopoles is located side to side at a spacing of 4.0 mm, with a subsequent radiator
81 placed at 90° with a distance of 1.0 mm to prevent mutual coupling. Polarization
82 diversity performance was calculated by envelope correlation coefficient (ECC)
83 resulting below −20 dB [13]. Universal methodologies for designing a UWB diver-
84 sity antenna by using asymmetrical monopole feed minimize mutual decoupling
85 between dual radiators by adjusting their distance between radiators and feeding
86 lines [14]. Bandwidth improvement is achieved by DGS (defected ground struc-
87 ture), including 11 step slots along with elliptical radiator forming monopole
88 antenna for diversified applications as autonomous robot communication for disas-
89 ter recovery, info-station systems communications, e-ward round, and imaging
90 communications in UWB range [16]. The Federal Communications Commission-
91 measured impedance bandwidth should be less than -10 dB. Therefore, it is observed
92 that the values of impedance bandwidth (S11) are 10.35 GHz, 10.02 GHz, and 8.90
93 GHz, respectively. The reduction in RCS (RADAR cross-section) for the very sensi-
94 tive target is very important in stealth (invisible) as well as military applications.
95 Therefore, the antennas play a very important role as they are the source of electro-
96 magnetic radiation and are majorly dominant scatters. The design of lower RCS
97 antennas encounters two major problems: one the reduced RCS for the complete
98 useable band of the antenna and the other preserving the bandwidth of interest. As
99 observed in [3], the UWB-designed antenna has a lower RCS with a value of 25
100 dBsm. Figure (x) shows the simulated impedance bandwidth of the antenna with
101 values ranging from 2.684 GHz to 12.182 GHz, which is useful for UWB
102 applications.
103 2.2 Microstrip/CPW Feed
104 Figure 2 shows UWB antennas with microstrip/CPW feed-extended bandwidth

105 including electromagnetic coupling [17–19]. The different parasitic elements are
106 used in the conductor-backed plane for excitation of higher resonance frequencies,
107 and the impedance bandwidth of the antenna is increased by introducing two
108 inverted U-shaped slots in the ground plane. But these results only increase
Radiating Patch
Ground
Substrate
Electromagnetic
a b c d e f g Coupling (ECT)
Fig. 2 (a–g) Microstrip/CPW-fed UWB-simulated antennas

bandwidth on the higher side, and there is a deficiency of radiation on the lower 109
side, and to overcome this problem, a pair of L-shaped elements are added, which 110
acts as a resonator leading to the coupling of current from the ground structure to 111
the parasitic element. This modification leads to the improvement of bandwidth, and 112
two new resonance frequencies at 11.00 GHz and 14.10 GHz are excited [17]. A 113
quadrangle UWB antenna is designed with a flipped T-shaped slot in the patch and 114
a flipped T-shaped conductor in the ground plane near the ground conductor, which 115
leads to a wider usable fractional bandwidth of more than 130% [18]. CPW-fed [20, 116
21] fractal UWB antennas are presented in [22–24]. Adding small fractal elements 117
to the polygon shape radiator results in bandwidth enhancement [22]. CPW-fed 118
antenna with nano-arm fractal results in the wideband (2.55GHz–11.84 GHz) [24]. 119
L-type slots and the parasitic elements in a square patch fed by microstrip line 120
and consisting of the modified ground are capable of covering bandwidth from 121
2.950 GHz to 14.270 GHz with 130% bandwidth [25]. Additional resonances at 122
lower and higher frequency at 2.9 GHz and 10.7 GHz are achieved by horizontal 123
H-shaped slots in the ground. Further, to extend the bandwidth, a vertically placed 124
H-shaped element is etched, which resonates at 14.7 GHz and 17.0 GHz, respec- 125
tively, thereby increasing the overall impedance bandwidth [26]. As observed in 126
[25], electromagnetic coupling with an inverted T-shaped slot provides larger band- 127
width of 2.91 GHz–14.1 GHz. CPW monopole antenna with small fractal elements 128
covers 3.0 GHz–12.0 GHz bandwidth, which is shown in [22]. H-shaped etching in 129
the ground plane provides useable fractional bandwidth of 150% (2.5 GHz–17.5 130
GHz) as observed from [26]. The bandwidth beyond covering X-, Ku-, and K-band 131
applications is useful for applications in satellite and RADAR [27–33]. 132
3 Single Notched Band Characteristics of UWB Antennas 133
Figure 3a–i shows ultra-wideband monopole antennas with single notched band 134
function, which are obtained by including filters with L-shaped slot, rectangular 135
slot, and exciting resonance frequency by electromagnetic coupling theory or by the 136
introduction of T-shaped stub either to eliminate WiMAX band or WLAN band 137
[34–41]. Rogers RT/duroid 5870 and Rogers RT/duroid 5880 substrate with low 138
relative permittivity of 2.33 support features such as wideband characteristics and 139
stable radiation pattern concerning frequency. Annular ring UWB antenna with the 140
partial annular slot is embedded at the lower portion of the ring radiator, which leads 141
to high impedance at notch frequency of 5.5 GHz, removing wireless local area 142
network (WLAN) and dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) interference 143
[34]. The S-parameter signifies the matching of impedance. The better the 144
S-parameter, the better the matched impedance, which also indicates that the maxi- 145
mum power is absorbed by the load. 146
Application of particle swarm optimization method (PSOM) for the utmost mode 147
coupling and better operating frequency for a comparatively smaller tapered length 148
and a circular band-notched radiating patch with raised cosine-tapered is designed 149
136 M. Sharma
a b c d e f g h i
0 0
WiMAX:3.38GHz-3.92GHz –5 WLAN:4.43GHz-6.09GHz
–5 19.39GHZ
2.71GHZ
2.74GHZ 19.13GHZ –10
S-Parameter (dB)
S-Parameter (dB)
–10
–15
–15 –20
–25
–20
–30
–25
–35
–30 –40
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)
j k
Fig. 3 (a–h) Single notched band-simulated UWB antennas (j–k) S-parameter
150 for ultra-wideband applications [35]. A T-type stub within the T-type slot in the
151 radiation patch provides strong notched-band rejection with VSWR=26 and is also
152 tuned over a wide tunable frequency ranging from 3.56 GHz to 6.81 GHz [37].
153 Electromagnetic coupling theory either between radiation patch and parasitic ele-
154 ment or between the ground plane and parasitic element results in single notched-
155 band function as represented in [39]. Folded T-type element (FTSE) is capable of
156 controlling the filtering characteristics, where the tuning of the FTSE plays a major
157 role. Further, the impedance bandwidth of the designed antenna is increased at a
158 higher-frequency band side by introducing a pair of rectangular notched filters [41].
159 Figure 3j–k shows return loss curves for two versions of single notched-band UWB
160 antennas. Figure 3j shows the elimination of the WiMAX interfering band, while
161 Figure 3k shows the removal of the WLAN interfering band. This concludes that the
162 UWB antennas in Fig. 3 have the capability of mitigating interfering bands.
163 4 Dual Notched-Band Characteristics of UWB Antennas
164 Figure 4a–y represents UWB antenna with dual notched-band function [41–71].
165 WiMAX (3.30 GHz–3.80 GHz) and WLAN (5.150 GHz–5.825 GHz) occupy the
166 UWB bandwidth, and hence they interfere. However, they are eliminated by using
167 band stop filters in designing microstrip patch antennas. To achieve dual notched-
168 bands, a rectangular slot of either C-shaped or U-shaped is removed on the radiation
169 patch or the 50 Ω microstrip feedline. Moreover, two notched-band functions are
170 also obtained by SRR (split-ring resonator) or CSRR (complementary split-ring
a b c d e f g h i
j k l m n o p q
r s t u v w x y
0
–5 WiMAX & WLAN
2.59GHZ 19.73GHZ
–10
S-Parameter (dB)
–15
–20
–25
–30
–35
–40
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (GHz)
z
Fig. 4 (a–y) Dual notched-band-simulated UWB antennas and fabricated prototype (z) Impedance
bandwidth of dual notched-band UWB antenna
resonator). The abovesaid techniques are represented by [42–48], which are dis- 171
cussed below. E-ring-shaped printed monopole antenna is used for UWB applica- 172
tions with a dual notched-band performance. A trapezoid-shaped radiating patch 173
with a rectangular ground plane forms UWB antenna with U-T-type stubs inserted 174
into two trapezoid-geometry slots of the radiating plane [43]. UWB antenna 175
with two 176
notched-functions are obtained by C-L-type etched slot/extrude stub in the radia- 177
tion/ground plane [44]. A hexagon radiating patch with a circular slotted ground 178
plane with two notched-band functions is represented. The addition of a pair of bent 179
138 M. Sharma
180 L-type structures to the symmetric slot ground results in two notched-band func-
181 tions: one is WiMAX (3.30 GHz–3.70 GHz) and the other is WLAN (5.150
182 GHz–5.825 GHz) [49]. By using upper and lower SIR on the radiation patch of a
183 CPW-fed UWB antenna, dual notched-band characteristics are obtained [52]. A
184 wide frequency range (2.85 GHZ–15.4 GHz) of CPW-fed UWB antenna with ellip-
185 tical path and chamfered edges across the ground plane at 45 degrees are presented
186 in [51]. Impedance bandwidth of antenna with radiating patch and ground plane
187 having the shape of a rectangle covers UWB frequencies from 3.10 GHz to
188 10.2 GHz. The bandwidth of the antenna is increased by etching a pair of rectangu-
189 lar ring-type slit in the ground plane, and the new bandwidth covers 2.80
190 GHz–17.5 GHz. To convert the abovesaid enhanced bandwidth antenna to two
191 notched functions, a set of inverted T-type and inverted Ω-type slots are removed
192 from the radiating patch and ground plane, respectively [53]. The antenna with a
193 square radiating patch along with a V-type embedded strip over a rectangular ground
194 plane covers enhanced bandwidth from 2.88 GHz to 17.85 GHz. Moreover, two
195 notched-band antennas result by etching out a pair of L-type and E-type slots on the
196 radiating patch [54]. Additional resonance is exhibited when an inverted fork-type
197 slit is introduced in the ground, which in turn produces wider bandwidth. Radiating
198 patch is embedded with a notched filter where coupled U-type is attached to it [54].
199 Ultra-wideband antenna with four equal-sided radiating patches beside hook-type
200 slot along with customized ground plane with an inverted anchor-type slot and two
201 Γ-type added strips inside the rectangular slot in the ground-plane leads to dual
202 notched-band function with wider fractional impedance bandwidth of 130.20%
203 [56]. The dual band-notched characteristics of UWB antennas are presented with
204 electromagnetic coupling theory (ECT) [58–66]. Wider fractional bandwidth of an
205 additional 125% is the result of the insertion of rotated T-type ring slot on rectangu-
206 lar radiation patch, which, in turn, covers C-type slot. To achieve the intended two
207 notched-band functional antennas, a rotated T-type slot is covered by a C-type slot
208 on the radiation patch, and by embedding rotated T-type ECT structure within the
209 rotated T-type slot on the radiation patch, two notched-band functional antennas
210 with wider bandwidth are resulted [58]. Additional enhanced bandwidth is obtained
211 by etching out dual notch from the lower corner of the radiation patch, which is the
212 result of ECT between the radiation patch and the ground plane. Embedding two
213 T-U-type stubs on the radiating patch and near the microstrip feed, respectively, two
214 notched-bands centered at 3.60 GHz and 5.50 GHz, respectively, are obtained [60].
215 Two notched-functions with ECT to increase impedance bandwidth of the antenna
216 are shown in [61]. A slotted rectangular radiating patch with two rotated L-type
217 slots and rotated T-type stubs results in a dual notched-band function. UWB antenna
218 which consists of a modified T-shaped slot and a ground plane with two E-shaped
219 slots including W-shaped conductor backed plane results in dual notched-band
220 function [62]. Stepped-shaped patch and dual-rectangular slots over the ground
221 plane for wider impedance bandwidth of 155% are shown in [63]. Dual notched-
222 band characteristics are also obtained by eliminating the U-type slot on the radiating
223 patch and butterfly-shaped conducting-element backed plane for ECT. Fractal-
224 shaped dual notch UWB antennas are reported [67]. The multiple resonance
characteristics with Koch fractal geometry and rectangular ground plane from ultra- 225
wideband antenna and dual notched-band function are obtained by embedding a 226
pair of C-type slots on the radiation patch. Figure 4z shows the removal of the dual 227
interfering band, namely, WiMAX and WLAN, which are due to the introduction of 228
band stop filters. These filters can be in the form of the embedded stub, etched slot, 229
electromagnetic coupling backed plane, or even electromagnetic bandgap structure. 230
5 T
riple/Quadra/Quintuple Notched-Band Characteristics 231
of UWB Antennas 232
Three, four, and five notched-filter UWB antennas are shown in Fig. 5a–n. Figure 5o 233
shows the return loss of the triple notched-band UWB antenna. Triple notched-band 234
function is obtained by removing dual circular-shaped slots corresponding to one- 235
half the wavelength on the radiation 236
patch for 3.30 GHz–3.70 GHz/5.150 GHz–5.85 GHz bands and downlink satel- 237
lite communication band (7.10 GHz–7.90 GHz); two C-type slots in the ground 238
plane are etched [72, 73]. By removing dual circular slots on the radiating patch 239
and a couple of C-type slots over the ground plane, three notched-band functions 240
are resulted [74, 75]. Triple notched-band characteristics are also obtained by three 241
pairs of split-ring resonators along with the 50 Ω microstrip feedline [76, 77]. UWB 242
antenna comprises a rectangle plane as a radiating patch with a set of two steps on 243
the feed edge, a rotated stair-shaped ground plane, and a CPW feedline. The stair- 244
case structure increases the impedance bandwidth. By introducing a C-type slot on 245
the main radiating patch, complementary split-ring resonator (CSRR) at the ground 246
plane and rotated U-type slot at the middle of the radiating patch result in fine- 247
band rejection of WiMAX/WLAN/X-band satellite bands [78–84]. Three circular 248
slots on the radiation patch with etched pair of C-type slots over the ground plane 249
result in four notches intended for the WiMAX band (3.3 GHz–3.7 GHz), lower 250
WLAN band (5.150 GHz–5.350 GHz), higher WLAN band (5.725 GHz–5.875 251
GHz), and X-band downlink satellite communication band (7.10 GHz–7.76 GHz) 252
[85]. Notched-band filters are achieved with three C-type slots etched on the cir- 253
cular radiating patch and dual C-type slots etched on the opposite plane in the par- 254
tial ground [86]. Also, UWB antenna with four, five notched bands are reported 255
[87, 88] while the operating bandwidth is preserved. Multiband antenna [89, 90] is 256
designed for applications which includes Bluetooth, LTE offering reconfigurable 257
characteristics. 258
140 M. Sharma
a b c d e f g h
i j k l m n o
0
–5 WiMAX, WLAN, DSS
–10
–15
–20
S-Parameter (dB)
–25
19.08GHZ
–30
–35 2.62GHZ
–40
–45
–50
–55
–60
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (GHz)
p
Fig. 5 Triple/Quadruple notched-band simulated UWB antennas (a–p) Simulated S-parameter
259 6 Conclusions
260 This chapter has focused on different UWB antennas with mitigation of interfer-
261 ence. UWB antennas discussed are useful in wideband wireless applications in
262 RADARs, different imaging systems, and also wireless sensor networks. All the
263 potential interferences such as WiMAX (wireless interoperability for microwave
264 access), WLAN (wireless local area network), and DSS (downlink satellite system)
265 are mitigated where band stop filters are used in the form of stub, slots, ECT method,
266 and metamaterial, using EBG structures. Here few UWB antennas have been
267 reported in terms of their latest developments for applications in UWB, testing of
268 electromagnetic radiation, and different imaging applications. The final selection of
269 UWB antennas will always be a trade-off between different requirements.
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455 file UWB antenna with triple band suppression characteristics. Wirel. Pers. Commun. 82,
456 498–507 (2015)
457 79. Sarkar, M., Dwari, S., Daniel, A.: Printed monopole antenna for ultra-wideband application
458 with tunable triple-band-notched characteristics. Wirel. Pers. Commun. 84, 2943–2954 (2015)
459 80. Srivastava, G., Dwari, S., Khanujia, B.K.: A compact triple band notch circular ring antenna
460 for UWB applications. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 57, 668–672 (2015)
461 81. Pandey, G.K., Singh, H.S., Bharti, P.K., Meshram, M.K.: Design and analysis of mul-

462 tiband notched pitcher-shaped UWB antenna. Int. J. RF Microw. Comput. Aided Eng. 25,
463 795–805 (2016)
464 82. Sharma, M., Awasthi, Y.K., Singh, H., Kumar, R., Kumari, S.: Compact printed high rejection
465 triple band-notch UWB antenna with multiple wireless applications. Eng. Sci. Technol. Int.
466 J. 19, 1626–1634 (2016)
467 83. Srivastava, K., Kumar, A., Verma, A.K., Zhang, Q., Kanaujia, B.K., Dwari, S.: Integrated
468 GSM And UWB fractal monopole antenna with triple notches. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett.
469 58, 2364–2366 (2016)
470 84. Sharma, M., Awasthi, Y.K., Singh, H.: Design of CPW-fed high rejection triple band-notch
471 UWB antenna on silicon with diverse wireless applications. Prog. Electromagn. Res. C. 74,
472 19–30 (2017)
473 85. Bakariya, P.S., Dwari, S., Sarkar, M.: Printed ultra wideband monopole antenna with four
474 notch band. Wirel. Pers. Commun. 84, 2989–2999 (2015)
475 86. Islam, M., Islam, M.T., Samsuzzaman, M., Faruque, M.R.I.: Five band-notched ultra wideband
476 (UWB) antenna loaded with C-shaped slots. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 57, 1470–1475 (2015)
477 87. Sharma, M.M., Deegwal, J.K., Kumar, A., Govil, M.C.: Compact planar monopole UWB
478 antenna with quadruple band-notched characteristics. Prog. Electromagn. Res. C. 47,
479 29–36 (2014)
88. Zhang, J., Cao, P., Huang, Y., Alrawashdeh, R., Zhu, X.: Compact planar ultra-wideband 480
antenna with quintuple band-notched characteristics. IET Microw. Antennas Propag. 9, 481
206–216 (2015) 482
89. Srivastava, G., Mohan, A.: Compact dual-polarized UWB diversity antenna. Microw. Opt. 483
Technol. Lett. 57, 2951–2955 (2015) 484
90. Sharma, M., Awasthi, Y.K., Singh, H.: Compact multiband planar monopole antenna for 485
Bluetooth, LTE, and reconfigurable UWB applications including X-band and Ku-band wire- 486
less communications. Int. J. RF Microw. Comput. Aided Eng. 29, 1–11 (2019) 487
Part III 1
Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) 2
Antenna Design and Uses 3

Planar Design, Analysis, 1
and Characterization of Multiple-Input 2
Multiple-Output Antenna 3
Manish Sharma 4
1 Introduction 5
Microwave antennas play a major vital role in a modern wireless communication 6

system. The requirement for speedy wireless communication has become an impor- 7
tant mode to fulfill the needs, and thus, peer-to-peer wireless link between transmit- 8
ter and receiver has to fulfill the necessity of wireless applications. The number of 9
transmitting/receiving antennas plays a major role, and it is a proven fact that a 10
single antenna transceiver suffers drawbacks like multiple path fading and inter- 11
symbol interference which lowers the working capability. To improve the above 12
factors, a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna system provided the 13
solution for an increase in channel capacity, thereby reducing the demerits of the 14
single antenna system. 15
This chapter focuses on the design aspects, analysis, and characterization of 16
MIMO antennas fulfilling the application needs for ultra-wideband (UWB) and 17
multiband antennas [1–49]. There are various techniques used to develop MIMO 18
antennas which give solution to the designer, such as obtaining required near-, far- 19
field, and diversity performance of the antenna system. While discussing wideband 20
antennas (ultra-wideband/super-wideband), several geometries, as well as numer- 21
ous isolation techniques, have been reported [1–17] to obtain MIMO antenna con- 22
figuration. Geometries such as quarter circular patch [1, 8, 9], modified rectangular 23
patch [2], circular patch [3, 6, 12], slotted rectangular patch [4], combination of 24
ellipse and rectangular patch [5, 13, 14, 16, 17], modified elliptical patch [7, 15], 25
semicircular slotted patch [10], hexagon patch [11], etc. are transformed to MIMO 26
M. Sharma (*)
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University,
Punjab, India
e-mail: manish.sharma@chitkara.edu.in

Switzerland AG 2022
150 M. Sharma
27 configuration by placing two or more than two radiating elements in adjacent,

28 orthogonal, or face-to-face orientations. The isolation between the radiating ele-
29 ments is another important factor to preserve the diversity performance and tech-
30 niques such as etched slots, embedded stub, and fractal geometries. Further,
31 super-wideband antennas are used to obtain operating bandwidth beyond ultra-
32 wideband bandwidth, having a bandwidth ratio >10:1 [18, 19] to cover the remain-
33 ing applications. Dual-polarization MIMO antennas are obtained by feeding a
34 single patch with two ports placed orthogonally [21, 22], leading to either right-
35 handed circular polarization or left-handed circular polarization. On the other hand,
36 there are several MIMO multiband antennas reported either for 2 × 2 or 4 × 4, and
37 even 8 × 8 configurations are designed for several narrowband applications
38 (WiMAX, WLAN, Bluetooth, X-band, etc.) [22–49].
39 2 2 × 2 UWB/Super-Wideband MIMO Antennas
40 The Federal Communications Commission (FCC-2002), USA, introduced unli-

41 censed bandwidth of 3.10 GHz–10.60 GHz. This bandwidth covers large numbers
42 of wireless applications such as imaginary systems, through-wall imaging systems,
43 and surveillance systems. The applications beyond UWB are achieved by super-
44 wideband antennas with a bandwidth ratio >10:1, which is useful for applications in
45 satellite as well as RADAR applications. Figure 1a–g represents few UWB 2 × 2
46 MIMO antenna configurations. Polarization diversity of the quadrant-shaped mono-
47 pole is achieved by placing the patch orthogonally as shown in Fig. 1a. Integration
48 of the MIMO antenna is achieved on FR4 substrate with dimensions 21 × 35 mm2.
49 The antenna is placed in a different orientation, but the transmission coefficient for
50 the entire operating bandwidth of UWB is achieved in orthogonal orientation. The
51 stubs and slots used in the design provide an additional current path, thereby improv-
52 ing the lower and higher frequency resonances. Figure 1b shows a circularly
Fig. 1 UWB 2 × 2 MIMO antenna configuration (a–g)

Planar Design, Analysis, and Characterization of Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Antenna 151
polarized MIMO antenna exhibiting pattern and polarization diversity. Reported 53

MIMO antenna provides axial ratio bandwidth of 8.11 GHz–10.56 GHz (2.45 GHz) 54
with the impedance bandwidth of 8.07 GHz–11.59 GHz (3.52 GHz). Five iterations 55
are performed from basic rectangular patch to final design for X-band applications. 56
Figure 1c depicts a circular patch 2 × 2 MIMO antenna with the rectangular ground 57
plane. A pair of rectangular slots are etched for wideband impedance matching. 58
However, without decoupling structure, the average isolation in the operating band 59
is around −12 dB, and with the presence of the decoupling structure, excellent isola- 60
tion of more than −30 dB is achieved. The decoupling structure is also used in the 61
ground, providing better isolation when compared in the absence as observed in 62
Fig. 1d. However, WLAN interfering band (5.150 GHz–5.825 GHz) is filtered by 63
etching a rectangular slot on the radiating patches of 2 × 2 MIMO antenna configu- 64
ration. Figure 1e–f shows 2 × 2 MIMO antenna configuration with mitigating 65
WiMAX and WLAN interfering bands. In both cases, the T-type parasitic stub acts 66
as the decoupling structure, providing better isolation between the radiating ele- 67
ments. It is also desired. 68
to eliminate interfering bands with bandwidth of 3.25 GHz–3.60 GHz, 69
5.05 GHz–5.48 GHz, 5.60 GHz–6.00 GHz, and 7.80 GHz–8.40 GHz. This is 70
achieved in 2 × 2 MIMO antenna configuration shown by Fig. 1g, and etched L-type 71
meandered slot, pair of L-shaped slots, and addition of C-type stub achieve the 72
objective. Table 1 shows the detailed comparison of the notched-band 2 × 2 MIMO 73
antenna with near-, far-field, and diversity performance comparison. Table 1 shows 74
the comparison of the designed UWB/super-wideband monopole 2 × 2 MIMO 75
antennas. As per the observations from Table 1, the latest state-of-the-art designed 76
MIMO antennas are considered for comparison, which includes the size of the 77
antenna, operating bandwidth, techniques used for isolation, maximum gain, and 78
the comparison of ECC parameter. 79
It can be concluded from comparison in Table 1 that these MIMO antennas main- 80
tain gain variation between 3.00 dBi and 5.00 dBi with ECC ranging between 0.02 81
and 0.250. Also, isolation technique is applied between the radiating elements or the 82
ground plane, and in [19], no isolation technique is used because the orthogonal 83
orientation itself provides better isolation. 84
3 2 × 2 Dual-Polarization and Multiband MIMO Antennas 85
Figure 2 shows a 2 × 2 MIMO antenna configuration with dual-polarization and 86

multiband applications. In single-polarization antennas, there is a dependency on 87
the wave being polarized, which can be either horizontal, vertical, or inclined linear 88
polarizations. However, to overcome the limitations and to receive both horizontal 89
and vertical polarized waves, dual-polarization MIMO antennas are used, forming 90
MIMO configuration with one radiating element and two input ports. Figure 2a 91
shows a dual-polarized MIMO antenna, which consists of an octagonal defected 92
ground structure and ring-shaped radiator. The MIMO antenna is suitable for 93
t1.1 Table 1 Comparison of the work published (2 × 2 MIMO UWB/super-wideband) antennas
152
t1.2 Operating
t1.3 Size of antenna bandwidth Year of Isolation Maximum Substrate
t1.4 Ref. (mm2) (GHz) publication Isolation technique used (dB) gain (dBi) ECC used
t1.5 [1] 21.0 × 35.0 2.90–11.00 2017 Two L-shaped slots on radiator <−20 4.00 <0.008 FR4
t1.6 [3] 47.0 × 93.0 3.00–11.00 2018 Modified T-type stub between radiating <−31 – – FR4
t1.7 elements and etched slit at the center of the
t1.8 common ground plane
t1.9 [5] 32.0 × 65.0 3.10–10.60 2020 Meandered line electromagnetic bandgap <−8 4.00 <0.02 FR4
t1.10 structure
t1.11 [7] 29.0 × 40.0 3.10–11.00 2020 Vertical stub in the ground <−18 4.90 <0.005 GML
t1.12 1000
t1.13 [9] 20.0 × 20.0 1.20–19.40 2019 Parasitic T-stub <−20 4.00 <0.250 FR4
t1.14 [10] 38.5 × 38.5 3.10–10.60 2020 Parasitic T-stub <−25 5.00 <0.02 FR4
t1.15 [12] 25.0 × 39.0 2.68–12.50 2020 Addition of two U-shaped branch <−22 5.20 <0.010 FR4
t1.16 [15] 30.75 × 37.80 2.70–11.22 2020 Hilbert fractal slots in the ground <−15 2.11 <0.50 FR4
t1.17 [16] 22.0 × 28.0 3.00–11.00 2018 Extruding T-type stub in the ground <−20 3.21 <0.02 Rogers
t1.18 4003C
t1.19 [19] 19.0 × 28.0 0.70–18.50 2020 None <−30 4.68 <0.12 FR4
M. Sharma
Fig. 2 2 × 2 MIMO antenna configuration (a) Dual polarization (b–d) Multiband antennas
applications including GSM/DCS-1800 and LTE-1900 bands. In this work, the two 94
orthogonal ports for polarization are exploited for polarization as well as pattern 95
diversity. Figure 2b–d shows multiband antennas, which provide narrow bandwidth 96
for more than one band. Figure 2b provides operation for dual band (ISM-2.40GHz, 97
5.20GHz-unlicensed band). The radiating elements are placed closely with a mini- 98
mal distance of λ/8, and the mutual coupling is suppressed by using electromagnetic 99
bandgap (EBG) structures. Figure 2c forms the MIMO antenna where radiating 100
elements are placed orthogonally and need no additional isolation technique. 101
Reported MIMO antenna finds applications for 5G at 28 GHz and 38 GHz centered 102
frequencies. Also, by loading multiple slots in the ground as observed in Fig. 2d, 103
better isolation is achieved between two orthogonal radiating patches. 104
4 4 × 4 Multiband/Wideband MIMO Antennas 105
and Diversity Performance 106
Figure 3a, b shows 4 × 4 MIMO antenna configuration where Fig. 3a MIMO antenna 107
is used for multiband applications and Fig. 3b for ultra-wideband applications. It 108
can be observed in both figures that the single antenna configuration is placed 109
154 M. Sharma
Fig. 3 4 × 4 MIMO antenna configuration (a–b)
a b c
SMA
Connector W
T3 T1
Ground
L T2
Patch
hSUB
SUBSTRATE C1
C2
C3
W1
g
LSUB Lm
WSUB Ls R W3 Wg
Fig. 4 1 × 1 MIMO antenna configuration (a) Perspective view (b) UWB antenna (c) Inclusion of
filters in UWB antenna
110 orthogonally without any additional isolation element. However, good diversity per-
111 formance is studied without comprising the useable bandwidth, irrespective of the
112 bandwidth being narrow or wideband.
113 Understanding of the functional MIMO antenna configuration is carried out by
114 plotting near-, far-field, and diversity performance, and reference [50] is used to
115 convey the above characteristics. Figure 4a–c shows 1 × 1 MIMO antenna configu-
116 ration which is developed on Rogers RT/duroid 5880 substrate with electrical prop-
117 erties including permittivity of 2.20 and loss.
118 tangent of 0.0004. Figure 4a shows a perspective view where the patch is printed
119 on one plane and ground on the opposite plane. The patch is connected to a match
120 560 Ω transmission line which is fed by an SMA connector for signal input.
121 Figure 4b shows the UWB antenna with a patch and clotted ground. The overall
122 volume of the antenna is 15 × 15 × 0.787 mm3. The dimension of the square patch
123 is 10 × 10 mm2, and a tapered microstrip feed is used to match the needed UWB
bandwidth. Also, the modified rectangular ground plane is etched with a semicircu- 124
lar slot of radius R = 1.00 mm to improve the impedance matching. Two interfering 125
bands, WiMAX (3.30 GHz–3.80 GHz) and WLAN (5.150 GHz–5.825 GHz), are 126
eliminated by adding anchor-type stub and C-type slot on the radiating patch as seen 127
in Fig. 4c. The antenna is useful for UWB applications with mitigating dual interfer- 128
ing bands. Figure 5a representing the perspective of a 2 × 2 MIMO antenna is 129
obtained by transforming the 1 × 1 MIMO antenna configuration. The radiating 130
elements are placed orthogonally with a minimal distance between them to ensure 131
better isolation. Figure 5 also shows S-parameters and MIMO performance with 132
prototype shown in Fig. 5h, i. Surface current density is shown in Fig. 5b, c for 133
notched-band filters WiMAX and WLAN. As per the observations, the maximum 134
surface current density distribution is noted within anchor-shaped stub and around 135
C-type slot corresponding to 3.58 GHz and 5.51 GHz. This concentration of surface 136
current within and around stub/slots infers that all the signals are reflected due to a 137
high mismatch of impedance, thereby resulting in notched filters. Measured 138
S-parameters are shown in Fig. 5d, where reflection coefficients (S11/S22) and trans- 139
mission coefficients (S12/S21) are plotted. Measured S11/S22 covers UWB bandwidth 140
Fig. 5 (a) 2 × 2 MIMO antenna (b) SFD at 3.58GHz (c) 5.51GHz (d) S-Parameters (e) ECC &
DG measured (f) CCL (g) TARC (h) Prototype (Front) (i) Prototype (Ground)
156 M. Sharma
141 for which the antenna is designed with eliminating WiMAX/WLAN interfering
142 bands. The MIMO antenna offers better isolation of −25 dB in the operating band-
143 width shown by measured S12/S21. The MIMO antenna inheriting the property of
144 diversity performance is analyzed by studying envelope correlation coefficient
145 (ECC), directive gain (DG), channel capacity loss (CCL), and total active reflection
146 coefficient (TARC). The MIMO antenna nearly attaining the ideal values is calcu-
147 lated by the following formulas.
148 ECC is calculated by either radiation pattern or S-parameters by using the fol-
149 lowing formulas:

2
F , F ( , ) d
1 2

e 4

F1 , d F2 , d
2 2
150 4 (1)
2
S11 S12 S21

S22
ECC
151
(1 S 11
2
S21
2
(1 S 22
2
S12
2
(2)
152 For the MIMO antenna, the values of ECC < 0.2. As from Eq. 2, the better the
153 reflection and transmission coefficients, the better the ECC values. Also, DG, which
154 is a parameter calculated by using ECC, requires to be >9.95 dB and is calculated by.
DG 10 1 e 2
155 (3)
156 The reliability of the signal, when received by the receiver, is signified by CCL,
157 which is calculated by.
158
CLoss log 2 M (4)
159 where
12
R 11
160 21 22 (5)
161 where
11 1 S11 S12
2 2
162 (6)
22 1 S22 S21
2 2
163 (7)
12 S11 S12 S21 S12

164 (8)
21 S22 S21 S12 S21

165 (9)
The values of CCL < 0.4 b/s/Hz, indicating the receiving of the non-distorted signal. 166
The TARC is defined as “the ratio of the square root of the total reflected power 167
divided by the square root of the total incident power in a multi-port antenna sys- 168
tem.” The S-parameter is not the only enough parameter for MIMO antenna 169
characterization. 170
Hence, a new metric TARC is defined, which is given below: 171
S11 S12 S21 S 22

2 2
TARC
2 (10) 172
Ideally the TARC<0 dB in the operating band of interest. 173

Figure 6 shows a 4 × 4 MIMO antenna configuration with Fig. 6a showing per- 174
spective view. Further, to increase the speed of transmission and further improve the 175
multiple path fading effects, a 2 × 2 MIMO antenna is converted to 4 × 4 MIMO 176
configuration by placing all the four radiating elements orthogonally. As per the 177
observation, all four radiating patches are fed by a 50 Ω SMA connector. Radiating 178
patches are placed with minimal distance, maintaining better isolation between all 179
four input ports. Figure 6b, c is the fabricated prototype developed by the conven- 180
tional photolithographic PCB fabrication method for better results. Figure 7 shows 181
the near-, far-field, and diversity performance of the 4 × 4 MIMO antenna. Figure 7a 182
shows the comparison of VSWR curves obtained from simulated and measured 183
results. There is a good agreement between both the simulated and measured results, 184
with a bandwidth corresponding to 2.74 GHz–11.12 GHz and 2.97 GHz–11.28 GHz, 185
respectively. Also, simulated and measured results ensure filtering of WiMAX and 186
WLAN interfering bands. Figure 7b compares gain and radiation efficiency with a 187
variety of gain ranges from 4.05 dBi to 5.32 dBi for antenna without the presence of 188
filters and 3.89 dBi to 4.96 dBi with filters. It can be also noted that there is a 189
Fig. 6 (a) 4 × 4 MIMO antenna perspective view (b) Prototype (front) (c) Prototype (ground)
158 M. Sharma
Fig. 7 4 × 4 MIMO antenna (a) VSWR comparison (b) Measured gain and radiation efficiency (c)
S-parameters for all four ports (S11/S22/S33/S44) (d) S-parameters (S21/S31/S41) (e)
S-parameters (S32/S42/S43) (f) SFD at 3.52 GHz (g) SFD at 5.56 GHz (g) VNA measurement (h)
Far-field measurement in anechoic chamber: 20 GHz
190 decrease in gain at 3.47 GHz with a value corresponding to −12.92 dBi and at
191 5.39 GHz the value of gain being −9.96 dBi.
192 Similarly, Fig. 7b also shows stable radiation efficiency between 75% and 90%.
193 Figure 7c represents reflection and transmission coefficients for all four ports.
194 Reflection coefficient curves for all four ports show suitability for UWB applica-
195 tions with WiMAX and WLAN filters. It can be also concluded that all four anten-
196 nas maintain the impedance bandwidth. Figure 7d, e shows the transmission
197 coefficient curves for all the possible combinations of any two ports out of the four
198 input ports. In both curves, the value of the transmission coefficient is well below
199 −20 dB. Figure 7f, g demonstrates the distribution of surface current for WiMAX
and WLAN notched filters. For both the interfering bands, simulation of surface 200
current density is carried at 3.52 GHz and 5.56 GHz. The maximum concentration 201
of the surface is observed within the anchor-shaped stub and around the C-type slot 202
on the radiating patch, suggesting a mismatch of impedance, thereby reflecting the 203
input signals instead of radiating them. Figure 7h shows the measurement of the 204
S-parameter where 20 GHz VNA is used, and Fig. 7i shows anechoic chamber mea- 205
surement for far-field results. Figure 7j represents the diversity performance of the 206
antenna where ECC is calculated by Eq. 11 and DG by Eq. 12. ECC for the said 207
MIMO antenna is less than 0.01, whereas DG > 9.95 dB in the UWB bandwidth: 208
2
S11 S12 S21

S22 S13 S32 S14 S42
e1,2, 4

(1 S
11
2 2 2
S21 S31 S41
2
(1 S
12
2 2 2
S22 S32 S42
2
209
(11) 210
DG 1 2 e1,2, 4
(12) 211
5 Conclusions 212
This chapter focused on planar antennas for MIMO high-speed wireless applica- 213
tions. Different aspects such as achieving higher isolation between the ports and 214
near-field, far-field, and diversity performance of the MIMO antennas were studied. 215
It was seen that by using stubs/slots either on the ground or radiating patch, Hilbert 216
fractal, parasitic stubs, and meandered line EBG structures were commonly used to 217
achieve better isolation. Discussed MIMO antennas also found better in terms of 218
diversity performance for both wideband and narrowband applications. 219
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Design of Smooth Curved 1
Hexagonal-Shaped Four-Element MIMO 2
Antenna for WiMAX, Wi-Fi, and 5G 3
Applications 4
S. Rekha, G. Shine Let, and Madam Singh 5
1 Introduction 6
There is a rapid growth in the fifth-generation (5G) wireless communication due to 7

its promising performance enhancement in spectral efficiency, data rate, bandwidth, 8
reliability, area traffic, latency, power consumption, and so on. Multiple-input 9
multiple-output (MIMO) technology is one of the solutions to achieve all these 10
performances in modern wireless systems. MIMO refers to the operation of multi- 11
ple antennas in the transmitter and receiver end. It provides a better solution to the 12
problem of non-line-of-sight communication to overcome the effects of multipath. 13
It also provides minimal data loss by improving the quality of the communication. 14
There are many challenges in designing multiple antennas in a limited and closed 15
space. One of the primary challenges is the isolation between the closely spaced 16
antennas. Many MIMO antennas are developed to improve the performance factors 17
like isolation factor, diversity gain (DG), total active reflection coefficient (TARC), 18
channel capacity loss (CCL), and mean effective gain (MEG). To lower the mutual 19
S. Rekha (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sreenidhi Institute of Science
and Technology, Hyderabad, India
e-mail: rekhas@sreenidhi.edu.in
G. S. Let
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology
and Sciences, Coimbatore, India
e-mail: shinelet@karunya.edu
M. Singh
National university of Lesotho, Southern Africa, Rome, Lesotho
e-mail: m.singh@nul.ls

Switzerland AG 2022
164 S. Rekha et al.
20 coupling between radiators, electromagnetic bandgap structures (EBG), resonators,

21 and defected ground structures are employed. In [1], a mushroom-shaped EBG
22 structure is kept between the antenna elements to suppress the coupling of surface
23 waves. This will increase the isolation between the radiators by suppressing the
24 surface waves. Also, the parasitic structures are used to reduce the mutual coupling.
25 Placing a patch-shaped meta-surface and a C-shaped parasitic element between the
26 dipole antennas has increased the isolation as indicated in [2]. But this technique
27 affects the impedance matching of the design, and it needs an external matching
28 circuit which increases the design complexity. In [3], differential feeding is used to
29 reduce the mutual coupling of the microstrip MIMO antenna array. This does not
30 require any additional structure to be inserted between the antenna elements. There
31 are various methods to increase the isolation such as decoupling networks [4, 5],
32 neutralization lines [6, 7], frequency-selective surfaces (FSS) or meta-surfaces [8,
33 9], ground-plane medications [10], and so on.
34 Ultra-wideband (UWB) application is one of the efficient wireless communica-
35 tion schemes. It has advantages such as high data rate, low power consumption, low
36 complexity, and affordability. The ultra-wideband characteristics are achieved using
37 gradual geometry, slots, resonant structures, etc. In some applications, band notch-
38 ing is required. It is achieved by embedding slots and branches, parasitic elements,
39 split-ring resonators, and EBG structures.
40 In [11], a rectangular notch band is designed on a CPW-fed UWB antenna. The
41 notch characteristics are achieved by using a dual mushroom-type EBG structure on
42 the CPW feeding line. By tuning and merging the resonant frequencies of EBG
43 structures, a rectangular notch band is achieved at wireless local area network
44 (5.150–5.825 GHz) and satellite downlink band (7.10–7.76 GHz). In [12], an eight-
45 element UWB MIMO is designed, in which defected ground planes are etched at
46 the back of the antenna elements. Further, closed-loop FSS are introduced to achieve
47 better isolation between the antenna elements. Moreover, a circular arc-shaped
48 decoupling structure is used to enhance the isolation among the particular antenna
49 elements. In spite of various techniques, the proper positioning of the antenna ele-
50 ments provides good isolation.
51 In [13], a tree-shaped quad-element MIMO is proposed for 5G communications.
52 The radiator contains four different arcs to achieve wide bandwidth. They are placed
53 orthogonally with each other so that it provides a minimum of 20 dB isolation for
54 the entire frequency range from 23 GHz to 40 GHz. A self-decoupled MIMO having
55 a shared radiator is designed for 5G smartphone applications in [14]. Two feeding
56 ports are employed to feed the radiator directly. The ports are isolated easily over a
57 wide band, not requiring any additional decoupling structures. A mode cancellation
58 method is developed to study the self-decoupling mechanisms. This antenna oper-
59 ates in the 5G N77 band having pattern diversity. In [15], isolation is enhanced
60 between two closely packed radiating elements using a U-shaped resonator. The
61 coupling behavior is analyzed using a circuit model approach. In [16], a new fractal
62 loop is obtained by modifying Minkowski loop. Self-similarity is the basic property
63 of fractal geometry. This permits the designer to increase the length up to infinity
64 without increasing the area. Repetition of the fundamental structure is known to be
Design of Smooth Curved Hexagonal-Shaped Four-Element MIMO Antenna… 165
iterations. Here, it uses 3 iterations and finds its applications at WiMAX, RADAR, 65
and ATC applications. Furthermore, wearable MIMO antennas have attracted the 66
researchers during the past few years. The design is quite challenging because of its 67
operation close to human anatomy. Many real-time circumstances need to be con- 68
sidered such as bending, folding, and twisting which may degrade the performance. 69
In [17], a lightweight wearable UWB MIMO antenna was designed. It consists of 70
dual rings on the upper part of the jean material. A decoupling structure is intro- 71
duced at the bottom part of the jean to enhance the isolation. This wearable antenna 72
operates at WLAN, WiMAX, and C-band. 73
Similarly, [18] discusses the nature-inspired and wearable substrates which are 74
flexible. Repeated bending of wearable devices often leads to a decrease in conduc- 75
tivity. Micro-cracks are formed on the metallic conductor, which is an unwanted 76
phenomenon in flexible conductors. Hence, nature-inspired and flexible electronics 77
were proposed. Also, [19] discusses the fabrication of antennas on flexible materials 78
such as polymer, textile, paper, and fluids. These flexible materials find their appli- 79
cation depending on various properties such as loss tangent, tensile strength, defor- 80
mation, thermal stability, fabrication complexity, robustness to wetness, weight, and 81
stability. 82
In this chapter, a four-element/port MIMO antenna array is designed on a Rogers 83
substrate. The overall size of the antenna is 60 * 60 * 1.57 mm3. The radiators are 84
smooth hexagonal patches having an L-shaped slit at its center to establish imped- 85
ance matching with the desired frequency ranges. The operating frequency of the 86
four-element MIMO is from 4.4 GHz to 6.6 GHz. It provides isolation of -13 dB for 87
the entire frequency range, and the impedance bandwidth is 2.2 GHz. The proposed 88
antenna is applicable in 5G/WLAN/WiFi applications. To improve the isolation, a 89
decoupling structure is introduced in the ground player, which improves the isola- 90
tion parameter appreciably. Section 2 describes the development of the single radia- 91
tor and its reflection coefficient parameter. Section 3 explains the geometry of 92
four-element MIMO and its S-parameters. A decoupling structure is introduced in 93
the ground layer, and its S-performance is also analyzed. The performance metrics 94
of the MIMO array such as envelope correlation coefficient, diversity gain, total 95
active reflection coefficient, channel capacity loss, and mean effective gain are dis- 96
cussed in Sect. 4. Section 5 briefs the comparison of the proposed MIMO with other 97
works of literature. Finally, the conclusion is dealt with in Sect. 6. 98
2 Development of Single MIMO Radiator 99
The geometry of the proposed single radiator with optimized parameters is shown 100
in Fig. 1. The size of the single element is 30 * 30* 1.57 mm3. It is a hexagonal patch 101
having smooth and curved edges to provide smooth current distribution. The hex- 102
agonal radiator has a smaller area/size when compared to a square or a circular 103
patch for a particular frequency. This is a salient feature required for portable appli- 104
cations. This is placed at the top layer of the Rogers 5880 substrate having a 105
166 S. Rekha et al.
30 mm
3.5 mm
0.2 mm 12 mm
30 mm
4 mm Substrate
Radiator
Ground
12 mm 12 mm
X
Z
3 mm
Fig. 1 Geometry of the single MIMO radiator element
106 thickness of 1.57 mm, the dielectric constant of 2.2, and tangent loss of 0.0009. On
107 the rear end of the substrate, a partial rectangular ground plane is placed.
108 It is beneficial to note that a curve is etched in the rectangular plane to enhance
109 the impedance matching with the operating frequency. Also, an L-shaped slit is cut
110 on the patch to perform frequency translation. Without the slit, the patch is radiating
111 from 5.4 GHz to 11.6 GHz. The frequency is lowered by placing the slit and it is
112 from 4.6 GHz to 6.7 GHz. The simulated reflection coefficient is displayed in Fig. 2.
113 3 Four-Element MIMO Antenna
114 3.1 MIMO Antenna Without Decoupling Structure
115 The single radiator is repeated as four elements and placed orthogonally with each
116 other at the top of the substrate. Similarly, four ground planes are placed on the bot-
117 tom plane concerning the position of the radiator. All four individual grounds are
118 connected as common ground. The overall size of the antenna is 60 * 60 * 1.57 mm3,
119 and it is built on Rogers 5880 substrate. The schematic is shown in Fig. 3. Each
120 radiator is separated at a distance of 18 mm, which is approximately equal to 0.4λ,
121 where “λ” represents the highest operating frequency at 6.6 GHz. This distance of
122 separation is providing sufficient isolation between the elements.
Fig. 2 Simulated reflection coefficient of the single MIMO radiator element
Fig. 3 Geometry of the proposed four-element MIMO antenna

168 S. Rekha et al.
Fig. 4 Simulated reflection coefficients for the four-element MIMO
Fig. 5 Simulated transmission coefficients for the four-element MIMO
123 The maximum reflection coefficient is -28 dB at 5.3 GHz, and the operating
124 frequency is from 4.4 GHz to 6.6 GHz. The reflection coefficient characteristics is
125 depicted in Fig. 4. The transmission coefficients are displayed in Fig. 5 in which Sij
126 are lesser than -13 dB for the operating frequencies of 4.4–6.6 GHz. The structure
127 itself provides acceptable isolation, i.e., less than -13 dB. To improve the isolation
further, a simple decoupling structure is placed in the ground, and a brief study is 128
carried. 129
3.2 MIMO Antenna with Decoupling Structure 130
The four-element MIMO is provided with a decoupling line at the ground layer, 131
and the radiators are kept the same as shown in Fig. 6. With the insertion of the 132
decoupling line, there are considerable changes in the reflection and transmis- 133
sion coefficients. This antenna is operating from the frequency of 3.2 GHz–6.6 134
GHz, having a maximum reflection coefficient of -30 dB at 6.2 GHz. The decou- 135
pling structure has increased the impedance bandwidth, i.e., 3.4 GHz as shown 136
in Fig. 7. 137
Figure 8 displays the simulated transmission coefficient of the MIMO antenna 138
having a decoupling structure. There is a remarkable difference between Figs. 5 139
and 8. In Fig. 8, there is appreciable isolation between opposite antenna pairs 140
(2,4) and (3,4) for the frequency range of 3.2 GHz–6.6 GHz. The maximum isola- 141
tion is -60 dB for antenna pairs 2 and 4. The adjacent antenna pair (1,2) and (3,4) 142
experiences acceptable isolation of −13 dB for the operating range of 3.2 143
GHz–6.6 GHz. 144
Fig. 6 Geometry of four-element MIMO antenna with decoupling structure

170 S. Rekha et al.
Fig. 7 Simulated reflection coefficient with decoupling structure
Fig. 8 Simulated transmission coefficients with decoupling structure
145 4 Performance Metrics Analysis of Four-Element MIMO
146 It is significant to calculate and analyze the diversity performance of the MIMO
147 antenna to justify that it behaves well in a multipath fading surrounding. In the real
148 scenario, the multiple paths vary in length and hence create a time delay. Because of
time delay, there is considerable signal interference. To avoid this problem, the 149
MIMO antenna needs to be evaluated for performance metrics such as envelope 150
correlation coefficient (ECC), CCL, DG, MEG, and TARC. The scattering matrix 151
and far-field parameters are employed to validate the performance of the MIMO 152
antenna. The description of the parameters is presented in the following sections. 153
4.1 Envelope Correlation Coefficient (ECC) 154
ECC is one of the notable performance metrics of the MIMO system. ECC notifies 155
how two antennas are independent of each other. For example, the correlation 156
between a horizontally polarized antenna and a vertically polarized antenna is zero. 157
Similarly, the correlation between two closely placed MIMO antennas should be as 158
close to zero. This indicates that the mutual coupling between two antennas is near 159
zero. It can be calculated from the S-parameters using Eq. (1): 160
2
S11 S12 S22

S21 (1) 161
ECC
1 S S
11
12
2 2
1 S 22
2
S21
2

However, Eq. (1) is only precise when the efficiency of the antenna is near 100%. 162
Hence, the far-field radiation of the antenna is preferred to find ECC, which is given 163
by the Eq. (2): 164
4 F1 , F2 , d
0
e
F1 , d F2 , d
0 2 0 2
4 4 (2) 165
where 166
Fi(θ, ϕ)is the radiated field of ith antenna 167

θ is the elevation angle 168
ϕ is the azimuth angle 169
“S11” is the “reflection coefficient at port 1” 170
“S22” is the “reflection coefficient at port 2” 171
“S12” and “S21” are port isolation between antennas 1 and 2. 172
From Fig. 9, it is observed that ECC is calculated from S-parameters and far-field 173
parameters for antennas 1 and 2. The value of ECC is less than 0.007 (close to zero) 174
for both the S-parameter and far-field parameter. The value indicates that there is an 175
extremely low mutual coupling between antennas 1 and 2, which is a desired factor 176
for MIMO antenna system. Similarly, all the other adjacent antenna pairs have ECC 177
values close to zero. 178
172 S. Rekha et al.
Fig. 9 Simulated ECC from S-parameters and far-field parameters between antennas 1 and 2
Fig. 10 Simulated diversity gain between antennas 1 and 2
179 4.2 Diversity Gain (DG)
180 Diversity gain indicates the reduction in the transmission power when a diversity
181 scheme is introduced. In other terms, it is the increase in the signal-to-interference
182 ratio owing to the diversity schemes. It is sometimes called as power ratio. It is cal-
183 culated from ECC as given in Eq. (3). It is usually expressed in decibels. DG is
184 calculated using the ECC formula for both S-values and far-field values:

DG 10 1 e
2
(3) 185
In Fig.10, DG is calculated from S-parameters and far-field parameters for antennas 186
1 and 2. The DG ranges from 9.9 dB to 10 dB from S-parameter calculation, whereas 187
it ranges from 9.7 dB to 9.9 dB from far-field calculation over the entire operating 188
range. These are the desirable range of values, and it confirms the suitability of the 189
proposed antenna in a MIMO system. 190
4.3 Total Active Reflection Coefficient (TARC) 191
TARC is expressed as the ratio of the total incident power to the radiated power. 192
TARC is computed as the square root of the incident power given by all excita- 193
tions minus the radiated power. Then, it is divided by the incident power. For 194
lossy antennas, it can be found using the Eq. (4). Here, θ is the varying input 195
phase angle of port 1 (from 0֩ to 180֩), and phase of the port 2 is kept constant. In 196
simple words, it is the reflective coefficient of the MIMO antenna pair. Figure 11 197
shows TARC plotted between antennas 1 and 2 for varying phase angles, and the 198
maximum TARC value is -25 dB at 5.2 GHz. The antenna pair 1 and 2 shows 199
good reflection coefficient (less than -10 dB) for the entire frequency range from 200
4.4 GHz to 6.6 GHz: 201
Fig. 11 Simulated TARC for varying phase angle θ of port 1

174 S. Rekha et al.

S S e S
ii ij
j 2
ji S jj e j
2

202 2 (4)
203 Sii or Sjj represents reflection coefficient in dB.
204 Sij or Sji represents port isolation in dB.
205 4.4 Channel Capacity Loss (CCL)
206 CCL indicates the loss in the transmission during a high data rate transmission. The
207 acceptable limit of CCL is 0.4 bits/s/Hz. It is calculated using Eqs. (5, 6, 7, 8, and
208 9). The CCL is plotted between (1,2) and (1,4) antenna pairs in Fig. 12:
209
Closs log 2 det R (5)
ii ij
R
210 ji jj
(6)
211

ii 1 – Sii Sij
2 2
(7)
ij Sii Sij S ji S jj
212 (8)
Fig. 12 Simulated CCL between antenna (1,2) and (1,4) pairs
ji S jj S ji Sij S jj
(9) 213

2
jj 1 – S jj S ji
2
(10) 214
where ΨR is the correlation matrix of the receiver antenna. It is observed in Fig. 12 215
that the value of CCL ranges between 0.4 and 0.1 bits/s/Hz for the entire operat- 216
ing band. 217
4.5 Mean Effective Gain (MEG) 218
It is the defined as the ratio of mean received power to the mean incident power in 219
the multipath fading environment. The MEG is calculated using Eqs. (11, 12, 13, 220
14, and 15): 221
k
2
MEGi 0.5 1 Sij
j 1 (11) 222

2 2
MEG1 0.5 1 S11 S1 2 S1 3 S1 4
2 2
(12) 223

2
MEG2 0.5 1 S21 S22 S23 S24
2 2 2
(13) 224

2
MEG3 0.5 1 S31 S32 S33 S34
2 2 2
(14) 225

2
MEG4 0.5 1 S41 S42 S43 S44
2 2 2
(15) 226
Table 1 Mean effective gain ratio for the antenna pair (1,2) and (3,4) t1.1
Frequency (in MEG 1 (in MEG 2 (in MEG 3 (in MEG 4 (in MEG 1 / MEG 3/ t1.2
GHz) dB) dB) dB) dB) MEG 2 MEG 4 t1.3
4 −7.66 −6.93 −6.52 −7.01 1.1 0.93 t1.4
4.3 −6.35 −6.68 −7.21 −7.56 0.95 0.95 t1.5
4.6 −8.61 −8.62 −8.56 −8.67 0.99 0.98 t1.6
4.9 −7.34 −7.58 −7.63 −7.62 0.96 1.00 t1.7
5.2 −6.25 −6.75 −6.65 −6.45 0.92 1.03 t1.8
5.5 −7.27 −7.28 −7.45 −7.56 0.99 0.98 t1.9
5.8 −6.37 −6.48 −6.89 −6.56 0.96 1.05 t1.10
6.1 −7.48 −7.57 −7.45 −7.21 0.97 1.03 t1.11
6.5 −7.93 −7.96 −8.21 −8.45 0.99 0.97 t1.12
176 S. Rekha et al.
Table 2 Performance analysis of the proposed four-port MIMO antenna with literature t2.1
Operating t2.2
frequency Antenna Isolation DG t2.3
References Techniques (GHz) Ports size (mm2) (dB) ECC (dB) t2.4
[20] Dual elliptically 2.3–2.7 4 66 * 66 −17 <0.04 >9 t2.5
tapered patch t2.6
[21] CPW-fed 3.4–4.4 8 150 * 75 −16 <0.005 – t2.7
diversity t2.8
[22] Monopole 3.4–3.6 8 150 * 75 −15 >0.015 – t2.9
[23] Diamond-ring 3.3–3.9 8 150 * 75 −17 < 0.01 – t2.10
slot t2.11
[24] L-shaped 3.3–4.2, 120 * 65 −18.8 <0.018 – t2.12
monopole 3.3–3.8, t2.13
4.4–5 t2.14
[25] Metamaterial 4.55–4.75 24 136 * 68 −10 dB – – t2.15
[26] Two dipoles 2.52, 5.73 4 89 * 86 −19 <0.05 9.95 t2.16
[27] DGS 5.3 2 60 * 50 −41 <0.0072 Near 10 t2.17
Proposed Hexagonal 4.4–6.6 4 60 * 60 −60dB < 0.007 9.7–10 t2.18
work radiator (max) t2.19
−18dB t2.20
(min) t2.21
227 Practically, the MEG values must lie between −3 dB ≤ MEG < −12 dB for a good
228 diversity antenna. It is observed from Table 1 that all the MEG values are within the
229 accepted range. Also, the ratio of MEG1/MEG2 and MEG3/MEG4 is approxi-
230 mately equal to 1. This proves that better diversity is possessed by the proposed
231 MIMO antenna in a fading environment.
232 5 P
erformance Comparison of Four-Port MIMO Antennas
233 with Literature
234 The performance of the proposed four-port MIMO is compared with literature, and
235 it is listed in Table 2. The comparison includes operating bands, number of excita-
236 tion ports, size of the antenna, isolation parameter, envelope correlation coefficient,
237 and diversity gain.
238 The proposed antenna is compared with similar literatures, and the performance
239 is tabulated in Table 2. The proposed system consists of four antenna elements hav-
240 ing an area of 60*60 mm2. The maximum isolation provided by the proposed
241 antenna is -60 dB, which is much greater than the other references. The ECC is
242 much less than the acceptable value, and directive gain is desirable over the operat-
243 ing frequency range.
6 Conclusion 244
This chapter presents the design of a four-element smooth curved hexagonal MIMO 245
antenna for WLAN/WiMAX/5G applications. The proposed four-element MIMO 246
has acceptable isolation of -13 dB. To enhance isolation, decoupling structures are 247
inserted in the ground plane. The antenna is operating from 3.2 GHz to 6.6 GHz, 248
possessing a wide bandwidth of 3.4 GHz. The design exhibits excellent isolation 249
between opposite antenna pairs. High isolation, good reflection coefficient, and 250
compactness are some of the highlighting features. The MIMO performance met- 251
rics are simulated. The value of ECC is less than 0.007 for the entire operating band. 252
Other MIMO performance factors are also satisfactory. This indicates that the pro- 253
posed antenna is well suitable for MIMO systems. 254
References 255
1. Yang, F., Rahmat-Samii, Y.: Microstrip antennas integrated with electromagnetic band-gap 256
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A Quad-Port Orthogonal Wideband 1
MIMO Antenna Employing Artificial 2
Magnetic Conductor for 60 GHz 3
Millimeter-Wave Applications 4
G. Viswanadh Raviteja 5
1 Introduction 6
Ever since there is a technological advancement in the wireless communication 7

industry, the necessity for high data rates increased at an alarming rate. One way of 8
addressing this demand for high data rates and effective spectrum efficiency is by 9
the deployment of multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna systems [1]. 10
These antenna systems are candidates in many of the ongoing research because of 11
their advantages such as wide coverage, high reliability, and the capability in pro- 12
ducing high throughput [2]. The transmitted signal from the antennas often under- 13
goes fading caused by the multipath propagations, which are caused due to the 14
presence of hills or tall buildings. The MIMO antenna system offers the feature of 15
evading these unwanted multipath propagations [3, 4]. Also, the MIMO antenna 16
system is an efficient way to increase the capacity of the channel. The coupling 17
effect arises between any two antennas that are placed close to each other. This is 18
because of the effects of the surface waves and the fields associated with the anten- 19
nas. Therefore, to minimize these unwanted challenges, good isolation is important 20
between the antennas [5, 6]. 21
Also, nowadays, the space concerning design considerations is very much lim- 22
ited to portable devices. Therefore, achieving proper isolation is an important design 23
aspect in these closely packed modern devices. More recently, many studies have 24
been proposed for millimeter-wave communications that support extremely high 25
data rates and increased system capacity Microstrip patch antenna array working at 26
60 GHz frequency range for smart glasses is discussed in [7]. In this work, parasitic 27
elements are implemented for improving the performance of the antenna. Channel 28
G. V. Raviteja (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Anil Neerukonda Institute of
Technology and Sciences, Visakhapatnam, Andra Pradesh, India

Switzerland AG 2022
180 G. V. Raviteja
29 characterization for microcellular radio at 60 GHz for fifth-generation applications

30 is shown in [8]. A simple 2X2 wideband U-slot patch antenna array is designed at a
31 28 GHz frequency range as discussed in [9]. In particular, millimeter-wave com-
32 munications utilizing the unlicensed band of 60 GHz (57–64 GHz) have drawn
33 much attention in recent times as this frequency band is estimated to accommodate
34 higher data rates possibly more than 1 Gigabit per second. Two electromagnetically
35 coupled patches operating for dual-frequency (38/60 GHz) proposed for 5G mobile
36 handset are discussed in [10]. A 60 GHz printed patch antenna employing defected
37 ground structure is discussed in [11]. In this, a pair of L-shaped folded strip patch is
38 etched on a printed silicon substrate, and its performance is evaluated. A patch
39 antenna array with beam-steering capability is proposed in [12]. In this, six U-shaped
40 patch antenna elements are used, which are spaced half wavelength to cover the
41 57–63 GHz band. In [13], a multilayered CPW-fed patch antenna is proposed at
42 60 GHz, in which the top three layers form the antenna and the bottom three layers
43 form the artificial magnetic conductor (AMC) material. This antenna provided more
44 in-phase bandwidth. A quasi-Yagi and stacked series planar antenna array is pro-
45 posed for 5G applications in [14], where reflection coefficient and directional char-
46 acteristics were studied. An on-chip antenna is fabricated using the CMOS process
47 as proposed in [15]. This On-chip antenna is supported by an AMC and is proposed
48 to overcome the losses associated with lossy CMOS substrate. When utilizing an
49 antenna system that is aimed at 60 GHz operating frequency, the directional beams
50 may have an impact on the health status of the human body. Therefore, it is vital to
51 check the characteristics, such as the specific absorption rate (SAR), when using
52 these antenna systems [16].
53 To manipulate the electromagnetic behavior of an antenna generally, metamate-
54 rials are used [17]. Artificial magnetic conductor (AMC) comes under the class of
55 metamaterials, which usually mimics perfect magnetic conductor characteristics
56 which involve providing zero-degree phase reflections at the resonant frequencies
57 [18]. This is shown in Fig. 1. Various antenna designs employing the AMC applica-
58 tions are discussed in [19–25].
59 In this research article, a four-element wideband MIMO antenna employing
60 AMC is presented, which is realized by a high impedance surface (HIS) at 60 GHz
Fig. 1 Radiating element against an AMC and PEC

A Quad-Port Orthogonal Wideband MIMO Antenna Employing Artificial Magnetic… 181
for millimeter-wave applications. The antenna design concerning the AMC is dis- 61
cussed, and also the important MIMO parameters such as envelope correlation coef- 62
ficient (ECC), total active reflection coefficient (TARC), diversity gain (DG), and 63
mean effective gain (MEG) are computed and presented. Also, the specific absorp- 64
tion rate (SAR) analysis is carried out to find out the compliance level with the 65
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) set limits. All the simulations and 66
analyses are carried out using the high-frequency structure simulator (HFSS) 67
software. 68
2 The MIMO Antenna Backed by AMC Design Structure 69
Initially, a single radiating element is designed for 60 GHz frequency. The width 70
and length are considered using the microstrip antenna design parameters discussed 71
in [26]. The dimensions of the antenna are taken to be 1738 x 1369 μm (W × L in 72
(μm)). The patch is etched over a dielectric substrate, Rogers RT/duroid 5880 (tm) 73
with a dielectric constant of “2.2,” and loss tangent “0.0009.” The height of the 74
substrate is considered to be 100 μm. The structure is shown in Fig. 2a. 75
Fig. 2 (a) Single element (b) Four-port MIMO structure (c) Parametric analysis for feedline width
(single element) (d) Parametric analysis of CPW ground length
182 G. V. Raviteja
76 The parametric for a single element in terms of the feedline width is simulated
77 and is depicted in Fig. 2c. The impedance matching effect is observed with incre-
78 mental values “n,” which is the feedline width. At width “n = 80μm – black line”
79 even though the impedance matching is better, the resonance frequency observed its
80 shift toward the lower frequency. At the values 100–120 μm of the feedline width,
81 these three values maintained their center frequency at 60 GHz, but the parametric
82 line with “n =100μm - green” has better matching in terms of impedance compared
83 to the feedline width of 110 and 120 μm values. Therefore, the optimum width of
84 the feedline is considered to be 100 μm. The gain of the single element is found to
85 be around 2.54 dB; the two-dimensional radiation plot can be seen in the subplot of
86 Fig. 2c. The antenna is fed by the CPW feeding technique.
87 Parametric analysis is conducted for the length of the coplanar ground planes
88 situated beside the feedline. The parameter “p” which constitutes the length is var-
89 ied on a scale of 10 μm. The resonance frequency saw a shift toward higher frequen-
90 cies when “p” is increased 370 μm, viz., 380 μm, 390 μm, and 400 μm. And on the
91 other side, the values behind “p = 370 μm” saw a shift on the resonance frequency
92 toward the lower frequencies. At length 370 μm only, the resonance frequency is
93 well maintained at 60 GHz; therefore, the optimum value of the coplanar ground
94 plane is considered to be 370 μm. This is shown in Fig. 2d.
95 Once the single-element design is completed, the MIMO design is carried out. A
96 quad-port MIMO antenna with an orthogonal combination of elements is taken to
97 address better isolation characteristics. The four-port MIMO antenna end design is
98 shown in Fig. 2b. It is to be noted that the radiation pattern configuration of the cur-
99 rent antenna structure is bidirectional as seen in the subplot of Fig. 2c, which is not
100 useful when implementing for millimeter-wave applications. Therefore, to change
101 the bidirectional pattern to a unidirectional pattern, a reflector is placed behind the
102 antenna. Also, for this purpose, the reflector considered is an AMC reflector instead
103 of a PEC to make sure that a smaller height is realizable between the antenna and
104 the reflector. This makes the MIMO antenna more compact, and the incorporation
105 of AMC increases the gain, and a good F/B ratio can be achieved. Four-unit cells are
106 backed by each antenna element of the MIMO antenna.
107 The design direction of each unit cell as shown in Fig. 3c is taken along the direc-
108 tion configuration of the antenna main axis. The AMC is optimized for 60 GHz
109 frequency using the ANSYS HFSS software, the unit cell dimension being 650 ×
110 500 μm (width × length).
111 Arlon DiClad 880 (tm) is taken to be the AMC substrate with a dielectric con-
112 stant of “2.2” and a loss tangent of “0.0009” to match the properties of the antenna
113 substrate. The AMC substrate is backed by a metal plane. Figure 3d shows the AMC
114 unit cell reflection phase of 00 at the operating frequency of 60 GHz and ± 100 varia-
115 tion in the range of 57–62.5 GHz, indicating the plane wave being almost unaltered
116 on the influence of the AMC reflector.
Fig. 3 (a) Quad-port MIMO antenna (b) AMC configuration (c) Proposed quad-port MIMO
antenna backed by AMC (d) Plot showing AMC unit cell configuration and reflection phase versus
frequency characteristics
3 Simulations and Analysis 117
The S-parameters for the proposed wideband MIMO antenna backed by AMC is 118
calculated. Figure 4a represents the reflection coefficient plot for all the four antenna 119
elements. It is seen from the figure; the |S11| ≤ −10 dB impedance bandwidth is 120
well maintained for all the antenna elements from 57 to 62.5 GHz frequency band. 121
When considering the MIMO antenna system, it is extremely important to take 122
the mutual coupling effect into account. This parameter is analyzed when port 1 is 123
excited and the rest 3 ports are terminated using characteristic impedances of 50 124
ohms. Figures 4b, c depict the required information regarding the mutual coupling 125
effect from port 1 as well as all other ports. The isolation or transmission coeffi- 126
cients as seen from Figs. 4b, c is well below −20 dB level for the entire operating 127
bandwidth range of 57–62.5 GHz. 128
Figure 5 shows the surface current distributions when all four ports are excited 129
individually for the operating frequency of 60 GHz. The values stand around 130
101 A/m and 106 A/m when ports 1 and 2 are excited individually and around 131
147 A/m and 136 A/m when the rest of the two ports 3 and 4 are excited separately. 132
184 G. V. Raviteja
Fig. 4 (a) S-parameters for the quad-port MIMO antenna: reflection coefficients (b) S-parameters
for the proposed MIMO antenna at port 1 (c) S-parameters for the quad-port MIMO antenna at
other ports
133 Figure 6 deals with two-dimensional radiation patterns. It can be seen from the
134 figure; the proposed antenna has good radiation characteristics in the forward direc-
135 tion in both the principal planes.
136 A good co-polarization indicates the antenna’s performance in the desired direc-
137 tion. The patterns in the figure are calculated at the operating frequency of 60 GHz
138 for different port excitations. The cross-polarization levels shown are well below
139 −20 dB margin, indicating a good agreement between the co-polarization and cross-
140 polarization of the proposed MIMO antenna.
141 The diversity capabilities for a MIMO antenna are estimated using parameters
142 such as envelope correlation coefficient (ECC), total active reflection coefficient
143 (TARC), mean effective gain (MEG), and diversity gain (DG). These are given by
144 the formulas stated as:
2
S pp S pq S qp Sqq
ECC
145
1 S pp
2
S pq
2
1 S qp
2
Sqq
2
(1)
S S pq Sqp Sqq
2 2
pp
TARC
146 2 (2)
Fig. 5 Surface current distribution for different port excitations
Figure 7a deals with the ECC versus frequency plot. From the figure, it is evident 147
that the ECC value is less than 0.04 for the entire impedance bandwidth range of 148
57–62.5 GHz between any two antenna elements. Also, as seen from the figure, 149
ECC12 and ECC 14 are similar in characteristics compared to ECC13. This is due 150
to the fact that antenna elements 2 and 4 are in a similar orientation to element 1 151
compared to element 3. In general, the ECC value should be less than 0.5 where it 152
is considered to be satisfactory, and if the level of ECC is less than 0.3, then it is 153
considered extremely good for the MIMO applications. The proposed wideband 154
MIMO antenna backed by AMC is well within the mentioned limits, and it is as low 155
as <0.04. The TARC versus frequency plot is shown in Fig. 7b. The standard limit 156
is < −10 dB, and the figure shows that the levels are as low as less than −20 dB. 157
The mean effective gain (MEG) shown in Fig. 7c is calculated using the relation 158
described in [27]. From the figure, MEG 1 and MEG 2 are confined antenna ele- 159
ments 1 and 2, and MEG 3 and MEG 4 are confined to elements 1 and 3, and simi- 160
larly, MEG 5 and MEG 6 relate to elements 1 and 4. As with the case of ECC, 161
because of the similarity in the orientation of elements 2 and 4 with element 1 162
compared to element 3, similar characteristic curves are seen for TARC12 and 163
TARC14 compared to TARC13. As per standards, the difference in MEG should be 164
less than 3 dB, and it is evident from the figure the difference values are close to 165
1 dB for the entire impedance bandwidth of 57–62.5 GHz, which is less than the 166
standard limit of <3 dB. The diversity gain (DG) versus frequency plot shown in 167
186 G. V. Raviteja
Fig. 6 Two-dimensional radiation pattern plots at different port excitations
168 Fig. 7d is calculated using the relation described in [28]. The DG levels indicate
169 values higher than 9.98 for the entire operating range.
170 The radiation efficiency and gain are simulated as shown in Figs. 8a, b. The
171 radiation efficiency is found to be more than 80% in the frequency range of
172 57–62.5 GHz with a peak efficiency of close to 93% at 60 GHz. The gain of the
173 proposed antenna is found to be over 7 dB in the mentioned range. While consider-
174 ing the wideband ranges, it is important to calculate the group delay, which should
175 be constant throughout the mentioned range. From Fig. 8c, it can be seen that a
176 group delay is almost constant. Even though a small spike is seen at 60 GHz fre-
177 quency, it constituted less than 250 picoseconds. Overall, good phase linearity is
178 observed in the group delay plot, which satisfies the demand for wideband ranges.
179 4 Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) Analysis
180 The SAR effect on the human body is of prime importance while designing any
181 antenna. The SAR is estimated using the relation stated as;
2
E
SAR

182 (3)
Fig. 7 (a) Envelope correlation coefficient plot (b) Total active reflection coefficient plot (c) Mean
effective gain plot (d) Diversity gain plot
where “σ” represents conductivity (s/m), E is the electric field (V/m), and “ρ” is 183
the biological tissue mass density often represented in (kg/m3). In this work, the 184
proposed MIMO antenna backed by AMC is placed at a distance of 10 mm from the 185
target tissue. A six-layer homogenous human head model consisting of the skin, fat, 186
bone, dura, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and brain as shown in Fig. 9 is designed. 187
Each one of these six layers has a specific permittivity (εr), conductivity (S/m), loss 188
tangent value, density (kg/m3), and thickness (mm). These specifications are men- 189
tioned in the references [29, 30]. 190
Figure 10 shows the computed SAR values for different layers. Tables 1 and 2 191
represent the SAR values using 1 g and 10 g of tissues. Also, SAR values are com- 192
puted using three different input powers. From Tables 1 and 2, it is seen that the 193
SAR values for the proposed antenna are within the limits set by the Federal 194
Communications Commission (FCC), which is 1.6 Watts/kg. 195
188 G. V. Raviteja
Fig. 8 (a) Radiation efficiency versus frequency plot (b) 2D gain versus frequency plot (c) Group
delay versus frequency plot
Fig. 9 The proposed MIMO antenna placed above the six-layer human head model for SAR
analysis (the six layers are scaled for the purpose of easy understanding/view)
Fig. 10 SAR values corresponding to 1 g of tissue
Table 1 SAR values for six-layer human head model (1 g of tissue) t1.1
Mass of tissue = 1gram SAR value (w/kg) t1.2

Input power Skin Fat Bone Dura CSF Brain t1.3
1 mW 0.042 0.00697 0.0040 0.0263 0.0457 0.0188 t1.4
25 mW 0.9971 0.174 0.102 0.659 0.944 0.472 t1.5
50 mW 1.142 0.348 0.204 1.318 1.289 0.944 t1.6
Table 2 SAR values for 6-layer Human head model (10 g of tissue) t2.1
Mass of tissue = 10gram SAR value (w/kg) t2.2

Input power Skin Fat Bone Dura CSF Brain t2.3
1 mW 0.018 0.003 0.002 0.01295 0.022 0.009 t2.4
25 mW 0.468 0.084 0.021 0.2995 0.442 0.206 t2.5
50 mW 0.541 0.144 0.072 0.629 0.614 0.442 t2.6
190 G. V. Raviteja
196 5 Conclusion
197 A quad-port wideband MIMO antenna backed by AMC is proposed. The antenna is
198 targeted to cover the 60 GHz millimeter-wave applications. An orthogonal configu-
199 ration is maintained between the individual antenna elements to provide better iso-
200 lation. The S11 plot showed that the proposed antenna showed an impedance
201 bandwidth (|S11| ≤ −10 dB) of 5.5 GHz covering the range of 57–62.5 GHz. Good
202 isolation of less than −20 dB is achieved. The MIMO performance in terms of enve-
203 lope correlation coefficient (ECC), mean effective gain (MEG), total active reflec-
204 tion coefficient (TARC), and diversity gain (DG) is also computed, which showed
205 ECC < 0.04, MEG close to 1.0 dB, TARC < −10 dB, and DG over 9.98 for the
206 mentioned frequency range. The radiation efficiency achieved is over 80% of the
207 operating range with a peak efficiency close to 93% at 60GHz and a gain of over
208 7 dB, and a group delay with good phase linearity is observed. Specific absorption
209 rate (SAR) values are also computed using the designed six-layer human head
210 model with varying power inputs of 1 mW, 25 mW, and 50 mW for both 1 g and
211 10 g of tissue. The SAR values show that the proposed MIMO antenna backed by
212 AMC is well within the FCC recommended standard limit of 1.6 Watts/kg and
213 therefore is an ideal one for millimeter-wave applications.
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5G Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model: 1
Existing Channel Estimation Algorithms 2
and Its Review 3
Nilofer Shaik and Praveen Kumar Malik 4
1 Introduction 5
In recent days, 5G wireless system designers are facing enormous challenges, which 6
include the availability of spectrum and space-time varying wireless environment. 7
Some of the other challenges such as increase of demand for high data rates, better 8
QoS, and huge network capacity have emerged into new promising technologies. 9
mMIMO has emerged as a promising technology for all these measures. The pres- 10
ent wireless technologies have to meet the rapidly increasing data rate demand and 11
also avoid the data traffic crunch. It is also an important task to satisfy the expecta- 12
tions for the QoS. Users expect the wireless services to be quite efficient and robust. 13
To keep up with an exponential traffic growth rate and simultaneously provide ubiq- 14
uitous connectivity, industrial and academic researchers need to turn every stone to 15
design new revolutionary wireless network technologies. So is the requirement of 16
efficient mMIMO technology, which is a solution to handle several orders of mag- 17
nitude of more data traffic than present technologies. mMIMO is the most promis- 18
ing technology for 5G and beyond the wireless access era. 19
Definition: mMIMO is an extension of MIMO, which groups several numbers 20
of antennas at the transmitter and several numbers of antennas at the receiver to 21
provide better throughput and spectrum efficiency [1]. 22
The main idea behind mMIMO is the signals are sampled in the spatial domain 23
at the transmitter and at the receiver are grouped in such a way that they create effi- 24
cient multiple parallel spatial data pipes, which will increase the data rates and add 25
diversity to improve the quality of wireless communication. It is also called as smart 26
antennas or space-time wireless communication. Several numbers of array antennas 27
will improve the spectral efficiency and energy efficiency. Other advantages of 28
N. Shaik (*) · P. K. Malik

Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India

Switzerland AG 2022
194 N. Shaik and P. K. Malik
Fig. 1 Illustration of mMIMO systems
29 mMIMO are that the low power components are used and the cost of the compo-
30 nents is less. The illustration of mMIMO systems is show in Fig. 1.
31 2 Massive MIMO System Model
32 Consider a mMIMO where base station is equipped with tens to hundreds of anten-
33 nas which communicate with several numbers of users simultaneously using spatial
34 multiplexing [2, 3]. Figure 2 shows mMIMO system model for a single cell in both
35 uplink and downlink transmissions.
36 A base station with M-antenna serves K-single user antennas simultaneously
37 using spatial multiplexing. An assumption is made on channel reciprocity so that the
38 channel matrix relation is the matrix response for both uplink and downlink [4]. For
39 each time-frequency resource, the downlink signal model is given as:
40 Yl dl Hzl nl (1)
41 where Hl is K*M is the propagation channel matrix, zl is the normalized vector

42 across the M-antennas, y is the receive signal vector at the K-users, and n is the
43 white noise vector with iid. with CN(0;σ n2), √ρdlcontains the transmit power in the
44 downlink. Due to reciprocity, the uplink channel matrix is given as:
5G Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model: Existing Channel Estimation Algorithms… 195
Fig. 2 mMIMO system model in the (a) uplink and (b) downlink
Z l ul HlY yl nl (2) 45
Depending on the used power scaling scheme, the total power from all users is 46
ρdl and ρul. An assumption such as iid Gaussian transmit signals are used with per- 47
fect CSI is obtained at the receiver; the achievable data rate [5] is expressed as: 48

C log 2 det I HH H bps / Hz (3)
N
t 49
Figure 3 depicts the average gain of the serviceable antennas in Rayleigh channel 50
and LOS propagation. 51
3 Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model 52
Several numbers of antennas combined with multicarrier modulation schemes give 53

efficacy performance for a 5G wireless communication system. One of the very 54
kinds that is referred in this paper is the MIMO-OFDM model, which uses different 55
kinds of FFT algorithms [6]. With improved features, the mMIMO-OFDM model 56
has become one of the most capable techniques for 5G wireless communication 57
systems. The combination of mMIMO with OFDM increases throughput because of 58
mMIMO systems and flat fading. The mathematical expression for frequency- 59
selective mMIMO channel is given as: 60
Z t H 0 s t H 1 s t 1 H L 1 s t L 1 n t (4) 61

Fig. 3 Average array gain vs number of service antennas for massive MIMO systems
62 where
63 s (t) = transmitter vector at time t
64 s (t-1) = transmitter vector at time (t-1)
65 H(L) = channel matrix corresponding to tap L (NxM matrix)
66 n t = noise
67 IFFT operation is performed for each transmitter antenna in mMIMO-OFDM to
68 overcome the problem of ISI, which occurs between current and previous transmit-
69 ted vector symbols. mMIMO frequency-selective channel is converted into a set of
70 multiple parallel flat fading mMIMO channels using mMIMO-OFDM system [7].
71 The mathematical expression for N-parallel flat fading mMIMO channels is
72 given as:
73 z k H k s k (5)
74 where
75 z k = Rx1 a receiver vector corresponding to subcarrier k=0 to N-1
76 H k = Flat fading channel matrix corresponding to subcarrier k = 0 to M-1
77 s k = Tx1 a transmitter vector corresponding to subcarrier k = 0 to M-1
78 Each of z k can be processed using different types of detectors at the receiver
79 with a vector of s k . The schematic diagram of mMIMO-OFDM transmitter and
80 receiver is shown in Fig. 4 below.
Fig. 4 Block diagram of mMIMO-OFDM (a) Transmitter (b) Receiver
4 Channel Estimation 81
The received signal is usually distorted by the channel characteristics. The channel 82
effect has to be estimated and compensated at the receiver end to recover the trans- 83
mitted signals [8–10]. So, an efficient channel estimation technique is required to 84
estimate the channel characteristics. At each subcarrier, the channel response is esti- 85
mated so that the transmitted signal is recovered efficiently. The block diagram of 86
channel estimation is shown in Fig. 5. 87
Channel estimation techniques are mainly classified into three types: 88
(i) Training symbol-based channel estimation 89

(ii) Semi-blind channel estimation 90
(iii) Blind channel estimation 91
In general, the estimation of channel is done using preamble or pilot symbols, 92

which are known both at the transmitter and receiver end. This method uses various 93
interpolation techniques between pilot tones to estimate subcarrier channel response. 94
While choosing channel estimation technique for any type of multicarrier modula- 95
tion technique, different aspects of implementations such as computational com- 96
plexity, performance, and time variation of the channel have to be considered. 97
Fig. 5 Block diagram of channel estimation
Fig. 6 Pilot arrangement St

of block type
Frequency
Time
98 4.1 Pilot Structure
99 There are three types of pilot structures considered based on the arrangement of
100 pilots [11–15]. They are:
101 (i) Block type
102 (ii) Comb type
103 (iii) Lattice type
104 4.2 Block Type
105 In this type, the pilot symbols at all subcarriers are periodically transmitted for
106 channel estimation. The pilot arrangement of block type is shown in Fig. 6.
Along the time axis, the channel is estimated using these training symbols; a 107
time-domain interpolation is performed. St denotes the period of training symbols. 108
The time-varying channel characteristics are recorded continuously. To do so, the 109
training symbols are placed frequently as a coherence of time. The training symbol 110
has to satisfy the following inequality where the coherence time is inversely propor- 111
tional to Doppler frequency. 112
1
St ≤ (6)
fdoppler 113
For frequency-selective channels, block-type pilot symbol arrangement is used 114

as the pilot tones are inserted into all subcarriers of training symbols within a period 115
of time. For fast-fading channel, too much pilot overhead is observed because of 116
channel variation by reducing the pilot symbol period. 117
4.3 Comb Type 118
In comb type, every symbol has pilot tones at the periodically located subcarriers. 119
Along the frequency axis, the channel is estimated using these training symbols; a 120
frequency-domain interpolation is performed. The pilot arrangement of comb type 121
is shown in Fig. 7. In frequency, the period of pilot tones is given by Sf. The 122
frequency-selective characteristics are recorded continuously, and to do so, the 123
training symbols are kept as frequently as coherent bandwidth. The pilot symbol has 124
to satisfy this condition where the coherence bandwidth is inversely proportional to 125
the maximum delay spread. 126
Fig. 7 Pilot arrangement

of comb type
Frequency
Sf
Time
1
Sf (7)
127 max
128 For fast-fading channels, the comb-type pilot arrangement is used, and it is not
129 used for frequency-selective channels.
130 4.4 Lattice Type
131 Within the given periods along both frequency and time axis, the pilot tones are
132 inserted. It facilitates time- and frequency-domain interpolations for estimating a
133 channel as the pilot tones are scattered in both frequency- and time-domain axes.
134 The lattice-type pilot arrangement is shown in Fig. 8. To record frequency-selective
135 and time-varying channels, the pilot arrangement should satisfy the following
136 equations:
1 1
St and S f (8)
137 fdoppler max
Fig. 8 Pilot arrangement St

of lattice type
Frequency
Sf
Time
4.5 Pilot Symbol-Based Channel Estimation 138
To provide a good performance, pilot symbols are used for estimating a channel. 139
Because of the pilot tones or the preamble which is transmitted in addition to the 140
data symbols, pilot overhead is more in turn, which reduces the transmission effi- 141
ciency. The widely used pilot symbol-based channel estimation techniques are: 142
(i) Least square 143

(ii) Minimum mean square estimate 144
The pilot symbols for N-subcarriers are represented using a diagonal matrix 145
assuming that all subcarriers are orthogonal and are given below: 146
X 0 0

X= where X[k] represents pilot tone at kth subcarrier 147
0
X N 1
with mean 0 and variance σ x2, k=0,1……, N-1. 148
The received signal is represented as Y and is given as: 149
Y XH Z (9) 150
where H is the channel vector and is given as: 151
H H 0 ,H 1.H N 1 T (10)

152
And Z is a noise vector with mean zero and variance σ2 and is given as: 153
Z Z 0 ,Z 1.Z N 1 T (11)

154
4.6 Least Square Channel Estimation 155
The channel estimate Ĥ is obtained by minimizing the cost function in LS channel 156
estimation method. The LS channel estimate is given as: 157

1
Ĥ X H X X H Y X 1Y (12)
158
The LS estimate of each subcarrier is given as: 159
Y k
Hˆ k k 0,1, 2,, N 1 (13)
X k 160
The MSE of LS channel estimate is given as: 161

z2
MSELS (14)
162 x2
163 The MSE is inversely proportional to the SNR, which implies that it is related to
164 noise enhancement especially when channel is in deep null. LS channel estimation
165 is widely used because of its simplicity.
166 4.7 Minimum Mean Square Channel Estimation
167 The MMSE channel estimation is obtained using weight matrix W. The MMSE
168 channel estimate is given as:
169 Ĥ WH (15)

170 where H is the LS channel estimate and is given as:

H X 1Y H (16)
171 LS
172 The MMSE channel estimate is shown in Fig. 9.

173 Interpolation is done for pilot subcarriers to estimate data symbols. Most popu-
174 larly used interpolation methods are linear, second-order polynomial, and cubic
175 spline interpolation [16, 17].
176 4.8 DFT-Based Channel Estimation
177 To eliminate the effect of noise outside the maximum channel delay and to improve
178 the performance of MMSE or LS, the DFT-based channel estimation technique is
179 derived. The DFT-based channel estimation block diagram is shown in Fig. 10. It
180 improves the performance of channel estimation.
Fig. 9 Channel estimation of MMSE

Fig. 10 Block diagram of DFT-based channel estimation
After obtaining the channel gain of kth subcarrier using either LS or MMSE, the 181
IDFT of the channel estimate is done and is given as: 182

IDFT Hˆ k h n z n  hˆ n n 0,1,, N 1

(17)
183
where 184
Ĥ k = kth subcarrier estimates of channel gain 185

Z[n] = noise component in time domain 186
For the maximum channel delay L, the coefficients defined by ignoring the coef- 187
ficients that contain noise are given as: 188
h n z n , n 0,1, 2 ..L 1
h
DFT n (18)
0, otherwise 189
The remaining L elements are again transformed to frequency domain [18, 19] 190
and are given as: 191

 k DFT h n
H DFT DFT (19)
192
4.9 Doubly Selective Channel Estimation Technique 193
Based on frequency and time correlation of pilots that are scattered, the doubly 194
selective channels are used for estimation [20–22]. At the data and pilot positions to 195
reduce the interference, iterative interference cancellation method is used. The 196
197 input-output relationship for the transmitted signal over the doubly selective chan-
198 nel is given as:
199 y Dx n (20)
200 where “x” represents transmitted data in terms of vector, y represents received
201 data in terms of vector, and n is the noise vector. D is a transmission matrix and is
202 given as:
203 D = Q H HG (21)
204 For one-tap channel, the channel estimation is done using LS method; accord-
205 ingly, its estimation is given as:
ĥpLS diag x p y p
1
(22)
206
207 For more details about doubly selective channel estimation techniques, refer to
208 [20, 21].
209 4.10 Sparse Channel Estimation Using Matching Pursuit
210 The channels which have a greater delay spread but with a smaller number of taps
211 that are nonzero are experienced in HDTV, underwater acoustics, and mobile com-
212 munications. For these types of application, an efficient channel estimation with
213 better equalization is necessary to reduce ISI at the receiver end. So, to overcome
214 the problem, a matching pursuit (MP) channel estimation algorithm is developed
215 [23]. There are different types of MP algorithms [24] with a small difference among
216 the performance of these MP algorithms. Basic MP (BMP) has low complexity
217 compared to other MP algorithms. The column that best matches the residual till the
218 completion of the criteria obtained is sequentially chosen. Until the required num-
219 ber of taps P is chosen or the residual becomes small, the iterations are repeated.
220 The residual vector is given as:
bp bp 1
a H
kp bp 1 ak p (23)
2
ak p
221
222 where
223 bp − 1 is the (p-1)th iteration residual vector, and
224 ak p is the element of column matrix A at pth iteration.
225 The tap value at the kp position is given as:
c
a H
kp bp 1
kp 2
(24)
ak p
226
Figure 11 shows the comparison between LS, MMSE, and DFT mMIMO-OFDM 228
channel estimation techniques, and the results show that MMSE-based channel esti- 229
mation technique holds good compared to LS and DFT. The limitation of this model 230
is pilot contamination because of several numbers of pilots used for estimating the 231
channel. 232
Figure 12 shows the doubly selective channel estimation in OFDM systems. The 233
advantage of this estimation is it reduces interference and it doesn’t require clus- 234
tered pilots or basis expansion model. The limitation of this method is the assump- 235
tion of delay taps that are limited over a period of time and computational complexity. 236
Figure 13 shows the sparse channel estimation using MP algorithms. The results 237
prove that the sparse channel estimation performs good compared to the LS channel 238
estimation algorithm. The limitation of this algorithm is the iterations when using 239
time-varying channels. As the number of iterations increases, the complexity of the 240
system increases. 241
Fig. 11 BER Vs SNR comparison for LS, MMSE, and DFT channel estimation
Fig. 12 BER Vs SNR for doubly selective channel estimation
Fig. 13 BER Vs SNR for sparse channel estimation

Fig. 14 SER Vs SNR channel estimation using deep learning
Figure 14 represents the channel estimation using deep learning, and the com- 242
parison results are done along with LS and MMSE also [24–26]. 243
6 Conclusion 244
This paper reviews some of the existing algorithms for 5G mMIMO-OFDM wire- 245
less communication systems. The performance of the existing algorithms is shown 246
based on BER and SER with respect to SNR. There are some limitations to these 247
existing algorithms based on performance of the system, pilot contamination, and 248
complexity of the system. So, to overcome this, many channel estimation algo- 249
rithms came in to existence. But the main limitation of all these existing algorithms 250
is that they are implemented only for OFDM multicarrier system. As a new require- 251
ment for 5G physical layer, an efficient multicarrier-based channel estimation has to 252
be developed so that it satisfies the major requirements of 5G mMIMO wireless 253
communication system. 254
Acknowledgments This paper and the research behind it would not have been possible without 255
the exceptional support of the author’s supervisor, Dr. Praveen Kumar Malik. His enthusiasm, 256
knowledge, and meticulous attention to detail have been an inspiration and kept her work on track. 257
This research was partially supported by Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India. 258
The author would also express her deep gratitude to the faculty members of CMR Institute of 259
Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India, for sharing their pearls of wisdom during the 260
course of this research. 261
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Part IV 1
Fractal and Defected Ground Structure 2
Microstrip Antenna 3
Dual-Band Compact Transparent Fractal 1
Antenna for Smart WLAN Applications 2
Minesh Thaker, Ashwin Patani, Arpan Desai, and Trushit Upadhyaya 3
1 Introduction 4
Smart devices are now becoming a reality that is intelligent and can connect with 5
the Internet and form the Internet of things (IoT). The devices form a network where 6
they can communicate and are powerful even though they may be small. It is not 7
very far when every single piece of equipment present around us will be linked to 8
the Internet like lights, TV sets, water heater, stove, washing machine, vacuum 9
cleaner, and a never-ending list. All these devices can be connected to Wi-Fi, and all 10
can be controlled through the phone or computer. The antennas incorporated in 11
these smart devices should also be capable of resonating in the IEEE 802.11n 12
2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands for seamless connectivity. As these devices are 13
regularly used in our day-to-day life, maintaining their aesthetics is also an impor- 14
tant criterion. An antenna that is visible or protruding out from a device will not 15
work in such applications. 16
To overcome this problem, the need for an antenna working in dual band which 17
covers WLAN frequency and which maintains the aesthetics of the device is very 18
much in demand. Antenna having wide impedance bandwidth with acceptable val- 19
ues of gain can cover a wider area with low loss of EM waves. Fractal antennas are 20
widely known for increasing the impedance bandwidth, which is achieved by intro- 21
ducing repeated iterations of geometries found in nature or artificially available 22
shapes [1]. Dual-band fractal antennas for wireless, WLAN, WiMAX [2–6], RFID 23
M. Thaker (*) · A. Patani

Indus University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
e-mail: mineshthaker.ec@indusuni.ac.in; ashwinpatani.ec@indusuni.ac.in
A. Desai · T. Upadhyaya
Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa, Gujarat, India
e-mail: arpandesai.ec@charusat.ac.in; trushitupadhyaya.ec@charusat.ac.in

Switzerland AG 2022
214 M. Thaker et al.
24 [7, 8], LTE [9, 10], energy harvesting [11], and wireless body area networks [12]
25 applications are proposed by researchers. The effect of varying the ground plane on
26 antenna characteristics is carried out, where inclusion of partial ground [13, 14],
27 slotted ground [15], and defected ground using meta-surfaces [16] is explained.
28 However, the antennas are made up of conventional materials like copper, which is
29 visible to the eyes, and it needs extra space for its installation in the devices. To
30 overcome this problem, transparent antennas are suitable candidates as they are
31 completely transparent due to the presence of conductive oxides like silver tin
32 oxide, indium tin oxide, zinc oxide, aluminum-doped tin oxide, and substrate in the
33 form of glass or Plexiglas [17–22].
34 In this paper, a compact transparent fractal incorporated dual-band antenna
35 with the partial ground plane is proposed for smart devices using WLAN fre-
36 quency bands. The proposed antenna is designed and optimized using finite ele-
37 ment method (FEM)-based high-frequency structure simulator (HFSS) software.
38 The approach used for designing the antenna is described after which the antenna
39 is fabricated to validate the concept. The explanation about antenna geometry
40 structure and results of the proposed antenna are presented in Sects. 2 and 3,
41 trailed by the conclusion.
42 2 Structure of Proposed Antenna
43 Figure 1 shows the proposed compact transparent antenna geometry. The antenna
44 consists of a conducting patch made using a fractal geometry approach along with
45 a substrate and partial ground plane. Conducting layers including patch and ground
46 are made up of AgHT-8 having a sheet resistance, thickness, and transmittance of
47 8Ω-sq, 0.177 mm, and 75%, respectively. The completely transparent substrate is
48 made up of Plexiglas having dielectric constant, loss tangent, thickness, and trans-
49 mittance values of 2.3, 0.00038, 1.48 mm, and 80%, respectively. For ease of fabri-
50 cation, the antenna fractal geometry is extended to only two iterations as the AgHT
51 sheet is hard to pattern.
52 The fractal geometry in the form of Minkowski is used to improve the imped-
53 ance bandwidth and return loss of the antenna. The partial ground plane size is
54 optimized to achieve the proposed frequency bands. The proposed compact trans-
55 parent antenna has a size of 29 × 30 × 1.85 mm3. The fabricated transparent
56 antenna prototype is shown in Fig. 2, where the transparency of the fractal antenna
57 is visible. The amalgamation of AgHT-8 sheet and Plexiglas is done using a thin
58 double-sided adhesive sheet having a thickness of 0.2 mm. A simple microstrip
59 feed is used as a feeding network, which is interfaced by a 50Ω SMA connector
60 using conducting glue.
61 Stage 1 shows the basic transparent structure of the antenna with a full ground
62 plane. Four simple squares of equal size are added along the side of the basic square
Dual-Band Compact Transparent Fractal Antenna for Smart WLAN Applications 215
Fig. 1 Proposed antenna geometry (a) Top view (b) 3D view
structure in Stage 2. Minkowski fractal geometry is introduced in Stage 3 with the 63

full ground plane and finally the proposed antenna having Minkowski fractal and 64
the partial ground plane (Fig. 3). 65
Effect on S11 due to various stages is depicted in Fig. 4, where it can be realized 66
that the introduction of Minkowski fractal and partial ground plane helped in achiev- 67
ing the targeted frequency along with improving the return loss and impedance 68
bandwidth of the proposed transparent antenna. 69
Fig. 2 Fabricated prototype
Fig. 3 The evolution process of the dual-band transparent fractal
70 3 Results and Discussion
71 The radiation characteristics of the proposed antenna have been computationally and
72 experimentally validated. The antenna has been simulated in FEM-based full-wave
73 simulator and was measured using calibrated vector network analyzer MS2037C in an
74 anechoic chamber environment of size 15 × 15 × 15 m3. Figure 5 illustrates the simu-
75 lated and experimentally validated return loss in terms of scattering parameter S11 of
76 second-order iteration and Stage 4 of the antenna. The reflection coefficient is tuned
77 for target frequencies, and antenna resonance is well in consonance of WLAN fre-
78 quency spectrum bands of 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz. All channels of focused ISM fre-
79 quency bands are covered by the resonances. Due to the fractal nature of the antenna,
80 the bandwidths are well above the requirement of 2%. The measured voltage standing
81 wave ratios (VSWR) at first resonance and second resonance are 1.35 and 1.43,
Fig. 4 Comparison of iterative fractal stages
Fig. 5 S11 (dB) of the proposed antenna
respectively. This VSWR is fully compliant with the industry requirement of VSWR 82
less than 1.5. The computationally achieved and measured return loss is in good 83
agreement. Minor dissimilarity in return loss graphs is due to mechanical inaccuracies 84
in the fabricated model, especially joining of the connector to the antenna through the 85
feedline. It is pertinent to note that the simulator assumes the ideal material condi- 86
tions, which cannot be realized in the synthesized prototype. 87
For the second iteration of the Minkowski fractal, the surface current densities 88
for two frequencies are illustrated in Fig. 6. The density increases gradually when it 89
moves away from blue to red color. The current distribution shows the self-similar 90
Fig. 6 Current distribution pattern at (a) 2.39 GHz and (b) 5.15 GHz
Fig. 7 Anechoic chamber setup
91 nature of the fractal. As distinctly noticeable, the surface current densities are quite
92 higher at the resonator feedline and diminish as they move away from the feed. With
93 the induction of new engineered slots on the extremes of the fractals and at the cen-
94 ter of the patch, there shall be significant modifications in the antenna resonance and
95 radiation characteristics. The path of the current increases with the increase in the
96 fractal iteration stages as the current shall follow the geometry pattern of the slots.
97 This causes a considerable reduction in the resonance frequencies and increases in
98 the antenna bandwidth.
99 The antenna measurement setup in the anechoic chamber environment is demon-
100 strated in Fig. 7. The inset picture depicts the enhanced view of the device under
101 test. High-gain double-ridged horn antenna is receiving antenna in the
Fig. 8 Simulated (solid) and measured (dashed) radiation pattern
measurement. The anechoic chamber provides isolation of around 30 dB at the tar- 102
get frequencies. The E-plane and H-plane radiation patterns at 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz 103
frequencies are shown in Fig. 8. The antenna has good broadside radiation patterns. 104
The radiation characteristics of the antenna are analogous to those of the standard 105
dipole antenna, but due to partial ground plane, antenna also radiates opposite to the 106
bore sight. At 2.39 GHz, the patterns are of dipole shape in the E-plane, while at 107
5.15 GHz, directional patterns are observed. Due to the fractal perturbations, the 108
radiation patterns do have angular variance about the standard dipole. The ground 109
plane can be further modified to vary the intended directivity of antenna radiation. 110
Numerically computed and experimentally validated antenna efficiency and gain 111
are depicted in Fig. 9. As evident, the antenna has adequate levels of gain above 1 112
dBi for both frequencies. The simulated radiation efficiency is also having accept- 113
able values of around 80%. The antenna parameters are tabulated in Table 1. 114
Table 2 shows an evaluation of the proposed dual-band compact transparent frac- 115
tal antenna with other fractal antennas from literature, where the proposed antenna 116
Fig. 9 Gain and efficiency of antenna at 2.39 GHz and 5.15 GHz
Table 1 Compact transparent antenna characteristics t1.1
Transparent antenna t1.2

Characteristics Simulated/measured t1.3
Resonance frequency 2.39/2.41 5.15/5.23 t1.4
(GHz) t1.5
Return loss (dB) −23.96/−16.43 −16.98/−14.97 t1.6
Gain (dBi) 1.16/1.10 1.18/1.06 t1.7
Impedance bandwidth 2.35–2.43 GHz(3.4)/2.37– 4.92–5.3 GHz (7.7)/4.97– t1.8
(%) 2.46 GHz (3.7) 5.30 GHz (6.4) t1.9
Efficiency (%) 81/79 85/82 t1.10
Table 2 Comparison of compact transparent antenna with other fractal antennas from literature t2.1
Frequency t2.2
References Size (mm2) Material Gain (dBi) Efficiency (%) (GHz) t2.3
Proposed antenna 29×30 AgHT-8 1.2, 1.4 79, 82 2.4, 5 t2.4
[2] 40×40 FR4 3.5, 3 90, 48 2.5, 5.5 t2.5
[5] 25×25 RO3006 – 70, 72 2.4,3.75 t2.6
[6] 28.5×33.5 – 2.2, 2.3 85 2.5/5.5 t2.7
(Simulated) (Simulated) t2.8
[9] 33×33 FR4 2~5 50~85 Multiband t2.9
shows the compact size, transparent nature, and WLAN frequency operation with 117
acceptable values of gain and efficiency. 118
4 Conclusion 119
A compact transparent dual-band fractal antenna is presented. The antenna radiates 120
directionally at 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz resonance frequencies. Good agreement 121
between simulated and measured results is observed in terms of return loss, gain, 122
and radiation pattern. The measured directional gain values of the antenna are 1.10 123
dBi and1.06 dBi with efficiency values of 79% and 82%, respectively. It can be 124
observed that the proposed antenna achieves compact operation, acceptable gain, 125
efficiency, and transparent nature, which make the antenna commercially suitable 126
for its use in smart devices to maintain aesthetics and space requirement. 127
References 128
1. Bhatt, S., Mankodi, P., Desai, A., Patel, R.: Analysis of ultra-wideband fractal antenna designs 129
and their applications for wireless communication: a survey. In: 2017 International Conference 130
on Inventive Systems and Control (ICISC), pp. 1–6 (2017) 131
2. Sedghi, M.S., Naser-Moghadasi, M., Zarrabi, F.B.: A dual band fractal slot antenna loaded 132
with Jerusalem crosses for wireless and WiMAX communications. Prog. Electromagn. Res. 133
61, 19–24 (2016) 134
3. Zakariyya, O.S., Sadiq, B.O., Olaniyan, A.A., Salami, A.F.: Dual band fractal antenna design 135
for wireless application. Comput. Eng. Appl. J. 5(3), 101–108 (2016) 136
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antenna for wireless applications. Prog. Electromagn. Res. 74, 125–130 (2018) 138
5. Harbadji, M., Denidni, T.A., Boufrioua, A.: Miniaturized dual-band fractal antenna with 139
omnidirectional pattern for WLAN/WiMAX applications. Prog. Electromagn. Res. 70, 140
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ture. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 12, 976–978 (2013) 146
8. Kimouche, H., Zemmour, H., Atrouz, B.: Dual-band fractal shape antenna design for RFID 147
applications. Electron. Lett. 45(21), 1061–1063 (2009) 148
9. Abed, A.T., Jawad, A.M.: Compact size MIMO Amer fractal slot antenna for 3G, LTE (4G), 149
WLAN, WiMAX, ISM and 5G communications. IEEE Access. 7, 125542–125551 (2019) 150
10. Lizzi, L., Massa, A.: Dual-band printed fractal monopole antenna for LTE applications. IEEE 151
11. Shrestha, S., Lee, S.R., Choi, D.-Y.: A new fractal-based miniaturized dual band patch antenna 153
for RF energy harvesting. Int. J. Antennas Propag. 2014, 1 (2014) 154
12. Karimbu Vallappil, A., Khawaja, B.A., Khan, I., Mustaqim, M.: Dualband Minkowski–
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Sierpinski fractal antenna for next generation satellite communications and wireless body area 156
networks. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 60(1), 171–178 (2018) 157
158 13. Sudeep, B., Goswami, A.K., Yadav, M.V.: Miniaturized dual-band antenna with a rectangular
159 patch and symmetrically placed circles in the partial ground plane. Prog. Electromagn. Res.
160 78, 29–37 (2019)
161 14. Baudha, S., Kapoor, K., Yadav, M.V.: U-shaped microstrip patch antenna with partial

162 ground plane for mobile satellite services (MSS). In: 2019 URSI Asia-Pacific Radio Science
163 Conference (AP-RASC), New Delhi, India, March 9–15, pp. 1–5. IEEE (2019)
164 15. Hong, T., Gong, S.-X., Liu, Y., Jiang, W.: Monopole antenna with quasi-fractal slotted ground
165 plane for dual-band applications. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 9, 595–598 (2010)
166 16. Samantaray, D., Bhattacharyya, S., Srinivas, K.V.: A modified fractal shaped slotted patch
167 antenna with defected ground using metasurface for dual band applications. Int. J. RF Microw.
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169 17. Desai, A., Upadhyaya, T., Palandoken, M., Patel, R., Patel, U.: Dual band optically transparent
170 antenna for wireless applications. In: IEEE Asia Pacific Microwave Conference, Kualalumpur,
171 Malaysia, November 13–16, pp. 960–963 (2017)
172 18. Desai, A.H., Upadhyaya, T.: Dual-band transparent and non-transparent antennas for wireless
173 application. Int. J. Electron. Lett. 8, 1–10 (2019)
174 19. Desai, A., Bui, C.D., Patel, J., Upadhyaya, T., Byun, G., Nguyen, T.K.: Compact wideband four
175 element optically transparent MIMO antenna for mm-wave 5G applications. IEEE Access. 8,
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178 less MIMO system applications. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 61(7), 1845–1856 (2019)
179 21. Desai, A., Upadhyaya, T., Patel, J., Patel, R., Palandoken, M.: Flexible CPW fed transpar-
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183 cation systems. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 61(3), 781–786 (2019)
A Tapered Circular CPW-Fed Wideband 1
Fractal Patch Antenna for IoT Applications 2
Geeta Kalkhambkar, Rajashri Khanai, Pradeep Chindhi, 3

and Pradeep Kumar 4
1 Introduction 5
In this era of globalization, communication systems are bringing the world 6

together. Internet of Things is flourishing with the need for more connectivity; 7
almost every sector, may it be agriculture, industry, or service IoT, is playing an 8
important role in modernizing every corner of life. Antennas, being the heart of 9
this connected wireless world, have gone through many stages of development. 10
Miniaturization of an antenna with improved performance has become a vital area 11
of research. Specifically, the applications like IoT which need connectivity 12
between different devices demand wideband and ultra-wideband antennas. Due to 13
the relation between bandwidth and quality factor of the antenna, gain and band- 14
width are the compromising factors for each other, which have become a chal- 15
lenge for researchers. Obtaining a satisfactory radiation performance over a wide 16
bandwidth without compromising the miniaturization of the device is the main 17
focus requiring immediate attention. Apart from IoT, RF energy harvesting is one 18
more field that requires a wideband and high gain of an antenna. Fractal antennas 19
are suitable candidates for such applications. Impedance matching becomes a cru- 20
cial factor that directly impacts the performance of the antenna. Tapered struc- 21
tures in a fractal antenna are a good choice for wideband operations [1]. Increased 22
number of radiating edges increases the bandwidth in fractal antennas [2]. One of 23
G. Kalkhambkar (*) · P. Chindhi

S.G.M.C.O.E, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India
R. Khanai
KLES, Dr. M.S.S.C.E.T, Belagavi, Karnataka, India
P. Kumar
University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
e-mail: kumarp@ukzn.ac.za

Switzerland AG 2022
224 G. Kalkhambkar et al.
24 the best ways to improve the bandwidth of the antenna is to work on impedance
25 matching [3]. Fractal antenna with CPW feed helps in bandwidth enhancement
26 [4]. CPW feed with partial ground plane combinedly enhances the bandwidth in
27 an iterative way [5]. Different techniques have been used by many researchers to
28 enhance the bandwidth of microstrip antenna, such as tapered slots [7] and frac-
29 tals [8–12]. Fractals are more popular nowadays for their bandwidth-enhancing
30 ability and size miniaturization. Antenna size is of major concern for many IoT
31 devices, which demand higher bandwidth for improved data rates. This paper
32 reports a wideband fractal antenna for IoT applications. A circular CPW feed with
33 tapered gap to achieve impedance matching in order to improve the S-parameter
34 characteristics of UWB (ultra-wideband) antenna is the noticeable factor in this
35 work. The important parameters of antenna, that is, S-parameters, voltage stand-
36 ing wave ratio, gain, directivity, current distribution, axial ratio, efficiency at
37 desired frequencies, and impedance plot, are discussed.
38 2 Experimental Work
39 Initially, a circular patch antenna with circular CPW feed is designed in a Mentor
40 Graphics software package. A circular patch with a radius of 14 mm is designed in
41 order to resonate it approximately at 3.5 GHz. The successive iterations were car-
42 ried out based on the following design formulas.
43 Dimensions of a square slot at the alternate iterations are taken as:
Ln = Rn + 4 (1)
44
45 The radius of a circle at each stage is determined by:
Ln + 1
Rn = +1 (2)
46 2
47 where
48 Ln = length of the edge of the square slot
49 Rn = radius of the circle at each stage
50 n = an integer showing the number of that particular iteration, that is, for the first
51 iteration n = 1, and so on.
52 The geometry is iterated till three iterations beyond which no significant
53 change was observed due to the low current near the center of the circle, con-
54 tributing almost nothing in the radiation characteristics of the antenna. The pro-
55 cess of iterative construction of the geometry is given in Figs. 1a–g. The
56 impedance matching using tapered CPW gap feed is shown in Fig. 1h. A circular
57 patch with a circular CPW feed is taken as an initiator; CPW feed is chosen in
58 order to obtain a wide bandwidth in the initiator itself. A tapered reformation or
A Tapered Circular CPW-Fed Wideband Fractal Patch Antenna for IoT Applications 225
Fig. 1 (a–g) Iterative stages of geometry construction. (h) Tapered gap insertion in the CPW feed
Fig. 2 (a) Dimensions of proposed antenna. (b) Dimensions of tapered CPW feed
stepped removal of the metal area near the feedline is incorporated to obtain an 59
impedance match over a wide bandwidth. Figure 2 shows a final iteration with 60
tapered or stepped circular CPW feed. And Table 1 shows the dimension details 61
of the antenna. 62
t1.1 Table 1 Dimensions of the antenna geometry
Notation Particulars Dimensions in mm t1.2

r Radius of initiator circle 14 t1.3
W Width of substrate 50 t1.4
L Length of substrate 40 t1.5
fh Length of feed 21 t1.6
fl Width of feed 1.5 t1.7
s Spacing between CPW feed 0.17 t1.8
hs Lower spacing of taper 0.33581 t1.9
ht Height of taper 7.95074 t1.10
hsu Upper spacing of taper 0.96 t1.11
Fig. 3 Iterative improvement in S11-parameters
63 3 Result and Discussion
64 The designed fractal antenna shows S-parameters below 10 dB before the imped-
65 ance matching at iteration 3; due to impedance mismatch, the S-parameters are not
66 suitable from 4 GHZ to 6 GHZ in the initial iterations; hence, to improve impedance
67 matching in the entire band, the CPW feedline is tapered, resulting in smooth
68 impedance change and an increase in bandwidth from 3.2 GHz to 7 GHz as shown
69 in Figs. 3 and 4a. The impedance plot shows a good impedance match after a tapered
70 CPW feed is implemented as reflected in Fig. 4c. VSWR is below 2 from 3 GHZ to
71 7 GHz, which shows a minimum reflected power from an antenna shown in Fig. 4b.
72 Smith chart in Fig. 5a gives near to 50-ohm impedance match in the desired band.
73 Gain and directivity in the final iteration of an antenna are above 3 dB with the effi-
74 ciency of above 90% in the desired band as given in Fig. 4f. The current distribution
75 at different frequencies in Fig. 6 shows that the tapered shape of the CPW feed is
76 responsible for the resonance and hence plays a major role in converting this
Fig. 4 (a) S11 of final iteration. (b) VSWR of final iteration. (c) Impedance of all iterations. (d)
Gain of final iteration. (e) Directivity of final iteration. (f) Efficiency of final iteration
Fig. 4 (continued)
Fig. 5 (a) Smith chart of the final iteration (b) Radiation pattern at 3.7 GHz (c) Radiation pattern
at 4.9 GHz Radiation pattern at 6.4 GHz
Fig. 6 Current distribution at different frequencies. (a) 2.17 GHz. (b) 3.79 GHz. (c) 4.96 GHz. (d)
6.31 GHz
Fig. 7 (a) No taper feed. (b) 5 mm taper feed. (c) 8 mm taper feed
Fig. 8 S11-parameters in comparison with different tapered feed dimensions
77 dual-band fractal antenna to a wideband antenna. The maximum total field gain is
78 above 2 dBi, and the directivity is above 3 dBi in the desired band as shown in
79 Fig. 4d and e, respectively.
80 Parametric study of the dimensions of tapered feed is carried out to arrive at the
81 best possible impedance matching; as a result, the S11-parameters are improved as
82 shown in Fig. 7. Parametric study of S11 with varying tapered feed dimensions are
83 illustrated in Fig. 8. The final results are compared with the existing literature; the
84 result of the proposed antenna shows a good performance in terms of its wide band-
85 width ranging from 3.2 GHz to 7 GHz with a small size of 40 mm × 50 mm with the
86 added advantage of size miniaturization due to the fractal slots (Table 2).
t2.1 Table 2 Comparison with existing literatures
References Antenna size Band (GHz) t2.2

[6] 100 × 100 × 1.6 0.94–2.25 t2.3
[7] 130 × 70 × 1.5 3.8–6 t2.4
[8] 800 × 800 × 800 1.32–1.60 t2.5
[9] 91 × 106 × 0.78 0.94 t2.6
Proposed 40 mm × 50 mm 3.2–7 t2.7
4 Conclusion 87
The tapered feed can gradually change the impedance in the desired band and helps 88
in impedance matching. It can be a good choice while working on wideband geom- 89
etry. The antenna at its final iteration gives wideband performance and can be used 90
in different IoT applications in Wi-Fi, WLAN, and ISM band. The wideband behav- 91
ior of the antenna ensures increased data rate and hence is suitable for IoT 92
applications. 93
References 94
1. Singhal, S., Goel, T., Singh, A.K.: Inner tapered tree-shaped fractal antenna for UWB applica- 95
tions. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 57(3), 559 (2015 March). https://doi.org/10.1002/mop 96
2. Singhal, S., Singh, P., Singh, A.K.: Asymmetrically CPW-fed octagonal Sierpinski UWB frac- 97
tal antenna. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 58(7), 1738 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/mop 98
3. Singhal, S., Singh, A.K.: CPW-fed octagonal super-wideband fractal antenna with defected 99
ground structure. IET Microw. Antennas Propag. 11, 370 (2017) 100
4. Reha, A., El Amri, A., Bouchouirbat, M.: The behavior of CPW-Fed Sierpinski curve frac- 101
tal antenna. J. Microw. Optoelectron. Electromagn. Appl. 17(3), 366 (2018). https://doi. 102
org/10.1590/2179-10742018v17i31244 103
5. Sharma, M.M., Jangid, M., PriyaKaith, Jaiverdhan, Singhal, S.: CPW fed compact wideband 104
fractal antenna. In: 2019 IEEE Indian Conference on Antennas and Propogation (InCAP), 105
pp. 1–3 (2019) 978-1-7281-2577-0/19/$31.00 ©2019 IEEE 106
6. Mukti, P.H., Wibowo, S.H., Setijadi, E.: A compact wideband fractal-based planar antenna 107
with meandered transmission line for L-band applications. Prog. Electromagn. Res. C. 61, 108
139–147 (2016) 109
7. Shao, J., Fang, G., Ji, Y., Tan, K., Yin, H.: A novel compact tapered-slot antenna for GPR appli- 110
cations. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 12, 972–975 (2013) 111
8. Romeu, J., Soler, J.: Generalized Sierpinski fractal multiband antenna. IEEE Trans. Antennas 112
Propag. 49(8), 1237–1239 (2001 August) 113
9. Kitlinski, M., Kieda, R.: Compact CPW-fed Sierpinski fractal monopole antenna. Electron. 114
Lett. 28, 1387–1388 (2004) 115
10. Kalkhambkar, G., Khanai, R., Chindhi, P.: Fractals: a novel method in the miniaturization 116
of a patch antenna with bandwidth improvement. Inf. Commun. Technol. Intell. Syst. 106, 117
629–637 (2019) 118
119 11. Kalkhambkar, G., Khanai, R., Chindhi, P.: Design and analysis of wideband polygonal

120 microstrip fractal patch antenna with three dimensional finite difference time domain method
121 and UPML boundaries. Int. J. Adv. Res. Eng. Technol. (IJARET), 11(9), 323–336 (2020)
122 12. Dastranj, A., Ranjbar, F., Bornapour, M.: A new compact circular shape fractal antenna
123 for broadband wireless communication applications. Prog. Electromagn. Res. C. 93,
124 19–28 (2019)
A Novel Ultra-Wideband Monopole 1
Antenna with Defected Ground Structure 2
for X-Band and WiMAX Applications 3
T. Poornima and Korhan Cengiz 4
1 Introduction 5
Microstrip antenna became very popular and attracted first-rate attention inside the 6
Wi-Fi global due to their eminent benefits, such as ease of analysis and fabrication, 7
low cost, first-rate radiation characteristics, and the ability to operate at single-, 8
dual-, triple-, and various-frequency operation with reduced hardware com- 9
plexity [1]. 10
With the appearance of new trends going on in the Wi-Fi enterprise, there are a 11
lot of greater demands for multiband antennas. The antenna which resonates over 12
more than one frequency is called multiband antenna [2]. A multiband antenna is 13
designed to function over multiple frequencies as proposed in this chapter. This 14
form of antennas is widely utilized in RADAR programs, satellite TV for pc com- 15
munications, and biomedical and aerospace packages. Feedline is the transmission 16
line which connects the antenna and radio. Generally, antenna feed is the place 17
where the antenna is attached to the receiver or antenna [3]. The main motive of 18
feedline is to obtain compatibility with integrated circuits (IC) and to make it more 19
adaptable in terms of center or resonance frequency, impedance matching, pattern, 20
and polarization. 21
An UWB monopole antenna with three primary parameters in problem, consist- 22
ing of extremely wide band, formation of composite antenna, and excessive fre- 23
quency of operation, has been defined [1, 4]. The benefits and downsides of 24
T. Poornima (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
K. Cengiz
Department of Electrical – Electronics Engineering, Trakya University, Edirne, Turkey
e-mail: korhancengiz@trakya.edu.tr

Switzerland AG 2022
234 T. Poornima and K. Cengiz
25 microstrip antennas are mentioned on this chapter. To excite a microstrip patch

26 antenna fed with the aid of a microstrip line to calculate the input impedance and
27 S-parameter and to compute the radiation pattern with a far-field feature, we can
28 assign a lumped port on the space between the end of the microstrip line and bottom
29 ground plane [5]. Even though microstrip antenna has several advantages, low gain,
30 narrow bandwidth, and large size are its foremost disadvantages. This, in turn, limits
31 the applications of microstrip antenna in other fields. Great strategies are evolved to
32 overcome the limitations. The recently used prominent techniques are increasing
33 the length and width of the dielectric substrate, using various shapes of patch, and
34 decreasing dielectric constant. Square-, circular-, and rectangular-formed patches
35 are extensively used in current years [6]. The main purpose of this chapter is to
36 incorporate the coupling gaps with cross-shaped defected ground structure (CSDGS)
37 for modern wireless applications. Although there are several shapes, the patch-
38 based microstrip antenna with circular slot is designed, introducing coupling gaps
39 in order to provide higher isolation among the microstrip factors and to make cer-
40 tain mutual couplings [7, 8]. Other than the traditional periodic structure, defected
41 ground structure (DGS) has attracted a huge hobby on telecommunication because
42 of its giant applicability in antennas and microwave circuits. It is introduced in the
43 ground plane of microstrip patch antenna for improving low gain, cross-polarization,
44 and wide bandwidth. CSDGS is mainly adopted to attain the compact size of
45 microstrip antenna with ultra-wideband [9].
46 The rectangular microstrip patch antenna has been designed to WLAN applica-
47 tions. The layout of the antenna is very simple, which can be used for extensive
48 applications and in big scale [10]. The authors have provided a novel microstrip-fed
49 ultra-wideband antenna, which is capable of rejecting four bands of interference in
50 [11]. The authors have used the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) of finding out
51 the choice of an antenna from the formerly designed antennas or giving significance
52 to them based on many crucial factors together with size, bandwidth, substrate, and
53 number of notches. The authors describe how a square patch antenna with the slots
54 may be designed to acquire numerous resonant frequencies like 3.3 GHz, 3.9 GHz,
55 4.4four GHz, and 8.8 GHz in [12]. The slots are placed in the sort of way that the
56 antenna turns into a mild weight structure, which is an added advantage. In [13], the
57 two main objectives in designing an antenna like the selection of substrate material
58 among FR4, RO4003, GML1000, and RT/duroid 5880 and the appropriate form
59 selection among H-shape, E-shape, S-form, and U-shape are described. From the
60 special overall performance comparison, it is concluded that the substrate with
61 lower dielectric constant improves the bandwidth and the one with higher dielectric
62 constant complements the gain and directivity [14, 15].
63 The designed antenna is simulated for results using Ansys high-frequency struc-
64 ture simulator (HFSS)–3D electromagnetic (EM) simulation software and is ana-
65 lyzed based on the S-parameters and return loss in dB. The proposed antenna design
66 and configuration are presented in Sect. 2. The detailed parameters especially for
67 substrate and patch are also discussed in Sect. 2. In Sect. 3, simulated and experi-
68 mental results for the proposed antenna are presented and analyzed. Finally, the
A Novel Ultra-Wideband Monopole Antenna with Defected Ground Structure… 235
conclusion is presented in Sect. 4 along with the comparative result analysis fol- 69
lowed by the appropriate references. 70
2 Proposed Antenna Design and Its Configuration 71
The representation of line feed in conventional antenna is shown in Fig. 1. Figure 2 72

shows the design and analysis of the proposed microstrip patch antenna with circu- 73
lar slot. The radiating patch and feeding mechanism are printed on the top side of 74
the substrate, whereas the ground plane is printed on the bottom side. Lumped port 75
for line feeding technique is used to achieve 50 Ώ characteristics impedance. 76
Fig. 1 Representation of line feed in conventional antenna
Fig. 2 Design 1: geometry 30

and configuration of the
proposed antenna 15
(unit, mm)
15
3.4
30
3.9
12
77 UWB Monopole Antenna Design

78 An ultra-wideband patch-based microstrip antenna is designed and simulated in this
79 chapter. The design parameters are optimized and detailly investigated. The pro-
80 posed microstrip antenna is printed with the dimension of 30 × 30 mm2, FR4_epoxy
81 with the dielectric constant of 4.4, and substrate thickness of 1.6 mm. The width of
82 the microstrip feed line is fixed at 3.9 mm to achieve 50 Ώ characteristic impedance.
83 The main objective of the overall work is to enhance bandwidth, return loss, and
84 cross-polarization to improve radiation characteristics in the operation bands. The
85 proposed antenna is designed using ANSYS HFSS software. The patch is operated
86 at different frequencies: 8.46 GHz, 11.63 GHz, and 13.5 GHz, respectively. Figure 3
87 (Design 1) shows the simulated reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna with
88 the units measured in mm. The basic schematic configuration of the proposed
89 microstrip patch antenna is shown in Fig. 2.
90 2.1 Proposed Antenna Design Equation
91 The designed parameters are calculated as in [16].

92 • Width of the patch:
c
Pw
2 f0
r 1
93 2 (1)
Fig. 3 Design 1: simulated reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna

The effective dielectric constant (ɛreff) of the antenna: 94
1/ 2
1 1 h
reff r r 1 12
2 2 w
(2) 95
where 96
ɛreff = effective dielectric constant 97
ɛr = dielectric constant of the substrate 98
h = height of the dielectric substrate 99
Pw = the patch width 100
Transmission line at infinity (ΔL): 101
w
0.3 0.264
reff
h
L h 0.412
w
reff 0.258 h 0.8
(3) 102
The fringing effect is used to enhance the effective electrical length of the patch 103
longer than its physical length [17, 18]. Thus, the resonance condition depends 104
on Leff. 105
• Effective length of the patch: 106
Leff L p 2L (4)

107
• The actual length of the patch (Lp): 108
c
Lp 2 L
2 f0 reff
(5) 109
• Substrate length (Ls) [19]: 110
Ls 12h L p (6)
111
• Width of the substrate (Ws): 112
Ws 12h W (7)
113
• Length of slot (Lslot): 114
Lp
Lslot
reff
(8) 115
116 • Width of slot (Wslot):
w
= (9)
117 2
118 • Gain (G)
4Radiation Intensity Total

G (10)
Input accepted power
119
120 Defects or slots incorporated and etched on the ground plane of the microstrip
121 antenna are merely termed as defected ground structure (DGS) [20, 21]. Apart from
122 the conventional periodic structures, DGS have attracted great attention to improve
123 various parameters such as gain, return loss, cross- polarization, and bandwidth
124 [22–24]. It is mainly adopted to overcome the limitations of microstrip antennas in
125 terms of single operating frequency, low impedance bandwidth, larger size, and
126 polarization problems [25]. Also DGS helps to attain band stop characteristics and
127 to suppress higher-mode harmonics and mutual coupling [26]. The shape of DGS
128 units, the distance between two DGS units, and the distribution of the different DGS
129 are the main parameters which affect the periodic DGS. CSDGS is used to broaden
130 the impedance bandwidth of a conventional microstrip-fed monopole antenna [27,
131 28]. DGS has been integrated with probe-fed rectangular microstrip patch antenna
132 to improve polarization (cross-polarized isolation) with enhanced bandwidth
133 [29, 30].
134 In Fig. 2, the suggested antenna design is shown with three modifications. The
135 step-by-step antenna design is illustrated in Designs 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
136 3 Simulation and Experimental Results
137 In this section, the square-shaped UWB monopole antenna is constructed with
138 CSDGS and coupling gaps. This type of simulator is based on finite element method
139 (FEM) and is used to calculate return loss, bandwidth, and gain. The major advan-
140 tage of this simulator is to reduce the fabrication cost, because the best antenna is
141 obtained by internal optimization, and it would be best for further fabrication pro-
142 cess. The gain of an antenna is termed as the ratio of intensity in a given direction to
143 the radiation intensity obtained when the power accepted by the antenna was radi-
144 ated isotopically. The simulation results are presented and discussed. Figure 3
145 (Design 1) shows the simulated results of the return loss of the proposed antenna. It
146 can be seen that the proposed antenna is varied from 8.46 GHz to 11.63 GHz. The
147 return loss obtained is –35.47 dB with the gain of 4.32 dB and bandwidth of
148 5.38 GHz. Return loss with negative sign shows that the proposed antenna is not
149 affected by huge lose while transmitting the signals. The square microstrip
patch antenna has also radiated at the frequency of 13.50 GHz with the return 150
loss of –18.64 GHz, gain of 5.96 dB, and bandwidth of 5.32 GHz. The reflection 151
coefficient, which is the frequency-dependent return loss of the antenna, is presented. 152
The proposed antenna with circular slot to match the impedance steps is pre- 153
sented in Fig. 4 (Design 2). The geometry and its corresponding configuration with 154
mm as unit are also presented. Simulation results are also discussed with the return 155
loss, gain, and bandwidth in Fig. 5 (Design 2). The main advantage of introducing 156
CSDGS in square-shaped UWB monopole antenna is to attain a high return loss, 157
which reduces the transmission losses of signals. Also DGS has its own characteris- 158
tics and creates good performances of devices with its perfect geometry and size 159
[31]. The main purpose of DGS is to attain a compact antenna, in turn enhancing the 160
operating bandwidth and gain. Mutual coupling has been reduced between two net- 161
works while suppressing the higher-order harmonics and unwanted cross- 162
polarization. From the literature survey, CSDGS from the other geometries of 163
conventional DGS has an advantage of 50% size reduction when compared to 164
dumbbell-shaped defected ground structure. CSDGS can be used widely in match- 165
ing network of an amplifier. 166
The simulated results of the return loss of the proposed antenna with CSDGS are 167
presented in Fig. 5 (Design 2). The proposed antenna is varied from 8.49 GHz, 168
11.65 GHz, to 13.50 GHz. The return loss obtained is –12.91 dB with the gain of 169
5.78 dB and bandwidth of 6.8 GHz at 8.49 GHz. Return loss with negative sign 170
shows that the proposed antenna is not affected by huge lose while transmitting the 171
signals. The square patch antenna has also radiated at the frequency of 11.65 GHz 172
Fig. 4 Design 2: geometry and configuration of the proposed antenna with circular slot (unit, mm)
173 and 13.50 GHz with the return loss of –35.46 dB and –17.69 dB. The corresponding
174 gain is calculated as 4.87 dB and bandwidth of 7.05 GHz. These results are obtained
175 by introducing the coupling gaps to match the impedance steps, and the correspond-
176 ing results are presented in Fig. 5.
177 Effective capacitance and powerful inductance of the version are modified via
178 embedding the slots on the ground plane, ensuing in shifting of resonance frequency
179 to its decrease side. For this reason, compactness is done by way of using
180 DGS. Numerous researches have been suggested in this regard [32, 33]. Incorporating
181 cross-shaped defected ground structure (CSDGS) in the ground plane of the pro-
182 posed antenna is shown in Fig. 6 (Design 3). The DGS-based UWB monopole
183 antenna resonates at different frequencies, and it is influenced by the size of the
184 ground plane. A compactness of 30% is finished by the use of meandering slots
185 within the ground aircraft [31]. A cross-shaped slot included inside the ground plane
186 to achieve the miniaturization and compactness of 80% has been executed.
187 The performance parameter of the UWB monopole antenna is analyzed to
188 improve gain, bandwidth, and return loss. Figure 7 (Design 3) shows the simulated
189 results of the return loss of the proposed antenna with CSDGS and coupling gaps to
190 match the impedance steps. The proposed antenna is varied from 8.46 GHz,
191 11.63 GHz, to 13.5 GHz. The return loss obtained is –13.46 dB with the gain of
192 5.48 dB and bandwidth of 8.05 GHz at 8.46 GHz. The square microstrip patch
193 antenna has also radiated at the frequency of 11.63 GHz and 13.50 GHz with the
194 return loss of –18.64 dB and –35.47 dB. The corresponding gain is calculated as
195 6.17 dB and 6.87 dB and bandwidth as 9.6 GHz and 9.8 GHz. The geometry and
196 configuration of the proposed antenna with CSDGS at the ground plane are shown
Fig. 6 Design 3: top view, side view, and bottom view of the proposed antenna with line deed
and CSDGS

Fig. 8 Geometry and configuration of the proposed antenna with CSDGS at ground plane
(unit, mm)
Fig. 9 Simulated gain of 0

the proposed antenna 330 30
300 60
270 90
240 120
210 150
180
in Fig. 8. The reflection coefficient results are obtained by tuning the antenna param- 197
eters, and the corresponding gain results are presented in Fig. 9. 198
4 Conclusions 199
The proposed well-known antenna shows ultra-wideband behavior among 8.46 GHz 200
and 13.50 GHz frequency with improved antenna performance. A comparative anal- 201
ysis is performed and proven in Table 1 for validation of the proposed antenna in 202
modern applications for C-/X-/Ku-band, Wi-Fi, and WiMAX applications. 203
The comparative study is executed in terms of the size of antenna structure, sub- 204
strate material, impedance bandwidth, and top benefit of the antenna. The imped- 205
ance bandwidth (11.63 GHz)/9.8 GHz of the proposed antenna is greater than the 206
impedance bandwidth of the antennas pronounced in [16, 17, 19, 20] via 800 MHz, 207
750 MHz, 1800 MHz, and 390 MHz, respectively, and lesser than that of the antenna 208
suggested in [18] by way of 200 MHz. From the comparative assessment of the peak 209
gain (dB) between the proposed antenna and mentioned antennas, it is able to be 210
located that peak gain of the proposed patch antenna is extra than that of the anten- 211
nas mentioned from [16] to [20]. The comparative analysis of the proposed layout 212
suggests that the proposed antenna is novel in terms of extremely wide bandwidth 213
functionality 9.8 GHz and applicable gain 6.87 dB. The reflection coefficient of the 214
proposed antenna simulated using HFSS meets the design requirements. Good per- 215
formance in terms of return loss and cross-polarization to improve radiation charac- 216
teristics is obtained in the operation bands. The line feed is introduced to avoid the 217
surface-wave radiation and also supports for attaining good impedance matching. 218
Further optimization can make the antenna to work on other applications too. 219
Therefore, the proposed antenna is anticipated to be a very good candidate in diverse 220
Wi-Fi systems. 221
Table 1 Comparative result analysis t1.1
Resonant frequency/bandwidth Gain t1.2

References Antenna size, mm2(substrate) GHz dB t1.3
[16] 30 × 28 = 840 (FR4 epoxy, ɛr = 4.6) (3–11)/8 4.67 t1.4
[17] 24 × 25 = 600 (FR4 epoxy, ɛr = 4.6) (3.19–11.24)/8.05 2.6 t1.5
[18] 25 × 25 = 625 (RT/duroid 5880, ɛr = 2.2) (3–12)/9 5 t1.6
[19] 48 × 50 = 2400 (Glass , PTFE, ɛr = 2.5) (1.5–8.5)/7 4 t1.7
[20] 3.14 × 202 = 1256.64 (Glass, PTFE, ɛr = (4.34–12.75)/8.41 3.2 t1.8
2.4) t1.9
Proposed 30 × 30 = 900 (FR4 epoxy, ɛr = 4.4) (8.6–14.28)/9.8 6.87 t1.10
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Design and Analysis of DGS-Based Fractal 1
Antenna for Metrological Satellite 2
Vimlesh Singh, Amit Kumar, and Mahesh Kumar Aghwariya 3
1 Introduction 4
Advancement in wireless technology demands integrated compact size antenna 5

with high data transmission rate for long-term evolution (LTE) in smart mobile 6
phone applications [1, 2]. To design the compact and multiband antenna, fractal ring 7
radiator, and CPW feed monopole, defected ground structure is one of the few pre- 8
ferred techniques in early research. Defected ground structure in antenna geometry 9
helps in the reduction of the volume of the antenna element by exciting ground 10
mode. Naturally, existing geometries have similarities; this concept is used to 11
achieve multiband characteristics in Minkowski, Koch, Hilbert, and Sierpinski in 12
the early reported antenna geometry for wireless application [3–6]. In convectional 13
antenna design, alphabet- and loop-based geometries are used to design the antenna 14
in current research work [19–20]. In these antenna geometries, defects are intro- 15
duced in the ground plane for modification of a characteristic parameter of antenna 16
circuit element to improve bandwidth, miniaturization, harmonic suppression, gain, 17
and efficiency [20]. 18
V. Singh (*)
Manav Rachna International Institute of Research and Studies, Faridabad, Haryana, India
e-mail: vimlesh.fet@mriu.edu.in
A. Kumar · M. K. Aghwariya
THDC Institute of Hydropower Engineering and Technology,
Tehri (Garhwal), Uttarakhand, India

Switzerland AG 2022
248 V. Singh et al.
19 2 Defected Ground Structure
20 Microstrip line antenna designed by conventional techniques had limitations like

21 single resonance frequency, large size of radiating element, low impedance band-
22 width, less gain, and polarization-related issues. Various techniques have been
23 reported early to enhance the characteristic parameters of microstrip line antennas.
24 This technique includes:
25 1. Stacking
26 2. Electromagnetic bandgap (EBG)
27 3. Frequency-selective surfaces (FSS)
28 4. Metamaterial
29 5. Photonic bandgap (PBG) and feeding methods to radiating patch
30 The introduction of defected ground structure (DGS) in radiating patch improves
31 characteristic parameter of microstrip line antenna by suppressing the higher har-
32 monics, cross-polarization, and mutual coupling between the elements of the
33 antenna structure [7–9].
34 Introducing slots in the ground surface of the antenna element is referred to as
35 defected ground structure. This embedded slot in the ground structure changes the
36 transmission line parameter of the ground surface of the antenna. The slot in the
37 ground structure modifies the arrangement of passive components like resistor,
38 capacitor, and inductor in the ground plane of the antenna. Defect in the ground
39 plane also modifies the line parameter of the antenna, which overall impacts the
40 effective LC parameter of the microstrip line antenna [18, 21]. Table 1 shows the
41 advantages and disadvantages of defected ground structure in the early reposted
42 research work. The top antenna radiating element has an embedded passive compo-
43 nent in it. Babinet’s principle helps to draw equivalent circuit model of the antenna
44 in respect to the metallic structure. Any defect in terms of slot created in the ground
45 plane is reciprocal to the radiating element. The full-wave analysis is one of the
46 modeling techniques used for defected ground structures, but this fails because the
47 physical dimensions of the radiating structure and the position of the defect in the
Table 1. DGS advantages, disadvantage, and application t1.1
Reference Shape Advantage Disadvantage Application t1.2

[7], 2001 Dumbbell Simple design Only one stop Band stop filter t1.3
structure analyses band t1.4
[8], 2002 Vertical and Minimize the size Dispersion As matching circuit t1.5
horizontal Periodic for amplifier t1.6
defects t1.7
[9], 2003 Fractal DGS Wideband Sharp cutoff Band stop filter t1.8
characteristics t1.9
[12], U- and V-slot Q-factor Only one stop Band stop filter t1.10
2006 band t1.11
[13], Cross-structure UWB and sharp Band pass filter Low pass filter t1.12
2006 rejection t1.13
Design and Analysis of DGS-Based Fractal Antenna for Metrological Satellite 249
ground plane are not explained. Another finding reported from early geometry also 48
explains why the current path in rectangular parts of dumbbell-shaped DGS 49
increases, changing the effective inductance and capacitance of the microstrip line 50
antenna. The two rectangular slots of dumbbell-shaped DGS are responsible for 51
adding capacitive effect. The stepwise analysis shows that a thin rectangular 52
defected slot connecting both rectangular-shaped defects added inductance to the 53
total impedance of the radiating element. Due to this LC circuit, resonance occurred 54
at certain frequencies [10, 11]. 55
3 Fractal Structure 56
Mandelbrot first coined the concept of fractal in 1980 for geometries that exist in 57
nature. A mathematical model of the complex structure was introduced. It’s a physi- 58
cal system to define the irregular geometrical shape of nature. This geometry defines 59
unlimited methods to explain, measure, and evaluate the natural phenomena of bio- 60
mimicry. The term “fractal” is described by a set “P” such that [7, 14]: 61
1 . “P” geometry with clear structure deals in minute scale. 62

2. “P” can be defined by irregular structure which is not represented by orthodox 63
patterns. 64
3. “P” is simple, self-copy, and recursive. 65
4. The size of “P” is larger than its physical dimension. 66
Fractal geometry can be represented by numerous mathematical dimensions like 67

self-similarity and Euclidean-Hausdorff and by random function. Fractal Hausdorff 68
dimension is the fraction of nature’s Euclidean geometry [3, 4, 14]. 69
To define fractal, let “α” be a non-empty subset of Euclidean space of 70
n-dimensional; then, the diameter of “α” is represented as [7]: 71
α = Sup { m − n : m,n  α } 72
i.e., the furthest distance from point α. 73

If {α i} is a set of fixed elements at max δ and set P: 74
∞
P ⊂ ∪α i
i =1 75
For 0 < αi ≤ δ: 76
and ( α i ) = δ Cover of P 77
Let function P be the subset for xn and τ the positive value. Here δ> 0: 78
250 V. Singh et al.
∞ 
Hτδ ( P ) = inf ∑ α i : {α i} is δ cover of α 
τ
79  i =1 
80 “P” represents the set of diameters for max value of δ to minimize the sum of δth
81 times of function diameter. The function δ decreases to the P minimum.
82 So, infimum Hτδ (P) is incremented, which approaches δ → 0.
83 Hence,
H δ ( P ) = lim Hτδ ( P ) x n limits the value for subset P from 0 to∞.

84 δ →0
85 So, P is Hausdorff evaluation of τ dimensional function of Hδ(P).
86 If β is part of α, then:
87 H δ ( β ) = H δ ( P )
88 Assume {αi} is a sample collection of predetermined disjoint Borel set.
 ∞  ∞
Then H δ  ∪Pi  = ∑H δ (α i ) .
89  i =1  i =1
90 Hausdorff method represents 1D, 2D, and 3D geometry, length, area, volume,
91 etc. For any subset of xn, there is n-dimensional Hausdorff measure:
92 H n ( P ) = b n volumen ( α )
93 where
1 
bn = π n / 2 / 2 n  n !
94 2 
95 The volume of n-dimensional sphere of diameter is similar for n= q:
96 H q ( P ) = b q Vol ( P )
97 P is the m-dimensional sub-main fold for xn.

98 To define the fractal structure, Hausdorff measure is one technique to represent
99 random geometry present in nature. To draw fractal by scaling “δ scale measure”
100 technique, use an irregularity set.
101 The function A is curve on plane, which is represented as Aδ (P). The number of
102 steps in division set of length δ for transversal of P:
103 A δ ( P ) ~ b δm
104 b & m = constant, A has “dimension” m. The logarithmic of function A is:

LogA δ ( P ) ≅ Logb – mLogδ 105
The dimension is defined as: 106
log Aδ ( P )
m = Lim lim

δ →0 −Logδ 107
The function defines self-similarity of basic geometry in respect to scaling factor. 108
The geometry scale if A copies of base geometry are extent down by δ function then 109
self-similarity will be m. It is useful to take natural and specific object as fractal 110
antennas. Numerous techniques for measuring fractal are box-counting dimension, 111
uniform cantor set, mass distribution principle, and Fourier transform method for 112
scaled down dimension of measuring function. 113
The shapes occur in nature, so it is not easy to measure fractal geometry. The P 114
is subset of plane of density P at t is defined as: 115
lim
(
Area P ∩ Tc ( t )

C →0 Area ( Tc ( t ) ) 116
lim
(
Area t ∩ Tc ( t )
C →0 2
c
π 
2 117
where Tc(t) is the closed circle of diameter c and t is the center, defined by classical 118
theorem. 119
Fractal geometry can be achieved by a product of structure using the product of 120
Cartesian functions. The product function is formulated by: 121
Β × A = {( a,b )  xn + m;,a  β;,b  P}

122
In Cartesian function, the product of β is the subset of xn, and P is subset of βm. 123
The intersection of two fractals occur often in new fractals. This can be done by 124
relating the dimension of intersection to the original set of fractals. For this, 125
Hausdorff dimensions are used for intersection. For this, the function can be repre- 126
sented as: 127
dim H ( β ∩ σ ( P ) ≥ dim H β + dim H P − n

128
where σ = range for group of transformation. 129

The antenna presented in this chapter is designed by the concept of fractal for the 130
radiating element, and defects are introduced in the ground plane to analyze the 131
impact of defect on antenna parameter. To achieve fractal concept, rectangular patch 132
252 V. Singh et al.
Fig. 1 Different views of the proposed antenna
133 is taken as base from which parabola shape is subtracted. This process is repeated
134 for three iterations.
135 4 Proposed Fractal Antenna
136 The antenna proposed in this chapter is shown in Figure 1 designed by the fractal
137 concept of space filling. The antenna is simulated for FR4 substrate with thickness
138 of 1.6 mm, relative permittivity of 4.4, and tangent loss of substrate of 0.002 by
139 38micron technology. The proposed geometry is simulated by CST microwave stu-
140 dio simulator; its results for S11 are shown in Fig. 1a–c[15].
141 The antenna proposed is designed by fractal concept of space filling. To achieve
142 the fractal concept, start with a rectangular patch, and then remove the parabola
143 structure from it. The same process is repeated for three iterations to achieve multi-
144 band characteristics of fractal antenna. The dimension of each patch and parabola is
145 shown in Table 2.
146 5 Result and Discussion
147 The proposed fractal antenna is simulated for 2 GHz–8 GHz frequency with and
148 without defected ground structure. The reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna
149 geometry is shown in Fig. 2a for without DGS and Fig. 2b with DGS. U- and
a 0
–5
–10
–15
–20
dB
–25
–30
–35
–40
S11 Without DGS
–45
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency in GHz
b 0
–5
–10
–15
–20
dB
–25
–30
–35 S11 Without DGS

S11 With DGS
–40
S11 with & Without DGS
–45
2 3 4 5 6 7
Frequency in GHz
Fig. 2 S11 with and without defective ground in fractal antenna
T-shaped slots are introduced in the ground plane of the proposed antenna structure 150
to produce defect in the ground. 151
Far-field pattern of the proposed antenna is shown in Fig. 3a–e for frequency of 152
operation of 3.6 GHz, 4.6 GHz, 5.6 GHz, 6.2–6.8 GHz, and 7.7 GHz. 153
254 V. Singh et al.
Table 2. Dimensions of the proposed fractalantenna t2.1
Antenna t2.2
structure Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3 t2.3
Patch Inner parabola Patch Inner Patch Inner t2.4
parabola parabola t2.5
Dimension 30x22mm2 Xradius=14mmYradius 21x14mm2 Xradius 15x8mm2 Xradius =7mm t2.6
=10mm =10mm Yradius =3mm t2.7
Yradius t2.8
=6mm t2.9
Ground Substrate Feed Defected DGS DGS t2.10
plane plane ground (U– (T-thickness) t2.11
structure thickness) t2.12
36x52mm2 36x52mm2 X=4mm & 36x52mm2 2mm 4mm t2.13
Y =28mm t2.14
Fig. 3 Polar plot graph of the proposed antenna with defected ground structure. (a) 3.7 GHz. (b)
4.5 GHz. (c) 5.6 GHz. (d) 6.2–6.8 GHz. (e) 7.7 GHz
154 6 Conclusion
155 The proposed antenna claims multiband characteristics of the fractal antenna.
156 Defected ground structure with fractal concept resonance appears at a frequency of
157 3.6 GHz used for fixed satellite communication, 4.5 GHz for space to earth com-
158 munication, 5.6 GHz for radiolocation and meteorological aids, 6.2 GHz–6.8 GHz
for fixed satellite communication and radio devices and fixed microwave applica- 159
tions, and 7.7 GHz for fixed meteorological satellite application [17]. The proposed 160
antenna is most suited for remote sensing applications. The fractal antenna designed 161
in the chapter is compact in size; has a wide bandwidth, thanks to the introduction 162
of defected ground structure; and has multiband characteristics. 163
References 164
1. Anguera, J., Andújar, A., Garcia, C.: Multiband and small coplanar antenna system for wire- 165
less handheld devices. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 61(7), 3782–3789 (2013) 166
2. Anguera, J., Andújar, A., Huynh, M.C., Orlenius, C., Picher, C., Puente, C.: Advances in 167
antenna technology for wireless handheld devices. Int. J Antennas Propag. 838364, 1–25 (2013) 168
3. Weng, L.H., Guo, Y.C., Shi, X.W., Chen, X.Q.: An overview on defected ground structure. 169
Prog. Electromagn. Res. B. 7, 173–189 (2008) 170
4. Ghatak, R., Mishra, R.K., Poddar, D.R.: Perturbed Sierpinski carpet antenna with CPW feed for 171
IEEE 802.11 a/b WLAN application. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 7, 742–744 (2008) 172
5. Liu, W.X., Yin, Y.Z., Xu, W.L.: Compact self-similar triple band antenna for WLAN/WiMAX 173
applications. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 54(4), 1084–1087 (2012) 174
6. Abutarboush, H.F., Nasif, H., Nilavalan, R., Cheung, W.: Multiband and wideband monopole 175
antenna for GSM900 and other wireless applications. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 11, 176
539–554 (2012) 177
7. Ahn, D., Park, J.S., Kim, C.-S., Kim, J., Qian, Y., Itoh, T.: A design of the low-pass filter using 178
the novel microstrip defected ground structure. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 49(1), 179
86–93 (2001) 180
8. Lim, J.S., Lee, Y.T., Kim, C.S., Ahn, D., Nam, S.: A vertically periodic defected ground 181
structure and its application in reducing the size of microwave circuits. IEEE Microw. Wirel. 182
Components Lett. 12(12), 479–481 (2002) 183
9. Liu, H.W., Li, Z.F., Sun, X.W.: A novel fractal defected ground structure and its application to 184
the low-pass filter. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 39(6), 453–456 (2003) 185
10. Webster, J.G. (ed.): Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, p. 2013. 186
Wiley, Hoboken (2001) 187
11. Fujimoto, K., Morishita, H.: Modern Small Antennas, Chapter 8. Cambridge University Press, 188
Cambridge (2013) 189
12. Woo, D.J., Lee, T.K., Lee, J.W., Pyo, C.-S., Choi, W.-K.: Novel U-slot and V-slot DGSs 190
for bandstop filter with improved Q factor. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 54(6), 191
2840–2847 (2006) 192
13. Chen, H.-J., Huang, T.H., Chang, C.S., et al.: A novel cross shape DGS applied to design ultra- 193
wide stopband low-pass filters. IEEE Microw. Wirel. Components Lett. 16(5), 252–254 (2006) 194
14. Werner, D.H., Ganguly, S.: An overview of fractal antenna engineering research. IEEE
195
Antennas Propag. Mag. 45, 38–57 (2003) 196
15. Aghwariya, M.K., Singhal, P.K.: Dual director planar microstrip Yagi-Uda antenna for X-band. 197
Int. J. Electron. Comput. Commun. Technol. 3, 3–25 (2012) 198
Part V 1
Importance and Uses of Microstrip 2
Antenna in IoT 3
Applications of Microstrip Antenna in IoT 1
Amit Kumar, Mahesh Kumar Agwariya, and Vimlesh Singh 2
1 Introduction 3
Internet of things (IoT) is a technology that brings together all types of radio mod- 4
ules, sensors/actuators, batteries, MEMS devices, harvesting technologies, and, 5
most importantly, the final devices that use antennas. The antenna depends on the 6
specific application frequency range, transmit power, etc. Unlike wireless networks 7
such as 5G, IEEE 802.11ax, and WiGig, which use a large amount of continuous 8
spectrum space, IoT networks transmit small amounts of data across satellites, 9
meshes, and/or various network topologies. In most cases, the task of establishing 10
such a link is achieved by some omnidirectional antennas, such as wired antennas, 11
rubber ducks, patches, whips, PCBs, etc. Many IoT advancement kits such as 12
Arduino GSM and Qualcomm IoE use similar antenna structures for GPS, Bluetooth, 13
and Wi-Fi communication. Certain applications, such as medical local area net- 14
works (MBAN) and wearable electronic devices, also require the device and antenna 15
surfaces to be small in order to meet the requirements. This persuaded the need to 16
develop antennas for terminal equipment and meet the requirements of specific 17
applications. 18
IoT antennas can be classified according to their operating range or application 19
range. Table 1 below shows some antennas and their frequency bands frequently 20
used in IoT applications. Antenna technology has affected the scope of providing 21
permanent communication media in aerospace markets [1]. Many companies are 22
using different methods not previously envisaged to develop antenna devices. 23
A. Kumar (*) · M. K. Agwariya

THDC Institute of Hydropower Engineering and Technology, Tehri, Uttarakhand, India
V. Singh
Manav Rachna International Institute of Research and Studies, Faridabad, Haryana, India
e-mail: vimlesh.fet@mriu.edu.in

Switzerland AG 2022
260 A. Kumar et al.
Table 1 Frequency bands and IoT applications t1.1
Application Technology Frequency band t1.2

Smart homes Wi-Fi 2.4 GHz t1.3
Bluetooth 2.4 GHz t1.4
GPS 1575.42 MHz, 1227.6 MHz, t1.5
1176.45 MHz t1.6
Zigbee 915 MHz, 2.4 GHz t1.7
Z-wave 2.4 GHz t1.8
Medical MBAN/WBAN IEEE 400 MHz, 800 MHz, 900 MHz, t1.9
802.15.6 2.36 GHz, 2.4 GHz t1.10
Smart agriculture, smart LoRa 433 MHz, 868 MHz, 915 MHz t1.11
cities Sigfox 868 MHz, 902 MHz t1.12
24 Depending on the different radio frequency bands, there can be many antenna types
25 to choose from, and each frequency band requires a different type of antenna.
26 In modern wireless communication systems, printed antennas have been selected
27 as the first choice. The architecture required to manufacture these printed antennas
28 is different from the hardware already used in smart phones, laptops, etc.
29 2 Microstrip Patch Antenna
30 The microstrip antenna has actually a very simple configuration, consisting of a

31 ground plane, a dielectric material with a dielectric constant of εr, substrate thick-
32 ness of h, and a patch printed on the other side. If the shape is rectangular, it is
33 known as a rectangular microstrip antenna. If the shape is circular, it will be a circu-
34 lar microstrip antenna, and if it is a triangular shape, it will be a triangular microstrip
35 antenna. This thing is actually known as substrate. You might have seen a printed
36 circuit board inside your mobile phone or TV or any electronic gadget; it is very
37 similar to how we have a printed circuit board with a ground plane or copper on one
38 side. Then, there is a dielectric material and, on top of that, copper, and in fact, if
39 you look at some of these microcontrollers, you will see that they have so many
40 parallel lines going through them, but for a microstrip antenna, it is a very simple
41 matter. Just keep the ground plane at the bottom as it is, so do not etch it out. So, that
42 will be the case for the majority of the microstrip antenna, and the top can be circu-
43 lar, triangular, etc.
3 Wearable Gadgets for Remote Health Care 44
Wearable gadgets play an important role in IoT and biomedical applications. 45

Nowadays, antennas are most commonly used in wearable devices. Different types 46
of antennas are used for such gadgets as microstrip antennas, slot antennas, printed 47
loop antennas, and PIFA. The electrical performance of these gadgets highly 48
depends on the compactness of the antennas integrated into them. The most com- 49
monly used antenna for this purpose is the microstrip antennas. The various charac- 50
teristics of microstrip antenna make it suitable for 5G communication, medical 51
systems, and IoT. These features are: 52
• Flexibility of the structure 53

• Compactness 54
• Relatively low cost 55
• Lightness in weight 56
Microstrip antennas are part of printed antennas. Etching of this antenna is done 57
on a dielectric substrate having low losses. This antenna can be integrated with vari- 58
ous types of wearable devices, such as watches and belts. Wearable technology 59
provides useful and novel tools for medical centers. Hospitals, medical centers, and 60
patients are seeing a wireless wearable body area network (WBAN) as one of the 61
potential choices. The important aspect of wearable devices is that they have 62
improved the physiological response of patients using them. These devices provide 63
real-time feedback on the patient’s health condition; hence, it will be easier to use 64
this technology in making personalized devices according to the need of the patient 65
[2, 10]. The medical parameters measured by these gadgets are heartbeat, body 66
temperature, blood pressure, and sweat rate, hence helping in monitoring the patient. 67
If the patient that is to be monitored is elder, then it is very important to make the 68
device easily blend with the habits of the patient and not interfere with the daily life 69
tasks of the patient. Monitoring should be done in such a way that it is not bother- 70
some to the patient. To realize this, one approach is to integrate the wearable antenna 71
into fabric that can be worn by patients [3, 4]. 72
Starting with these ideas, the following are two different ways to make wearable 73
antennas: the first method is to combine a non-woven conductive fabric with a cut- 74
ting machine to shape the fabric, and the second is to work on how to make an 75
embroidered thread. Based on the results of extensive research by various research- 76
ers, it is proven that manufacturing techniques are highly flexible and can be used to 77
obtain inexpensive wearable antenna designed for particular use in the near future. 78
As shown in Fig. 1, we can gain a better understanding of the above concept. 79
262 A. Kumar et al.
Fig. 1 Wearable gadget for remote health care
80 4 In-Vehicles for Safety
81 Global positioning system (GPS) technology and multiple modulated signals over
82 different frequencies are used by autonomous vehicles. These vehicles have sensors
83 that give a 360-degree field of view that further helps in object detection, collision
84 damage, and better view. Traffic congestion is one of the biggest problems faced by
85 people in a metropolitan city; this can turn into a life-threatening situation for emer-
86 gency vehicles such as ambulances and fire trucks. Since there are no rules or dif-
87 ferent lanes for emergency vehicles, traffic congestion can lead to an increase in the
88 number of deaths due to delay in medical aid or any action. For managing this chaos
89 in any city, a better traffic management system needs to be implemented. The safety
90 of people depends on the efficiency of the traffic management system, which can
91 reduce the chances of death. A new approach to solve this problem is using a
92 microstrip antenna and interfacing it with mobiles of drivers with the help of
93 IoT. During the designing and development of the antenna, its radiation characteris-
94 tics should be taken into consideration which best suits the emergency vehicle. An
95 alert message is sent to the other drivers so that they can be alerted about the coming
96 emergency vehicle, and a similar message can be sent to the traffic control office so
97 that the duration of stopping of vehicles can be varied through traffic lights.
98 Researchers have proposed to design an emergency vehicle alert for the other vehi-
99 cles. The characteristics of microstrip antennas such as omnidirectional gain, com-
100 pact size, lightweight, and relatively low cost are taken into consideration and used
101 as a transmitter that is installed on emergency vehicles [5].
102 The driver manually operates the transmitter and sends the alert to the drivers of
103 other vehicles. The receiver antenna which is present on the other vehicles and traf-
104 fic light detects this alert indication message and acts accordingly. The other vehi-
105 cles will make a way for the emergency vehicle to pass smoothly, and less traffic
106 congestion will be made. On the other hand, the traffic signal controller will regu-
107 late the duration of the signal, leading to less time taken by the emergency vehicle
108 to cross the signal and reach the destination. We can further modify this prototype
109 by interfacing it with the mobiles of the drivers who are in the nearby local area of
the emergency vehicles. An alert can be sent to their mobile. We can use the global 110
positioning system (GPS) for the same. The design of this prototype consists of a 111
microstrip antenna that acts as a transmitter in emergency vehicles and as a receiver 112
in other vehicles. When the radiation pattern of the transmitting antenna and receiv- 113
ing antenna coincides, the microcontroller is triggered and is made to perform the 114
task of sending the alert message to the other vehicles and traffic signal controller, 115
which further act and operate accordingly. 116
The high gain of the microstrip antenna is extensively used in this application, 117
which helps in the transmission of the information to its destination correctly. The 118
presence of the interfaces will not affect the performance of the antenna. This traffic 119
management prototype can turn out to be a changing point in handling the traffic 120
congestion and chaos during the peak hours of the city, which in turn can save pre- 121
cious time and reduce the risk of deaths (Fig. 2). 122
5 Sensor Network Antennas 123
Sensor network antennas are used in monitoring the physical and environmental 124
conditions such as temperature, pressure, pollutants, motion, and vibration of winds. 125
Wireless sensor network has thousands of sensor nodes integrated into them. It is 126
basically a network of sensors. These antennas will analyze the real-time condi- 127
tions, and these can then be accessed in real time in mobile or computer with the 128
help of IoT technology. 129
For monitoring a large area, this system proves to be good, effective, and effi- 130
cient. Due to extensive research in the field of microstrip antennas, it is now possible 131
Fig. 2 Network connectivity for vehicle safety

264 A. Kumar et al.
132 to implement antenna arrays in a very compact space. These are placed on each
133 node of the wireless sensor network. The use of advanced ratio-time array process-
134 ing technology combined with wireless sensor networks has proven to significantly
135 improve the overall network performance [6]. The sensor nodes are installed over an
136 area, and that area is continuously examined and inspected. When any change takes
137 place in any parameters such as temperature or pressure, it is noticed and recorded.
138 This helps in monitoring the area, and authority is continuously updated about all
139 the parameters. A wireless sensor is basically an emerging area in which a number
140 of sensor nodes are used to deployed to perform data gathering task; this involves
141 certain applications like health-related or monitoring applications, battlefield appli-
142 cations, and various other recent trends involving underwater sensor networks,
143 social networking with integration with sensor network, etc. Sensor nodes are small
144 devices that can be collectively used to monitor a large area like a field. This collec-
145 tion is called the sensor network. The main purpose of the sensor network is to
146 optimize energy and maximize the lifetime of the network. Communication mod-
147 ules and sensing modules are the components that together form sensor nodes. In
148 the case of the sensor network, they are battery-based devices, so the battery is the
149 source of power. The diverse types of applications can be used for tracking an object
150 in a particular terrain and can be used for medical purposes, health care, space appli-
151 cation, agriculture, and so on [7].
152 6 Smart Home
153 Smart home is a building in which all the appliances and devices automatically
154 complete the task without any human intervention. Smart home has all the equip-
155 ment, which includes a refrigerator, AC, computers, TVs, lighting, washers, and all
156 other things needed to run a home smoothly. These devices are connected to the
157 main central unit which can be a mobile unit. The main requirement is the avail-
158 ability of Internet cloud services (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Smart Home

A combination of antenna and IoT is used for designing the basic structure of 159
smart home. A person who has control of the mobile unit can easily operate and 160
control the appliances from a very faraway place also. For example, whenever a 161
person will leave the parking lot of the office, the AC of the smart home will be 162
turned on so that when she will reach home, she will be welcomed to a temperature 163
suited for her. The following are the advantages provided by the smart home: 164
• Energy efficiency 165

• Low cost of operation 166
• Convenient to use 167
• Saves time, money, and energy 168
Due to modernization and low-cost achievement, the smart home concept is 169
being accepted at a good pace. A smart home is embedded with all the sensors 170
required for continuously measuring the conditions of the home such as tempera- 171
ture, humidity, and light, so that a real-time value can be measured at any time. The 172
data is made available to the user anytime and anywhere. A smart home should have 173
a smooth-running Internet connection through a Wi-Fi router placed inside the 174
home. All home appliances are managed by a cloud service, which is hosted on 175
cloud infrastructure. This service enables the user to control the smart actuators, 176
which are in turn connected to the home appliances. To activate an actuator, we need 177
a digital write command. The basic function of smart actuators is to adjust the oper- 178
ational system on turning things on or off. The other functions of actuators include 179
modulating the change in flow condition and emergency shutdown. 180
Access to the smart home is allowed only when a person’s identification attri- 181
butes match the one present in the database; otherwise, access is denied. Cloud 182
services collect this data and process it. Some of the techniques are fingerprint, face 183
recognition systems which are generally present in mobile phones, and RFID. So 184
the basic components of the smart home include sensors, Wi-Fi facility, cloud ser- 185
vices, and actuators [8, 9]. 186
In a smart home, other than the appliances, there are other applications as well 187
such as smoke detector, water leakage, and its prevention. This application can 188
prove to be one of the most adapted ones in the near future. 189
Acknowledgments We are thankful to the Department of Electronics and Communication 190

Engineering THDC- Institute of Hydropower Engineering and Technology, Tehri, for providing us 191
the opportunity and necessary help to complete the study of the chapter. We also want to acknowl- 192
edge Dr. Anamika Kashyap from ICAR- NIPB New Delhi for her help and support during the study. 193
References 194
1. Muneer, B., Shaikh, F.K., Zhu, Q.: An RF and microwave aspect of IoT. Chapter 9. In: Antenna 195
for IoT Application, IGI Global, USA, pp. 180–192 (2020) 196
2. Murali Krishna, P., Padma Priya, K.: Remote wireless health care monitoring system using 197
ZigBee. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. 1, 1–4 (2012) 198
266 A. Kumar et al.
199 3. Majumder, S., Mondal, T., Deen, M.: Wearable sensors for remote health monitoring. Sensors.
200 17(1), 130 (2017)
201 4. Osman, M.A.R., Abd Rahim, M.K., Samsuri, N.A., Salim, H.A.M., Ali, M.F.: Embroidered
202 fully textile wearable antenna for medical monitoring applications. Prog. Electromagn. Res.
203 117, 321–337 (2011)
204 5. Abishek, E.B., Raja, A.V.P., Kumar, K.P.C., Stephen, A.C., Raaza, A.: Study and analysis of
205 conformal antennas for vehicular communication applications. ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 12(8),
206 2428–2433 (2017)
207 6. Aghwariya, M.K., Singhal, P.K.: Dual director planar microstrip Yagi-Uda antenna for X-band.
208 Int. J. Electron. Comput. Commun. Technol. 3, 3–25 (2012)
209 7. Nakamura, R., Hadama, H.: Target localization using multi-static UWB sensor for indoor mon-
210 itoring system. In: 2017 IEEE Topical Conference on Wireless Sensors and Sensor Networks
211 (WiSNet), Phoenix, AZ, USA, pp. 37–40 (2017 January)
212 8. Viani, F., Rocca, P., Oliveri, G., Trinchero, D., Massa, A.: Localization, tracking, and imaging
213 of targets in wireless sensor networks: an invited review. Radio Sci. 46, RS5002 (2011)
214 9. Chen, M., Wan, J., Li, F.: Machine-to-Machine Communications: KSII Transactions on
215 Internet and Information Systems, Architectures, Standards and Applications. 6, 480–497
216 (2012 February)
217 10. Katoch, S., Jotwani, H., Pani, S., Rajawa, A.: A compact dual band antenna for lOT appli-
218 cations. In: IEEE Global Conference on Signal and Information Processing (Global SIP)
219 Symposium on Cognitive Radios and Networks, Atlanta, pp. 1170–1174 (2014 December)
Design of High Gain and Low Side Lobe 1
Smart Antenna Array for IoT Applications 2
on Human Monitoring 3
Mihir Narayan Mohanty, Shaktijeet Mahapatra, Sarmistha Satrusallya, 4

and Amit Kant Pandit 5
1 Introduction 6
The need to monitor human activities and health has led to an increasing number of 7
devices being owned. With the power and bandwidth continuing to be costly 8
resources, it becomes imperative that these devices connect to Internet access points 9
through a smart antenna system. The smart antenna system can enhance the gain by 10
exploiting the antenna array and direct the beam toward the specific user using a 11
DSP running adaptive algorithms. Wideband smart antennas for wireless communi- 12
cation systems can be realized using (1) space-time signal processing, (2) spatial- 13
frequency signal processing, and (3) spatial signal processing (beamforming) [1]. 14
A switched beam system or phased beam system has a beam-switching hybrid 15
coupler with a phase difference in the output of the arms and the antenna array [2]. 16
In this system, highly sensitive multiple fixed beams are formed. After the signal 17
strength is detected, one from the several fixed beams is chosen, and switching 18
between beams caters to the changing demands in the sector. Using an adaptive 19
beamforming technique or adaptive array technique, it becomes possible to direct 20
maximum radiation toward the desired mobile user and to introduce nulls at inter- 21
fering positions [3]. 22
The artificial neural networks (ANN) have been extensively used in modeling of 23
various systems, time series analysis, pattern classification and recognition, signal 24
processing, and design of control systems. ANNs tend to reduce the errors very fast 25
M. N. Mohanty (*) · S. Mahapatra · S. Satrusallya

Department of ECE, ITER, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed to be University,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
e-mail: mihirmohanty@soa.ac.in
A. K. Pandit
Department of ECE, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Switzerland AG 2022
268 M. N. Mohanty et al.
26 by circumventing tedious calculations and modeling the expected behavior of the

27 system through supervised learning [4].
28 In this work, we propose a neuro-computational model to predict the optimal
29 number of antenna elements and the optimal spacing between them in a linear array.
30 This array can then be used as a part of the smart antenna system at the base station.
31 The smart antenna directs the beam toward requesting human activity tracking
32 device so that data transfer may take place without any interference.
33 The paper is further organized as follows: in Sect. 2, some recent related works
34 are discussed; in Sect. 3, the system design is discussed; results and discussions are
35 presented in Sect. 4; Sect. 5 concludes the findings of this work. The works that
36 have been referred to have been listed in the reference section.
37 2 Related Works
38 The use of a variable-step-size normalized least mean square algorithm selection,

39 to control the antenna array for beamforming, elementand power management is
40 shown in [5]. A comparative study of the performance of hybrid algorithm-based
41 techniques for beamforming by the adaptive antenna array is presented in [6]. The
42 use of chaotic beamforming adaptive algorithm for the synthesis of the radiation
43 pattern of the antenna array, enabling the antenna array’s radiation pattern to adapt
44 faster, reduce noise, and improve tracking, is presented in [7]. A spatiotemporal
45 approach to improve the speed and performance of least mean squares, normalized
46 least mean squares, and variable step-size least mean squares algorithms is pro-
47 posed in [8]. The direction of arrival of the source was estimated using the MUSIC
48 algorithm and selected the beam closest to the desired user by a switched beam
49 system. The influence of least mean squares, recursive least squares, and normalized
50 least mean squares algorithms has been discussed and compared in [9]. An adaptive
51 beamforming algorithm that steered radiation pattern nulls toward interfering signal
52 directions and achieved the desired side lobe level in [10]. Adaptive beamforming
53 for the smart antenna uses a normalized constant modulus algorithm and considered
54 blind processing on 16-point QAM data in [11]. The changes in the least Mean
55 squares algorithm so that it converges at a faster rate than conventional LMS and
56 hence becomes suitable for practical applications are proposed in [12]. A robust and
57 improved null-widening approach combining adaptive variable diagonal loading
58 and covariance matrix taper is presented in [13]. A Lagrange programming neural
59 network for a phase-only antenna array beam former is proposed in [14]. It was
60 found that the array backed by the proposed algorithm had good generalization abil-
61 ity with a simpler network structure. An approach of synthesis of the concentric
62 circular antenna array for improving far-field radiation characteristics uses moth
63 flame optimization and achieved side lobe levels less than −27 dB in [15]. Various
64 analytical techniques of adaptive beamforming systems, level of system perfor-
65 mance optimization approaches, and relevant parameters for the deployment of
66 smart antennas were evaluated in [16]. The adaptive null-introducing algorithm for
Design of High Gain and Low Side Lobe Smart Antenna Array for IoT Applications… 269
digital and non-digital beamforming techniques have been compared and evaluated 67
in [17]. An approximate l0-norm constrained normalized least mean squares algo- 68
rithm for introducing sparsity in controlling beamforming by the adaptive antenna 69
array has been proposed in [18]. The use of space-time-polarization adaptive 70
antenna arrays in place of conventional RHCP antennas in global navigation satel- 71
lite systems is presented in [19]. They demonstrated that four-element dual-polarized 72
STPA promises to suppress seven broadband interferences. A wideband antenna 73
array having a low side lobe is designed in [20]. The antenna array had four wide- 74
band antenna elements that were omnidirectional, along with an uneven power 75
divider, and achieved a bandwidth of 0.69 GHz and 0.65 GHz and a side lobe in the 76
E-plane with a level of −19 dB. A branchline coupler-based beam steering ten- 77
element array antenna using meander line and open stubs is proposed in [21]. The 78
design was a compact and small structure and had an almost 5 GHz bandwidth. 79
Artificial neural networks (ANN) or multilayer perceptrons (MLP) have been 80
used by researchers for solving many problems in communications. ANNs have 81
been used to estimate arrival angles [22, 23] and beamforming [24, 25]. In [26], 82
MLP was used for joint angle and range estimation of frequency diverse array. In 83
[27], MLP was for finding the number of targets present in a range-velocity cell of 84
automotive radar and achieved classification performance comparable to the gener- 85
alized likelihood ratio test. ANNs have also been used for array synthesis [28], 86
determination of performance parameters of microstrip antenna [29], optimization 87
and design of antenna array [30, 31], calculation of antenna phases for radiation 88
pattern synthesis [32], and development of virtual instruments for diagnosing faults 89
in a fractal antenna array [33]. Array antennas suitable for body area networks have 90
been described in [34, 35]. 91
Side lobes, especially the first side lobe, contribute a major part in introducing 92
interferences in the system. They can be reduced using the method of convolution 93
[36], amplitude tapering method [37], bio-inspired algorithms [38–40], and LMS 94
algorithm variants [41]. 95
3 System Design 96
The antenna array designed for IoT must fulfill the three main requirements – high 97
gain, highly directional beam, and minimal side lobes – to effectively communicate 98
with the base station or the modem. The gain enhancement and narrow beamwidth 99
can be achieved by increasing the number of antenna array elements and the dis- 100
tance between them. As both cannot be simultaneously increased, a trade-off must 101
be considered. The side lobes can be minimized using the appropriate windowing 102
function. For tracking human activities, the activity tracking devices and the antenna 103
array elements must be placed on a human subject. This puts further constraints on 104
the design of the antenna array. The back lobes from each element should also be 105
negligible or zero to reduce the specific absorption rate (SAR). 106
107 A MLP-based neuro-computational model (NCM) is used to model the relation-

108 ship of the gain and the beamwidth with the number of the elements and the spacing
109 between the elements. The radiation pattern is convolved with the Gaussian window
110 and quantized. The output pattern of the array antenna is fed to the MLP in the form
111 of gain and beamwidth values, so that the NCM is able to replicate the behavior of
112 the array. This helps in predicting the optimal number of the antenna elements and
113 the spacing between them. The synthesized antenna array can be integrated with a
114 DSP processor running an adaptive algorithm at the base station. This smart antenna
115 can then be used to link to requesting IoT device while reducing interference from
116 other devices.
117 The system design is shown in Fig. 1. The wearable device records data from the
118 user activities and is ready to upload data. The device is serviced through the smart
119 antenna system at the base station and gets highly directed beam for maximal
120 strength and connectivity. This forms the part of the body area network. The data is
121 pushed through the access point to the database server through the backbone
122 network.
123 Neuro-Computational Model We propose a neuro-computational model (NCM),
124 shown in Fig. 2, comprising a multi-layer perceptron network. The model uses a
125 feed-forward mechanism for function signals and back-propagation mechanism to
126 reduce errors. The network has a single hidden layer of ten neurons. These neurons
127 use the log-sigmoid function as the activation function. The input layer is activated
128 by a linear activation function. No activation function has been used for the output
129 layer. The model takes the number of antenna array elements and spacing between
130 the elements as input. The outputs of the network are gain in dB and FNBW in
131 degrees.
132 The multilayer perceptron model is given by the following expressions [42].
133 Assume x(t) as the input vector at tth timestep and d(t) as the desired response vec-
134 tor. For forward computation, for any neuron j at layer l and timestep t, the interme-
135 diate output vjl(t) is given by:
Fig. 1 The system setup

Fig. 2 The neuro-computational model to compute gain (dB) and beamwidth (degrees)
v lj ( t ) = ∑wlji ( t ) yil −1 ( t )
i 136
where w (t) is the weight of the synapse of jth neuron in lth layer connected to the
ij
l
137
output of the ith neuron from the previous layer and yil-1(t) is the output of the previ- 138
ous layer at the tth iteration. The activation function is log-sigmoid function. Thus, 139
the output signal of a jth neuron in a lth layer is given by: 140
1
y lj = ϕ j ( v j ( t ) ) = where a > 1
1 + exp ( −av j ( t ) )
141
If the neuron is in the first hidden layer, yj0 will be equal to xj(t), and activation func- 142
tion is a linear function. If the neuron is in the output layer L, yjL will be equal to oj(t) 143
with the value of activation function being 1. The error signal is computed by: 144
ej (t ) = d j (t ) − oj (t )
145
where dj(t) is the jth element of d(t). For backward computation, the local gradients 146
δs are computed and are defined as: 147

( )
elj ( t ) ϕ ′j v Lj ( t ) for neuron j in output layer L 

δ (t ) = 
l

j
 ϕ ′
j ( v l
t )
j ( ) ∑ k ( ) kj ( )
δ l +1
t w l +1
t for neuron j in hidden layer l 
 k  148
where φ’(.) is differentiated with respect to the argument. The weights of a lth layer 149
is updated according to: 150
wlji ( t + 1) = wlji ( t ) + α  ∆wlji ( t − 1)  + ηδ lj ( t ) yil −1 ( t )

151
152 where η is the learning rate between 0 and 1, and α is the momentum constant
153 greater than 1.
154 The Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm has been used for training the network and
155 deciding the stopping criteria. A learning rate of 0.01 has been used. The dataset for
156 the model has been obtained by repeated simulations. The dataset comprises two
157 sets: first set consists of gains and beamwidths obtained by varying the number of
158 elements from 10 to 100, keeping the spacing constant at 0.5λ. Next to it, a set con-
159 sists of gains and beamwidths obtained by varying the spacing between the ele-
160 ments, keeping the number of elements as 50. The desired gain is obtained with 50
161 number of array elements. Though the number of element hike could provide good
162 result, the gain performance is not satisfied along with the size of the antenna in this
163 work with 100 array elements. Seventy percent of the data has been used for train-
164 ing, 15% for training the model, and the rest 15% of the data for testing the model.
165 The weights are first set randomly and then updated to minimize the error between
166 the target and the output. The network weights are readjusted to check for errors and
167 the network is validated. The network is tested using test data. The data is put
168 through regression analysis to predict the optimal number of elements and the spac-
169 ing between them to suit the requirements of the application. The mean square error
170 is computed using:
(Oi − Predi )
2
N
MSE = ∑
171 i =1 N
172 A smart antenna system shown in Fig. 3 consists of antenna elements on the front
173 and a processor at the back end. The processor is responsible for introducing the
174 phase shift for steering the beam toward a particular direction after it has correctly
175 determined the direction of arrival of an incoming request. The weights can be
176 updated using adaptive algorithms. The number of the antenna elements and the
177 optimal spacing between them is found out using the neuro-computational model.
Fig. 3 A smart antenna

system [4]
d
x1(t) x2(t) xN(t)
S1(t) S2(t) SN(t)
s(t) Array
Output
W1 W2 WN
(t)– + r(t)
Feedback
Circuit Error Reference
Signal Signal
Computation of the Gain For the computation of gain, the power radiated due to 178
the entire array should be found out. The radiated power can be computed from the 179
electric field due to the entire array. For the computation of the electric field due to 180
the entire array, we have to compute the electric field due to a single element and 181
multiply it with the array factor (AF) (Eq. 7). 182
Electric field due to array =  E ( single element at ref point )  × [ AF ]

183
Electric field due to a single element at the reference point is given by [43]: 184
− jkr
kI e
Eθ = aθ jη 0
4π r 185
The array factor (AF) for n-element linear array with uniform distance, d, and uni- 186
form excitation amplitude is given by [40]: 187
 n − 1  ψ n  ψ 
AF = exp  j ψ   sin   / sin  
 2   2  2 
188
ψ = kd cos (θ ) + β
189
The radiated power, P(θ, φ), can be found out by evaluating the following expres- 190
sion [43]: 191

P (θ ,ϕ ) =
1
2η{ (
Re ∫∫ Eθ + Eϕ
2 2
) r sin θ dθ dϕ}
2
192
To compute gain, we make use of the gain function, G (θ, φ) [43], which is given by: 193
4π × P (θ ,ϕ )
G (θ ,ϕ ) =
Pin
194
where β = 2π/λ, η is the impedance of the free space, k is the wave number, P (θ, φ) 195
is the actual power radiated in direction (θ, φ), and Pin is the total accepted power. 196
As can be seen, the gain of an antenna array is a function of the number of ele- 197
ments and spacing between them. 198
Computation of the Beamwidth The beamwidth considered here is the beamwidth 199
between the first nulls, first-null beamwidth (FNBW). This is also called the major 200
lobe. This can be obtained by plotting the power pattern vs the angle. The beam- 201
width of the beam produced by a smart antenna system is a function of the number 202
of array elements and distance or spacing between the elements. The direction of the 203
beam can be changed by varying the steering angle or the phase difference of the 204
input current. 205
206 Reduction of Side Lobes In this work, we have used convolution with Gaussian
207 window function to keep the side lobes below −25 dB.
209 Gain From Figs. 4 and 6, it is observed that the model performed well and valida-
210 tion error was limited to 2.81 × 10−7 in case of gain vs the number of antenna ele-
211 ments and about 0.011 in case of gain vs spacing between antenna elements. From
212 Figs. 5 and 7, it is observed that the data points are close to the regression line,
213 indicating that there is a strong, positive, and linear relationship between the target
214 and output. The gain predicted from the model for 50 elements with 0.5λ spacing is
215 16.86 dB, and with 0.6λ spacing, it is 16.5 dB. From Figs. 12 and 13, it can be
216 observed that the gains obtained through actual computation are 17 dB and 16.6 dB,
217 respectively.
218 Beamwidth From Figs. 8 and10, it can be seen that the validation error was limited
219 to 0.084 in the case of beamwidth vs the number of antenna elements and 0.48 in the
220 case of beamwidth vs the spacing between the elements. Figures 9 and 11 indicate
221 that the proposed neuro-computational model was able to model the relationship of
222 beamwidth with the number of antenna elements and the spacing between the ele-
223 ments very closely. The beamwidth predicted from the model for 50-element array
224 with 0.5λ spacing is 10 degrees, and with 0.6λ spacing, it is 6.7 degrees. Comparing
225 with Figs. 12 and 13, it can be seen that the beamwidth is 10 degrees for 0.5λ and
Fig 4 Mean squared error plot of performance of the NCM for gain vs the number of the elements
Training: R=1 Validation: R=1

18 Data 18 Data
Output ~= 1*Target + 0.00061

Output ~= 1*Target + 6.3e-06
Fit Fit
Y=T Y=T
16 16
14 14
12 12
10 10
10 12 14 16 18 10 12 14 16 18
Target Target
Test: R=1 All: R=1

18 18
Output ~= 1*Target + –0.00046
Data Data
Output ~= 1*Target + 4.1e-05
Fit Fit
Y=T Y=T
16 16
14 14
12 12
10 10
10 12 14 16 18 10 12 14 16 18
Target Target
Fig. 5 Regression model of the NCM for gain vs number of elements
Fig. 6 Mean Squared Error plot of performance of the NCM for gain vs spacing between the
elements
Training: R=0.99999 Validation: R=0.99931
17 17
Data Data
Output ~= 0.98*Target + 0.23

Output ~= 1*Target + 0.0011
16 Fit 16 Fit
15 Y= T 15 Y= T
14 14
13 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
9 9
10 12 14 16 10 12 14 16
Target Target
Test: R=0.98093 All: R=0.99674

17 17
Data Data
16 Fit 16 Fit
15 Y= T 15 Y= T
14 14
13 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
9 9
10 12 14 16 10 12 14 16
Target Target
Fig. 7 Regression model of the NCM for gain vs spacing between the elements
Fig. 8 Mean squared error plot of performance of the NCM for beamwidth vs the number of
elements
Fig. 9 Regression model of the NCM for the beamwidth vs the number of elements
Fig. 10 Mean Squared Error plot of performance of the NCM for beamwidth vs distance between
the elements
Fig. 11 Regression model of the NCM for beamwidth vs distance between the elements
Fig. 12 Gain pattern of the linear antenna array with 50 elements and 0.5λ
Fig. 13 Gain pattern of the linear antenna array with 50 elements and 0.6λ
Table 1 Summary of results for 50-element array t1.1
Neuro-computational model From actual calculation Error (%)

Spacing Gain (dB) Beamwidth (deg) Gain (dB) Beamwidth (deg) Gain Beamwidth t1.2
0.5λ 16.86 10 17 10 0.82 0 t1.3
0.6λ 16.5 6.7 16.6 6.49 0.60 3.2 t1.4
Table 2 Comparison with some related works t2.1
Technique t2.2
Reference used Purpose MSE t2.3
[28] ANN Performance analysis of beamforming of 538.5 t2.4
N-element uniform circular array and concentric t2.5
circular array for smart antenna t2.6
[29] ANN Estimation of all performance parameters of 10−6 t2.7
circular microstrip antenna t2.8
[30] ANN Antenna element optimization of a 2×2 antenna Not given t2.9
array t2.10
[33] ANN Virtual instrument for predicting faults in fractal 10−3 t2.11
antenna array t2.12
Proposed MLP Prediction of gain and beamwidth of a linear 10−7 for gain vs t2.13
work array number of t2.14
elements t2.15
226 6.49 degrees for 0.6λ spacing. Table 1 summarizes and compares the data. Table 2
227 shows some related works
228 It was observed that a 50-element array is the best possible case when the trade-
229 off between the maximum number of elements that can be put in a limited space,
230 and the gain or beamwidth is considered. As most of the human activity tracking
231 devices work around 2.4 GHz, the distance between any two adjacent elements will
232 be 12.5 cm. As such in any setting, an antenna array of more than 50 elements would
233 be cumbersome to handle.
234 5 Conclusion
235 In this work, a neuro-computational model is proposed to predict the optimal num-
236 ber of elements that are spaced linearly in the smart antenna system for body area
237 network. The proposed neuro-computational model is used for agreement of pre-
238 dicted gain and the beamwidth with the number of antenna elements and the spacing
239 between them with a high level of accuracy. The smart antenna system, hence syn-
240 thesized, can cater to IoT devices that track human activities. As the tracking devices
need to connect to the Internet through an access point, the antenna system at the 241
access point needs to direct the beam toward the user. From the neuro-computational 242
model, it was found that a pin-pointed beam with a beamwidth of 10 degrees with a 243
gain of 16.86 dB can be generated using 50 elements with a spacing of 0.5λ. The 244
error between predicted value from the model and the calculated value is less than 245
1%. An array of more than 50 elements is unsuitable for body area networks as it 246
will be unmanageable. The issue of modeling arrays with nonuniform spacing 247
between the elements is a big challenge and remains an open issue to the research- 248
ers. Modeling of many electromagnetic problems still remains a big challenge to the 249
researchers. 250
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Planar Multiband Smart Antenna 1
for Wireless Communication Applications 2
B. Elizabeth Caroline, B. Neeththi Aadithiya, J. Jeyarani, 3

and Abdul Rahim Sadiq Batcha 4
1 Introduction 5
Drastic development in the field of communication and technology necessitates data 6

transfer at superior speeds, improved quality of service (QoS) requirements, and 7
efficient spectrum usage. Plenty of researches were done with the above require- 8
ment, and one solution obtained through the wide research is smart antennas. 9
In literature [1], smart radiating elements are the one which consists of multiple 10
antennas or array of antennas along with digital signal processing capabilities to 11
transfer the data at higher data rates. At present, smart antennas are an array of 12
antennas but do not necessarily operate like array antennas. In some contexts, smart 13
antennas can also be coined as cognitive antennas. Some major advantage that lies 14
with smart antennas is a reduction in the amount of power required, reduced inter- 15
ference in the communication channel, and improvement in power efficiencies. 16
Nowadays, smart antennas possess beamforming to self-healing algorithms 17
inbuilt to support the current technological requirements. Self-healing algorithms 18
imparted with radiating elements allow the alteration in the overall antenna perfor- 19
mance at times of loss of data, interference, and high SNR values. Smart antennas 20
B. E. Caroline
Department of ECE, IFET College of Engineering, Viluppuram, Tamil Nadu, India
B. N. Aadithiya (*)
Department of ECE, M. Kumarasamy College of Engineering, Karur, Tamil Nadu, India
J. Jeyarani
Department of ECE, CARE College of Engineering, Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India
A. R. S. Batcha
Department of EEE, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Mahsa University,
Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
e-mail: abdulrahim.b@mahsa.edu.my

Switzerland AG 2022
286 B. E. Caroline et al.
21 are employed with algorithms to have improved QoS. Two major functions involved
22 with smart antennas are:
23 • Direction of arrival
24 • Beamforming
25 The direction of arrival (DOA) in smart antennas is the process of identifying the
26 signal arrival direction. The DOA of the signal in smart antennas is predicted with
27 the use of associated algorithms, namely, multiple signal classification. One such
28 efficient algorithm used in real time is the matrix pencil algorithm. Beamforming is
29 a process of adding the radiation pattern of the individual radiating elements along
30 the required direction, and it also nullifies the unwanted direction radiation. The
31 most commonly deployed algorithm in beamforming is least mean square (LMS).
32 Smart antennas can be broadly classified into two categories, which are switched
33 beam and adaptive array antennas. The switched beam antennas are the one which
34 is capable of detecting the best signal beams, and it switches to the beam effectively.
35 Adaptive array elements are the most recent, and it is capable of employing
36 N-algorithms and adjusts accordingly to have reduced interference in the operating
37 environment. Smart antennas can be realized in the following three forms, namely,
38 single-input multiple-output (SIMO), multiple-input single-output (MISO), and
39 multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO). The use of MIMO-based smart antennas is
40 essential for satisfying the abovementioned requirements.
41 The fundamental idea which lies behind MIMO [2] technology is the possibility
42 of employing multiple antennas at transmitter and receiver sides. With the use of
43 multiple antennas, the rate and amount of data transfer through the channel can be
44 improved. To highlight, the signaling freedom is available in MIMO antennas,
45 which is not a characteristic of a single radiating element. Signaling freedom is
46 coined as diversity in MIMO antennas. Integration of the MIMO antennas alongside
47 the wireless technologies leads to superior speed data.
48 Two forms are used to realize the diversity in MIMO antennas, namely, mul-
49 tipath and space-time coding techniques. Multipath is the process of transferring the
50 same information or data sequences through N-different channels at different time
51 intervals as there are multiple antennas. The data or information transferred at dif-
52 ferent times through different channels arrives at the receiver end at different times;
53 thus, data reliability is high in the case of multipath data transfer.
54 Secondly, the MIMO antennas make use of the space-time coding technique to
55 achieve data reliability. In space-time coding, codes are assigned for the data, and
56 then the data, as well as the code, is sent to the receiver through various channels to
57 achieve the reliability of data at the receiver end. Therefore, at the receiver end,
58 there will be an original message as well as the coded information which may help
59 when the signal received contains added noise. This increased data transfer may
60 result in additional bandwidth usage, but in turn, it offers the advantage of reducing
61 the SNR values. In the past, this type of data transfer may result in interference
62 between the channels, but it is reduced with the use of efficient MIMO multipath
63 antennas.
Planar Multiband Smart Antenna for Wireless Communication Applications 287
When the number of antennas deployed for information transfer increases, it will 64
directly impact the overall throughput of the transmission-reception system. So the 65
throughput involved with the MIMO antennas is high when compared to the single 66
radiating element transmission-reception systems. This particular advantage of 67
throughput improvement can be deployed along with wireless technologies. 68
The abovementioned advantages of the MIMO antennas can be attained with the 69
proper selection of radiating element design and location of multiple antennas. Now 70
the major focus of research in the MIMO antenna area is the efficient design for the 71
multi-antenna environment at low cost. While selecting the design for the MIMO 72
environment, coupling between the elements and radiation correlation should be 73
considered. 74
The most used radiating element which opts for the requirements of the MIMO 75
environment is the microstrip antenna elements. Microstrip antennas find better 76
application in the MIMO environment because of their less space occupation, 77
weight, and cost of fabrication. The advantage of patch [3] antenna goes well with 78
the advantage of MIMO antennas and makes it the most preferable structure for the 79
MIMO environment. The range of UWB spectrum ranges from 3.1 to 10 GHz fre- 80
quencies, which are designated to have higher speed data delivery. 81
The advancement in the technology allows the researchers to have an N-number 82
of multiband UWB MIMO antennas in literature. The multiband operation is 83
achieved using the placement of slots [4, 5], resonators [6, 7] of different shapes 84
most commonly square-shaped resonators [8], dual-band antennas [9, 10], triple- 85
band antennas [11, 12], and non-natural material structures like double negative 86
materials (DNG), CRLH structures, and metamaterials [13–18], which are studied 87
in the literature. 88
In this work, a simple inset feed rectangular planar antenna offering multiband 89
operation is suggested. With the use of two vertical slots on the patch and the rect- 90
angular cut at the edges, the number of operating bands is increased, i.e., single 91
band to quad band. A simple structure is the advantage of the antenna despite the 92
antenna reported in the literature has complex design structures to achieve dual- 93
band operation. Furthermore, 1 × 2 MIMO antennas and 1 × 4 MIMO antenna 94
arrays based on the suggested rectangular planar antenna are offered with the neces- 95
sary diversity parameters. The suggested rectangular patch antenna is designed to 96
operate over 2.39–2.44 GHz, 3.1–3.18 GHz, 4.15–4.17 GHz, and 4.47–4.54 GHz 97
frequencies. Multiband antenna designed is applicable for satellite communication 98
(X-band) over 4.15–4.17 GHz, and 2.39–2.44 GHz band can be employed for baby 99
monitors, Zigbee, and Wi-Fi applications. 3.1–3.18 GHz frequency range can be 100
employed for S-band radars. 4.47–4.54 GHz frequency is now used for point-to- 101
point communication in the US Military services, and 4.5 GHz is now deployed 102
commonly for 5G mobile communication in China. 103
104 2 Antenna Design
105 Multiband smart antenna proposed is a rectangular patch antenna fed by a microstrip
106 feed line of 50 ohms. Substrate material preferred for a multiband antenna is FR4
107 with 4.4 as its permittivity index, and the elevation of dielectric from the ground is
108 chosen as 1.6 mm.
109 The proposed antenna simulations are performed with CST software. Notations
110 denoting the dimension of the suggested antenna are shown in Fig. 1. The multiband
111 antenna dimensions are listed in Table 1.
112 2.1 Progression of Antenna Design
113 The progression in the design starting from simple patch to multiband antenna is
114 detailed in Fig. 2. The antenna dimensions [19–22] are calculated for the operating
115 frequency f = 2.4 GHz.
116 2.2 Effect of Rectangular Cut and Slot on Antenna Performance
117 Radiating element is made to radiate with the help of acceleration or deceleration of
118 the charges, which can also be defined as time-varying current over the patch. Those
119 accelerating charges in turn create the current. Thus, the current on the surface of
Fig. 1 Multiband antenna geometry (a) Top view (b) Radiating element
Table 1 Multiband antenna dimensions t1.1
Parameters W L GW GL t1.2
Value (mm) 66.06 58.86 66.06 58.86 t1.3
Parameters AX AY FX FY t1.4
Value (mm) 38.03 29.43 3.03 17.12 t1.5
Parameters g R SW SL t1.6
Value (mm) 1 9 2 24 t1.7
Parameters r1 × r2 D Z ax t1.8
Value (mm) 8.1 × 5 2 3.015 2.715 t1.9
Fig. 2 Evolution of multiband antenna
the patch should be altered to have different radiating bands. Accumulation of cur- 120
rent over the patch should be observed clearly for altering the currents’ flow pattern 121
over the face of the radiating element. As per the theory, planar antennas have a high 122
current flow around the center of the radiating element at resonating frequency. 123
Evidently, the initial rectangular patch antenna shows higher current density at the 124
center of a patch at an operating frequency of 2.4 GHz, which is shown in Fig. 3a. 125
The regular rectangular patch operates at the desired 2.4 GHz frequency with a 126
return loss of around −12.2 dB. Further, to improve the return loss and multiband 127
operating nature of radiating element, a cut and slots are introduced. 128
The current distribution over the patch can be altered with the creation of cut at 129
the edges as the current is zero and voltage is high at the edges. Thus, in step 2, the 130
rectangular cut is made at the top-left corner, and thus, the high currents are accu- 131
mulated at the right corner of the patch, and this, in turn, results in dual-band opera- 132
tion. Band 1 is seen over 2.42–2.46 GHz frequencies with the return loss value of 133
−16 dB. And the second band is around 4.4–4.6 GHz frequencies with a return loss 134
value of −17 dB. Figure 3b shows the surface current distribution across the edges 135
and also the altered current accumulation toward the right corner of the patch with 136
the rectangular cut. 137
Usually, the introduction of slots in the patch antenna is to have multiple reso- 138
nant frequencies, and thus, to increase the operating bands, a vertical slot 1 is 139
inserted at the higher current accumulated location. This vertical slot inserted as 140
shown in step 3 of Fig. 2 offers an improved return loss value of −18.8 dB over 141
Fig. 3 Multiband antenna surface currents (a) Simple patch antenna surface current at f = 2.4 GHz
(b) Surface current of step 2 antenna at f = 2.4 GHz (c) Surface current of an antenna with one
vertical slot at f = 2.4 GHz (d) Suggested multiband antenna surface current at f = 2.4 GHz
142 2.42–2.46 GHz frequencies and a new narrow band of operation around 3.1 GHz.
143 Step 3 again results in dual-band operation. Thus, to improve the number of operat-
144 ing bands and to cover the bands obtained in steps 2 and 3, a vertical slot 2 is made
145 over the patch. Addition of slot 2 along with slot 1 results in quad-band operation
146 over 2.39–2.44 GHz, 3.1–3.18 GHz, 4.15–4.17 GHz, and 4.47–4.54 GHz frequen-
147 cies. The current at the surface of the suggested patch is evenly distributed with the
148 addition of slots and is shown in Fig. 3d.
150 Radiating element performance can be analyzed using the following parameters:
151 S-parameter values, voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), gain, maximum radiation
152 directional reliance pattern, radiating efficiency, and total efficiency. Return loss
153 plot is used to determine the amount of power reflected, and power reflected should
154 be as less as possible to have improved power transfer between the transmitter and
155 receiver.
156 In general, the return loss value should be less than −10 dB. Suggested multi-
157 band antenna shows around −28.04 dB, −19.74 dB, −11.6 dB, and −40.81 dB
return loss values over 2.39–2.44 GHz, 3.1–3.18 GHz, 4.15–4.17 GHz, and 158
4.47–4.54 GHz frequencies, respectively. The return loss plot is shown in Fig. 4a. 159
Voltage standing wave ratio is the parameter that numerically defines the match- 160
ing between the radiating element and the transmission medium to which it is con- 161
nected. VSWR is related to the return loss value, and it describes the efficiency of 162
power transferred by measuring the amount of reflected power, i.e., return loss. By 163
theory, VSWR values should be less than 2. The VSWR value obtained for the mul- 164
tiband antenna is less than 2 over the operating frequencies. A plot of antenna gain 165
of the suggested multiband antenna is visualized in Fig. 4b, and the gain values are 166
6.5 dB, 4.7 dB, 6.5 dB, and 6.67 dB over 2.39–2.44 GHz, 3.1–3.18 GHz, 167
4.15–4.17 GHz, and 4.47–4.54 GHz frequencies, respectively. 168
The overall efficiency of the antenna’s radiating ability is above 80% over the 169
operating frequencies and is shown in Fig. 5a. A plot of S-parameters of the four 170
stages of design is compared to have a clear view of suggested antenna performance 171
and is shown in Fig. 5b. 172
The radiation pattern defines the direction of the maximum radiation from the 173
antenna. Radiation patterns along with XZ (E-field)-plane and YZ (H-field)-plane 174
are obtained and show that the antenna has an almost omnidirectional radiation pat- 175
tern over the frequency of operation. 176
4 MIMO Antenna Design 177
With the proposed multiband patch antenna 1 × 2 and 1 × 4 MIMO antennas are 178
designed. In a 1 × 2 MIMO antenna design, the antennas are separated by a distance 179
of D1 = 28.55 mm along the X-direction. The separation between radiating element 180
corresponds to the reduction of interference losses and improved SNR values in the 181
MIMO antennas. The coupling losses can also be reduced with the proper isolation 182
S11 (dB)
a 5 b Gain
8
0
–5
–10
S11 (dB) (dB)
6
Gain (dB)
–15
–20
–25
–30 4
–35
–40
–45 2
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
Fig. 4 Results of suggested multiband antenna (a) Return loss plot (b) Gain of the radiating ele-
ment over frequencies
Step1
a Radiation Efficiency b Step2
1.0 5 Step3
0 Step4
Radiation Efficiency (%)
–5
0.8 –10
Return loss (dB)

–15
–20
0.6
–25
–30
–35
0.4
–40
–45
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
Fig. 5 Results of suggested multiband antenna (a) Radiation efficiency (b) Comparison plot of
S-parameter values of four steps of design evolution
183 between the radiating elements. Thus, two different separation dimensions are used
184 for the proposed structures.
185 As the separation between antennas plays a major role in deciding the coupling
186 characteristics of MIMO antenna, optimal distances are preferred. The major fac-
187 tors used for determining the performance of MIMO antennas are diversity gain
188 (DG) and envelope correlation coefficient (ECC). The mathematical expression
189 [23] which defines the relationship between the scattering matrix and ECC is given
190 in Eq. (1):
2
Sii Sij S ji S jj
Envelope correlation coefficient e
191
1 S ii
2
S ji
2
1 S jj
2
Sij
2
(1)
192 As MIMO multiband antenna consists of two radiating elements, Eq. (1) is rear-
193 ranged accordingly in Eq. (2):
2
S11 S12 S21

S22
Envelope correlation coefficient
194
1 S 11
2
S21
2
1 S 22
2
S12
2
(2)
195 The value of ECC should lie within 0.3 for the optimal operation of a MIMO
196 antenna, and the measured ECC values for 1 × 2 MIMO are within 0.16 for all four
197 bands. Diversity gain and ECC are related mathematically and are given in Eq. (3).
198 Diversity gain value is nearly about DG = 9.8 dB for the 1 × 2 MIMO antenna. ECC
199 and diversity gain of the suggested multiband 1 × 2 MIMO antennas are shown in
200 Fig. 6a, b.
Diversity gain DG 10 1 ECC

(3) 201
Another factor used to measure the performance of MIMO antennas is the value of 202
TARC. When N-radiating elements with N-ports are used, the total Active reflection 203
coefficient should be analyzed, and by theory, it should have a value which is lower 204
than 0 dB. 205
The mathematical relation between the TARC and scattering matrix is given in 206
Eq. (4). Simulated TARC values over the multiband frequencies are less than −10 dB. 207
S11 S12 S21 S22

2 2
TARC
2 (4) 208
Mean effective gain values can be calculated for the MIMO antennas using the 209
mathematical relation [24] given in Eq. (5). The gain values of the MIMO antenna 210
are improved when compared with the single radiating element. Equations (6) and 211
(7) are used for the calculation of MEG of the suggested 1 × 2 MIMO antenna. 212
N
2
Mean effective gain MEG i 0.5 1 Sij
j 1 (5) 213
MEG i 0.5 1 S11 S12

2 2
(6) 214
MEG j 0.5 1 S21 S22

2 2
(7) 215
a b
0.15
10.0
0.10 9.8
DG (dB)
ECC
9.6
0.05
9.4
0.00
9.2
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
FREQUENCY (GHz) FREQUENCY (GHz)
Fig. 6 Results of 1 × 2 MIMO antenna (a) Envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) (b) Diversity
gain (DG)
216 The results of 1 × 2 MIMO antennas are visualized in Fig. 7. Return loss values of
217 the antennas are achieved like the single radiating element, and they are −28.04 dB,
218 −19.74 dB, −11.6 dB, and −40.81 dB return loss values over 2.39–2.44 GHz,
219 3.1–3.18 GHz, 4.15–4.17 GHz, and 4.47–4.54 GHz frequencies, respectively. The
220 VSWR value of the 1 × 2 MIMO antennas is less than 2 over the operating
221 frequencies.
222 The results of 1 × 4 MIMO antennas are visualized in Fig. 8. Return loss values
223 of the antennas are achieved like the single radiating element, and they are −28.04
224 dB, −19.74 dB, −11.6 dB, and −40.81 dB over 2.39–2.44 GHz, 3.1–3.18 GHz,
225 4.15–4.17 GHz, and 4.47–4.54 GHz frequencies, respectively.
226 The VSWR value of the 1 × 4 MIMO antennas is less than 2 over the operating
227 frequencies. A gain of the 1 × 4 MIMO is improved to an average value of 11 dB for
228 the operating frequency bands. The measured ECC values for 1 × 4 MIMO are
229 within 0.15 for all four bands. Diversity gain value is nearly about DG = 9.9 dB for
230 the 1 × 4 MIMO antenna. Diversity gain and ECC of the suggested multiband 1 × 4
231 MIMO antennas are shown in Fig. 8c, d.
232 The simulated isolation values of 1 × 2 MIMO antenna and 1 × 4 MIMO antenna
233 are greater than −21 dB over the quad bands of operation and is shown in Fig. 9.
Return loss of Ant 1

a 5
Return loss of Ant 2 b
0
–5
–10 2.0
Return loss (dB)
–15
–20
VSWR
–25 1.5
–30
–35
–40 1.0
–45
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
Fig. 7 Results of 1 × 2 MIMO antennas (a) Return loss (S11) (b) Voltage standing wave
ratio (VSWR)
a Radiating Element 1 b
Radiating Element 2
5 Radiating Element 3
Radiating Element 4 Gain
0
11.0
–5
–10
Return loss (dB)
–15 10.8
Gain(dB)
–20
–25
–30 10.6
–35
–40
–45 10.4
–50
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
c ECC
d Diversity Gain
0.15
10.0
Diversity Gain(dB)
0.10 9.8
ECC
9.6
0.05
9.4
0.00 9.2
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
Fig. 8 Results of 1 × 4 MIMO antenna (a) Return loss (b) Gain of the radiating elements over
frequencies (c) Envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) (d) Diversity gain (DG)
a –10
b
–15 –20
–25
–20 –30
–25 –35
–30 –40
–45
S21 (dB)
S21 (dB)
–35 –50
–40 –55
–45 –60
–50 –65
–55 –70
–75
–60 –80
–65 –85
–70 –90
–95
–75
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
Fig. 9 Isolation results of (a) 1 × 2 MIMO antenna (b) 1 × 4 MIMO antenna
5 C
omparison of Other MIMO Antennas with Multiband 234
Planar MIMO Antenna 235
The proposed planar quad-band MIMO antenna is compared with other MIMO 236
designs reported earlier in Table 2. From the evaluation, it is found that the proposed 237
planar antenna shows a better trade-off over the state-of-the-art requirements of 238
MIMO antenna, except the compact size. 239
296
t2.1 Table 2 Comparison with other MIMO antennas with multiband planar MIMO antenna
t2.2 Reference number [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [23] Proposed antenna
t2.3 Size of the radiating element (mm) 95 × 49.7 × 1.6 58 × 44 × 1.2 50 × 70 × 1.6 30 × 40 × 0.8 20 × 20 × 1.6 40 × 40 × 1.52 66.06 × 58.86 × 1.6
t2.4 Number of band 1 2 3 2 1 3 4
t2.5 Envelope correlation coefficient Less than 0.03 Less than Less than Less than Less than 0.1 Less than Less than 0.1
t2.6 (ECC) 0.013 0.15 0.15 0.015
t2.7 Distance between antennas 27 22 20 – – 15.2 28.5
t2.8 Isolation −26 dB −42 dB −31 dB −20 dB −15 dB −20 dB −23 dB
t2.9 Gain 7.5 dB – 8 dB – 4.1 dBi – 4 dBi 4.1 dBi 10 dB –10.8 dB
t2.10 Diversity gain (DG) 9.8 – 9.9 – – 9.9 9.8
B. E. Caroline et al.
6 Conclusion 240
The proposed multiband smart antenna operates over 2.39–2.44 GHz, 241
3.1–3.18 GHz, 4.15–4.17 GHz, and 4.47–4.54 GHz bands with (VSWR ≤ 2), and 242
return loss values are around –28.08 dB, –19.74 dB, –11.6 dB, and –40.81 dB, 243
respectively. The proposed 1 × 2 and 1 × 4 MIMO antennas offer ECC values less 244
than 0.2 over all the operating bands. The radiation efficiency of the design is 245
above 80%. 246
7 Future Work 247
In the future, defected ground structures can be integrated with the proposed struc- 248
ture to have the improved impedance bandwidth. Secondly, the stub can be added to 249
the proposed patch to increase the number of operating bands, and the multiband 250
antenna can also be placed in orthogonal directions to have better efficiency and 251
operating conditions. 252
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324 bandwidth. IEEE Antennas Wireless Propag. Lett., v16 (2017): 2469-2472
Part VI 1
Ultra-Wide-Band Antenna Design for 2
Wearable Applications 3
A Low-Profile Compact EBG Integrated 1
Circular Monopole Antenna for Wearable 2
Medical Application 3
Prasad Jones Christydass Sam, U. Surendar, Unwana M. Ekpe, 4

M. Saravanan, and P. Satheesh Kumar 5
1 Introduction 6
Antennas have been utilized for establishing communication links between termi- 7
nals and are used in many applications like satellite, broadcasting, mobile/smart- 8
phone, and telemetry. Quite recently, considerable interest has been paid to 9
telemedicine and mobile healthcare systems, which establish communication 10
between humans and things. This technology promotes continuous patient monitor- 11
ing and treating, which gained interest among researchers. This network is distrib- 12
uted wirelessly around humans and is called wireless body area networks (WBAN). 13
Essentially, WBAN can create personalized communication between the patient and 14
patient monitoring sector. WBAN detects and transmits the physiological data like 15
P. J. C. Sam (*)
Electronics and Communication Engineering, K. Ramakrishnan College of Technology,
Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: prasadjoness.ece@krct.ac.in
U. Surendar
Electronics and Communication Engineering, K.Ramakrishnan College of Engineering,
Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India
U. M. Ekpe
Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Akwa Ibom State University, Mkpat-Enin, Nigeria
e-mail: unwanaekpe@aksu.edu.ng
M. Saravanan
Electronics and Communication Engineering, Annamalai University,
Cuddalore, Tamil Nadu, India
P. Satheesh Kumar
Electronics and Communication Engineering, Coimbatore Institute of Technology,
e-mail: satheeshkumar.p@cit.edu.in

Switzerland AG 2022
302 P. J. C. Sam et al.
16 blood pressure, blood sugar content, temperature, weight, and heartbeat rate
17 obtained from various sensors [1–3] of users at regular intervals by integrating them
18 into the network [1, 4–7]. Current research on healthcare systems are focused on
19 wearable antennas, which is a crucial component in establishing on- or off-body
20 communication [8–11]. The design and implementation of wearable antennas are
21 facing many challenges, like the coupling of antenna EM field with the human body
22 [12, 13], a key limitation in achieving wideband and multiband characteristics [12],
23 and low-profile characteristics like lightweight, compactness, robustness, and lim-
24 ited availability of fabrication facility [14, 15]. In recent years, few researchers have
25 proposed advanced methods for developing compact, low-profile, multiband anten-
26 nas like embroidered fabric, woven, printed textile, and chemically treated materials
27 [9]. The challenges, like miniaturization, multiband/wideband characteristics, and
28 SAR reduction for a wearable antenna, are to be addressed. The miniaturization can
29 be achieved by additional loading of inductors/capacitors in a wearable antenna,
30 PIFA, and metamaterials [16–20]. The multiband/wideband can be achieved by
31 employing metamaterial structures in the wearable antenna system [21–24].
32 Achieving wideband characteristics in a wearable antenna is a crucial and critical
33 parameter for a wearable antenna. For satisfying the challenge, ultra-wideband
34 (UWB) communication was deployed in telemedicine applications [25]. In real-
35 time patient monitoring systems, textile-based UWB antennas can be used for low-
36 power high-speed communication [26–29]. The UWB communication is widely
37 preferred due to its unique features, like small price, least power ingestion, and
38 high-speed data transfer [30]. Apart from these unique features, UWB possesses
39 few distinguishable features like less interference due to its less power spectral den-
40 sity [31], with good radiation effects on the human body. Hence, this UWB technol-
41 ogy with all these unique features is the best solution for wearable applications [32].
42 In this chapter, a compact, low-profile circular antenna integrated with EBG
43 structure is proposed for UWB healthcare application. The entire proposed wear-
44 able antenna dimension is 30 × 30 × 1.4 mm3 (along with EBG). EBG is used to
45 suppress the surface waves, improving the gain and reducing the SAR. In Sect. 2,
46 the antenna and EBG design and characterization are presented; in Sect. 3, the inte-
47 gration of the EBG array to the antenna is presented; in Sect. 4, the proposed antenna
48 is analyzed along with human tissue, and the results are presented. Finally, in Sect.
49 5, the conclusion is presented.
50 2 Antenna and EBG Design
51 2.1 Design of Low-Profile Circular Monopole Textile Antenna
52 The designed wearable antenna comprises a circular patch as its radiating element.
53 The patch has a radius of 8.1 mm. The structure is fed with the microstrip feed on
54 length LF and width WF. The structure is mounted on a denim material of 0.7 mm
55 thickness. The dielectric constant and loss tangent of the denim material used as the
56 substrate for the designed antenna are 1.7 and 0.02, respectively. On the denim side,
A Low-Profile Compact EBG Integrated Circular Monopole Antenna for Wearable… 303
the ground is mounted with WF as its width and LF (13 mm) as its length. A slot 57
is created in order to match the impedance precisely at the center of the ground. 58
The slot dimension is equal to W1 × L1 mm. The projected antenna is used for the 59
wearable healthcare application; therefore, the SAR should be within the limit. To 60
reduce the SAR, the EBG structure is introduced at the back of the antenna with 61
dimensions of 30 × 30 × 0.7 mm3. In Fig. 1, the projected antenna is presented with 62
and without the EBG structure. The simulation model for the SAR analysis in CST 63
is also presented in Fig. 1. In Fig. 2, the reflection coefficient of the circular wear- 64
able antenna is presented. In Fig. 3, the antenna with its parameters and EBG struc- 65
ture with its parameters are presented. The parameter values of both the proposed 66
wearable antenna and EBG structure are presented in Table 1. 67
Fig. 1 Proposed antenna structure with and without human tissue
Fig. 2 S11 of the proposed circular textile antenna

Fig. 3 Circular textile antenna and EBG parameters
68 2.2 EBG Design
69 The EBG structure chooses crossed dipole-shaped Jerusalem cross, which has
70 major merits like meek manufacturing complexity, stable frequency response, and
71 smaller size. The geometry of the proposed JC EBG with its parameter is presented
72 in Fig. 3, and its values are tabulated in Table 1. The overall size of the EBG is
73 30 mm × 30 mm × 0.7 mm. It is also made up on a denim textile material. The length
74 of the JC arms is increased to improve the resonance path. The, 2 × 2 EBG array is
75 used, which has a −180-to +180-degree phase variation when it is capable of sup-
76 pressing the surface wave. Under such conditions, the proposed 2 × 2 JC EBG array
77 acts as an artificial magnetic conductor (AMC).
Table 1 Circular textile antenna and EBG parameter value (in mm) t1.1
LS WS R WF LF W1 L1 t1.2
30 30 8.1 3.1 15 3 3.5 t1.3
LE WE S LC WC H T t1.4
30 30 1 10 10 1.6 0.035 t1.5
Proposed Circular Proposed Circular Proposed Circular

monopole monopole + Human monopole + Human
Tissue Tissue + EBG
Fig. 4 Design stages of the proposed antenna
3 J erusalem Cross-Based EBG Array Integrated Circular 78
Monopole Antenna 79
The proposed circular textile antenna is placed above the 2 × 2 EBG array as shown 80
in Fig. 4. In Fig. 4, the design stages of the textile circular monopole with 2 × 2 EBC 81
array are presented. The proposed antenna is a circular monopole designed on a 82
denim substrate. The other side of the denim is printed with the defective ground 83
structure. Then, the EBG is also printed on the denim substrate. The foam with 84
length and width equal to the substrate is used to prevent mismatches. The 1-mm 85
gap between the antenna and EBG is filled with foam to prevent short circuits and 86
other mismatches. The foam used is Rocacell, which is flexible enough to have the 87
surrounding material shape. The proposed circular wearable antenna is operating 88
from 3.1 to 14.89 GHz in the entire UWB. 89
In Fig. 5, the radiation characteristic pattern of the proposed circular monopole 90
wearable textile antenna along with EBG and human tissue is presented. The pro- 91
jected antenna and EBG and human tissue are operating in the entire UWB with 92
three resonant frequencies at 3.78 GHz, 9.72 GHz, and 13.02 GHz. When the pro- 93
jected antenna is operated in the presence of lossy human tissue, the performance of 94
the antenna is degraded, and the SAR value is also very high. The JC-based 2 × 2 95
EBG array is placed below the antennathat eliminates the above mentioned issue. 96
The JC-based 2 × 2 EBG array reduces the surface wave, which in turn reduces the 97
electric field intensity and the SAR. The three-dimensional radiation pattern and 98
E-plane and H-plane pattern for each resonant frequency are presented in Fig. 5. 99
The H-plane has an omnidirectional radiation pattern, and the E-plane has a stable 100
dipole pattern in all the resonant frequencies. The E-plane pattern is deteriorated 101
due to the increase in radiating area at the higher frequency. 102
Fig. 5 3D, radiation pattern, E- and H-plane (simulated and measured)
103 4 P
erformance of the Designed Circular Monopole Textile
104 Antenna with the Human Body
105 The designed wearable textile antenna operates UWB, which can be utilized for
106 healthcare application; therefore, the antenna has to work nearer to the human tis-
107 sue. Since the human tissue is the lossy medium, the antenna performance will be
108 degraded. To maintain performance, the 2 × 2 EBG array is introduced.
antenna only antenna only

antenna with human tissue
8 antenna with human tissue
0 antenna with human tissue and EBG
7 antenna with human tissue and EBG
–10 6
–20 5
s11 (dB)
VSWR
–30 4
–40 3
–50 2
–60 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Fig. 6 S11 and VSWR comparison
Table 2 Properties of the human tissue [31] t2.1
Conductivity Density t2.2

Layer Relative dielectric constant 𝜎 (S/m) (kg/m3) t2.3
Skin 37.95 1.49 1001 t2.4
Fat 5.27 0.11 900 t2.5
Muscle 52.67 1.77 1006 t2.6
4.1 Reflection Coefficient 109
The S11 and VSWR of the designed antenna in various situations are presented in 110
Fig. 6. It is performed to analyze the lossy human tissue effect on the antenna per- 111
formance. A multilayer simulation fragmented model of human tissue is designed in 112
the CST studio as shown in Fig. 1. The air gap of 10 mm, skin of 0.5 mm, fat of 113
6 mm, and muscle of 10 mm are the four layers in the fragmented human tissue 114
model. The properties of the various human tissues are presented in Table 2. The 115
designed circular monopole textile wearable antenna is placed on the fragmented 116
model and simulated. 117
The simulation results presented in Fig. 6 clearly depict that for the antenna 118
without EBG structure, the reflection coefficient degrades because of the human 119
tissue’s high dielectric nature. To compensate the loss, the EBG structure is intro- 120
duced, which is capable of maintaining the desired frequency band and good imped- 121
ance matching. The good impedance matching is the EBG structure provides very 122
high isolation between the antenna and human tissue. 123
4.2 Bending 124
The antenna, along with EBG structure performance, is analyzed for deformation. 125
In order to analyze the deformation, the bending of the antenna along with the EBG 126
structure over a vacuum cylinder is simulated. The diameter of the cylinder is varied 127
128 to bend the antenna. The diameter is varied to create 0-, 30-, and 60-degree bending
129 value. The S11 performance with respect to the different amounts of bending is
130 analyzed. The simulated return loss performance for various diameters is depicted
131 in Fig. 7. It is observed that the bandwidth and the impedance are maintained in
132 various degrees of deformation.
133 4.3 SAR
134 The antenna presented is used in the healthcare application. Therefore, the SAR
135 should be maintained well below the standard given by the FCC and CNIRP. The
136 CNIRP SAR safety limit is 1.6 W/Kg over 1 g human tissue. The FCC standard is
137 less than 2 W/Kg averaged over 10 g human tissue. The SAR, with and without the
138 EBG assembly, is studied to justify the integration of EBG array for reducing the
139 SAR, and it is presented in Fig. 8. The numerical values are presented in Table 3. In
140 Fig. 9, the graphical comparison of SAR (with and without EBG) concerning fre-
141 quency is presented. Using IEEE C95.1, the SAR value is calculated (standard
142 available in the CST studio).
143 In Fig. 10, the surface current distribution of the proposed antenna is presented.
144 From the figure, we can observe that the current is distributed over the entire radiat-
145 ing element. In Fig. 11, the gain of the circular wearable antenna with and without
146 EBG array is presented. It is observed that the gain is improved with EBG. The
147 maximum gain is 4.85 dBi without EBG and 7.58 dBi with EBG.
148 Similarly, the directivity of the circular wearable antenna with and without EBG
149 is presented in Fig. 12. The maximum directivity is 8.78 dBi with EBG achieved by
150 the proposed antenna. The measured result is compared with the simulated result in
0 degree
30 degree
0 60 degree
–5
–10
s11 (dB)
–15
–20
–25
–30
–35
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 7 Reflection coefficient of the antenna with different bending diameters

Fig. 8 SAR analysis
Table 3 SAR analysis t3.1
Frequency 3.78 GHz 9.72 GHz 13.02 GHz t3.2

SAR without SAR with SAR without SAR with SAR without SAR with t3.3
Averaged EBG EBG EBG EBG EBG EBG t3.4
value (W/Kg) (W/Kg) (W/Kg) (W/Kg) (W/Kg) (W/Kg) t3.5
1 g 6.19 1.28 9.87 1.12 7.56 1.58 t3.6
10 g 4.75 0.16 8.96 0.97 6.52 1.01 t3.7
Fig. 9 SAR comparison

Fig. 10 Surface current distribution
Fig. 11 Gain vs frequency plot
151 Fig. 13. The devion between the results is due to fabrication and SMA connection
152 error. The fabricated prototype of the antenna is presented in Fig. 14.
153 5 Conclusion
154 A low-profile wearable textile antenna with EBG structure is designed for UWB
155 healthcare applications. The structure is a simple circular patch with a defective
156 ground structure, which is mounted on a denim textile material of 0.7 mm thickness.
Fig. 12 Directivity vs frequency plot
Fig. 13 Measured Vs simulated return loss

Fig. 14 Front and back view of the fabricated antenna
157 The length and width of the proposed structure equal to 30 mm. When the projected
158 antenna is operated in the presence of lossy human tissue, the antenna’s perfor-
159 mance is degraded, and the SAR value is also very high. To overcome the above-
160 mentioned issues, the JC-based 2 × 2 EBG array is placed below the antenna, which
161 reduces the surface wave, which in turn reduces the electric field intensity and the
162 SAR. The EBG array placement improves the antenna performance in terms of
163 impedance matching and gain and directivity enhancement. The calculated SAR
164 value comes under the limit proposed by the FCC and CNIRP. The antenna perfor-
165 mance is also maintained under bending condition. The results presented clearly
166 show the proposed compact EBG integrated circular monopole antenna for wear-
167 able medical application.
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Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna 1
for Wearable Application 2
Pranita Manish Potey, Kushal Tuckley, and Anjali Thakare 3
1 Introduction 4
Worldwide admirations of compact flexible wearable antennas have been growing 5

faster. A simple planer structure load with textile antennas offers great flexibility 6
and comfort. For wearable application, the antenna design should be flexible, com- 7
pact, and simple in structure. As per complicated antenna designs are concerns, it is 8
not possible to prove and attempt all flexible antenna properties. Moreover, the con- 9
temporary wireless body area network (WBAN) application demands simple and 10
compact structures; these necessitate the various miniaturization methods. To 11
address the same, this research proposes a simplistic design of miniaturized fully 12
textile antenna with slot techniques for wearable applications at 2.5 GHz. The utili- 13
zation of a full ground plane in this design provides good isolation among antenna 14
and user, which results in increase radiation performance and also lowers on-body 15
radiation. For substrate material, denim fabric is used; the choice of denim is owing 16
to its reasonable thickness, flexibility, tear resistance, permittivity value, and 17
P. M. Potey (*)
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, LTCOE,
Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: pranita.potey@ltce.in
K. Tuckley
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: kushal@ee.iitb.ac.in
A. Thakare
Principal Solution Architect, Bullhorn International Bishopsgate, London, UK
e-mail: Anjali.Thakare@bullhorn.com

Switzerland AG 2022
316 P. M. Potey et al.
18 worldwide fabric popularity, whereas fabric used for radiating patch and ground
19 plane is known as Coatex conductive fabric.
20 Initiating with classical rectangular patch antenna, some sagacious modification
21 is done by the introduction of the slot at an appropriate position to achieve a reason-
22 able size reduction. For this simulation of the proposed design, CADFEKO soft-
23 ware is used. The final prototype is fabricated, and its performance parameter is
24 compared with basic rectangular patch and related recent literature. When com-
25 pared to recent literature, the proposed patch offers a simple miniaturized structure
26 without the use of metamaterial, SIW, EBG, or any complicated structure. SIW
27 techniques are used to reduce the size of an antenna at a high-frequency cavity, by
28 reducing antenna resonance frequency without changing its physical size. The rea-
29 son of reducing antenna resonant frequency is to attain a cavity volume reduction;
30 for this, the technique of stored energy in a perturbed cavity is castoff.
31 2 Literature Survey
32 This paper [1] introduces a novel ultraminiaturized metamaterial-inspired, cavity-

33 backed substrate and substrate integrated waveguide and wearable textile antenna
34 for wearable applications. This antenna is designed using flexible and wearable fab-
35 ric materials, conductive fabrics, and wool felt. Fabricated antenna design is 80%
36 smaller in size than existing antenna designs. Decent matching was perceived
37 among the simulated and measured results when tested on VNA. By using the phan-
38 tom effect of the human body on antenna, parameters are measured and investi-
39 gated. The maximum numerically calculated specific absorption rate in the human
40 body model over 10 g of tissue was 0.38 W/kg, on average, for 500 mw of input
41 power, which is less than the 2 W/kg European limit. The design and configuration
42 of the antenna make it a suitable choice for off-body applications.
43 The effect of bending on wearable textile antenna performance operating at a
44 2.4-GHz industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band is examined [2]. This rectan-
45 gular patch is designed with denim textile and copper- and nickel-plated polyester
46 fabric. Denim for substrate and polyester for conductive part is used. To determine
47 the effect of the antenna bending around its width and length, it is fixed on different
48 body parts like leg, wrist, hand, and chest. As a result, shown in [2], bending has a
49 noteworthy effect on parameters like radiation pattern and gain, as compared to a
50 flat structure. This paper [3] presents the compact monopole which is backed with
51 2 × 1 array of electromagnetic bandgap planar structure for body area network. The
52 electromagnetic bandgap (EBG) array in the proposed structure not only serves to
53 isolate the antenna from the human body but also contributes toward enhanced radi-
54 ation efficiency. Parameters like the figure of the electromagnetic bandgap one cell
55 and break between the ground and the electromagnetic bandgap layer are arranged
56 to achieve resonance at 2.45 GHz. This design when subjected to human body
57 exhibits bandwidth of 5% and gain of 6.88 dBi, maintaining impedance matching.
58 This antenna is fabricated with semi-flexible 5880 substrate RT-duroid with
Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna for Wearable Application 317
dielectric constant of 2.2 and loss tan of 0.0009. This antenna maintains good per- 59
formance when subjected to bending and exposed to human skin. Abbasi claims it 60
has robust and compact structure, high gain, and low specific absorption rate. 61
Bending and on-arm effects on a wearable antenna for 2.45-GHz body area net- 62
work are done in [4]. Comparisons of the three flexible wearable textile antennas at 63
a frequency of 2.45 GHz are done. For fabrication of conductive part, copper foil 64
with thickness 0.05 mm and Shieldex 0.05 mm thickness is used and insulation part 65
felt substrate having relative permittivity 1.2 and 2 mm thickness is used. To avoid 66
a shift in resonance frequency when placed on the human body, radiating patch and 67
ground plane are connected with two shorting probes. When this structure is com- 68
pared with other structure without probe, the size of the antenna is reduced. 69
Moreover, on the basis of two designs, smallest-size antenna is designed, and its 70
performance on human arm is investigated. 71
A single-band two-mode wearable antenna design is fabricated and tested on and 72
off body for BAN applications at ISM band [5, 6]. For on-body mode of operation, 73
microstrip ring structure is used, and off-body mode is achieved by placing small 74
meandered microstrip patch inside the ring. This design shares a common ground 75
plane, but these two antennas are fed separately. Better impedance matching and 76
good mutual coupling at a given frequency, as well as minor effect of exposure to 77
skin mimic on the antenna’s return loss, are found. Antenna also maintains a decent 78
performance toward structural deformation within the limits permitted by its rigid- 79
ity. Extension to similar design, Mendes further investigates the transmission per- 80
formance of on- and off-body wearable antenna in the presence of a human phantom 81
model with the shape and physical properties similar to a human chest. Both numer- 82
ical simulations and experimental results are presented. 83
One more method used for designing compact antenna is by using magneto- 84
dielectric materials, also popularly known as MD materials, which have permeabil- 85
ity and permittivity greater than unity and have shown to provide performance 86
advantages [7]. 87
A technique to reduce the volume of a planar substrate integrated waveguide 88
(SIW) cavity-backed antenna is presented [8]. The volume reduction is done by 89
incorporating a capacitive element with the purpose of reducing the resonance fre- 90
quency of the cavity. The cavity design process is examined by providing external 91
coupling, antenna arrangement, and, finally, the process employed to modify the 92
operational frequency of the system, accomplishing the volume reduction. This 93
compact antenna design was manufactured and measured successfully with good 94
gain and front-to-back ratio. This proposed method is well-matched with standard 95
PCB manufacturing processes and can be replicated for wearable antenna design- 96
ing, getting up to 50% less in the volume, without disturbing the performance of an 97
antenna. 98
99 3 Textile Material Investigation
100 Some investigators have reviewed and studied textiles’ dielectric properties [9].
101 Textiles are anisotropic in nature; thus, material characterization depends on the
102 orientation of the electric field. This anisotropy property is completely defined with
103 a permittivity tensor in useful operations. A particular factor of a tensor is sufficient
104 to describe the performance of fabric material for a particular use. Therefore, the
105 performance of the material is described by the relative permittivity. The dielectric
106 constant of fabric material is governed by the property of fiber component [10] and
107 fiber filling density. The exact calculation of dielectric properties of fabric material
108 is difficult, and various investigation methods have been proposed. Different inves-
109 tigators used different methods, such as resonance method [11], method of moment
110 (MoM), non-line behavior resonance method, free-space method, and transmission
111 line method. Among these methods, the most acceptable and capable is the one that
112 is built on the calculation of transmission used.
113 Methods of determining the dielectric properties of the textile material are cate-
114 gorized by [12] as non-resonant methods and resonance methods. Non-resonant
115 methods are based on the use of reflection and transmission techniques. To measure
116 the value of the fabric’s relative permeability, the reflection technique uses reflec-
117 tion information of the free-space electromagnetic wave to the sample material
118 which is under test. The method used to extract the exact value of dielectric proper-
119 ties of any material at one particular frequency or at distinct frequencies is resonant
120 method. Materials having a substrate dielectric constant with low values are used
121 because it lessens surface-wave losses. Low surface-wave losses are useful to direct
122 the propagation of waves inside the substrate.
123 The properties of fabric material used in this research are measured with the
124 dielectric broadband spectrometer at 2.5 GHz as shown in Fig. 1. For testing pur-
125 poses, a sample material with a diameter of 4.11 mm and a thickness of 0.08 mm is
126 considered. After line calibration of the instrument, calibration of the sample holder
127 under short and open conditions using air and Teflon as a dielectric is done. Then,
128 the sample is properly loaded between sample holders of a spectrometer. An appro-
129 priate value of frequency is chosen to run the measurement. Table 1 indicates the
130 measured substrate material properties used to design the antenna at 2.5 GHz.
131 Minimizing the value of the dielectric constant maximizes spatial waves that
132 tend to increase antenna impedance bandwidth. This permits antenna improvement
133 in the form of efficiency and gain [11]. Normally, textiles are holey and exhibit a
134 low value of dielectric constant [13]. Due to the presence of air molecules in its
135 hole, the value of relative permittivity equals unity. Deviation in the value of dielec-
136 tric constant with the presence of moisture inside the textile substrate affects the
137 bandwidth of an antenna [14]. The change in the value of relative permittivity lies
138 within a specific range. Nevertheless, the variation in permittivity is out of the scope
139 of this paper. Substrate material thickness and dielectric constant determine the per-
140 formance in terms of bandwidth and efficiency of the antenna. In fabric materials,
141 permittivity values are narrow in range, and their thickness has more variations,
Fig. 1 Broadband spectrometer used for the measurement of fabric properties
t1.1 Table 1 Substrate material properties used for designing the antenna at 2.5 GHz
Material properties Values t1.2
ε′ 6.06 t1.3
ε″ 1.59e 02 t1.4
|ε| 6.06 t1.5
Loss tangent 2.62e-03 t1.6
Modulus′ 1.64e-01 t1.7
Modulus″ 4.32e-03 t1.8
which will decide the bandwidth and input impedance. Thus, in the design of fully 142
textile antennas, fabric thickness plays an important role [14]. For a certain value of 143
relative permittivity, a thick substrate may increase the bandwidth of the antenna, 144
but this will not improve efficiency. Therefore, one can conclude that the selection 145
of material thickness is a negotiation between two antenna parameters, that is, band- 146
width and efficiency. 147
4 Design Procedure of Antenna 148
Initially, antenna is designed with basic rectangular patch structure. Three important 149
parameters for designing textile antennas are substrate relative permittivity, conduc- 150
tivity of radiating material, and resonance frequency. Normally, according to appli- 151
cation, for which antenna is to be designed, selection of frequency is done. For this 152
research and design of an antenna, ISM band is selected as it is a license-free band, 153
154 and therefore it can be used for industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Thus,
155 these design antennas are operating at a frequency of 2.5 GHz. Denim fabric is
156 chosen because it is most popular and is commonly used by male and female as
157 well. Used denim has values of relative permittivity and loss tangent equal to 1.6
158 and 0.02, respectively, at 2.5 GHz. Due to the selection of low-value fabric substrate
159 dielectric constant, surface-wave losses are reduced, and bandwidth is increased.
160 Textile used as a substrate is very thin; hence, two to three layers are stacked together
161 to achieve the desired height. Therefore, the material becomes heterogeneous due to
162 the occurrence of extra air layers between two materials of fabrics. Substrate height
163 1.6 mm is considered to minimize losses. Normal scissors are used for cutting fab-
164 rics, and a special small-distance stitch with analogous kind of thread is used to
165 attach the pieces of fabric together. For measurement and feeding purpose of an
166 antenna, SMA connector of 50 Ω is attached with a low-power soldering gun and
167 superior glue. This carefully designed basic rectangular patch antenna can be used
168 as embroidery on garment sleeves, collars, or pockets or in some special applica-
169 tions. Dimensions for designing basic antenna are shown in Table 2, and Fig. 2a
170 shows the design geometry.
171 Simulation of basic rectangular patch designs is carried out using CADFEKO
172 software. The simulated results, return loss −19.81, gain 6.6, and efficiency 68% are
173 obtained.
174 For further improvement in gain, return loss, and efficiency, slight modification
175 is done in existing basic fully textile patch with insertion of slots. This revised wear-
176 able antenna design exhibits two similar slots, both showing a self-symmetry pat-
177 tern. This modification in antenna structure with slots is done through determination
178 of surface current density. The philosophy behind creating this slot is that the slot
179 emphasizes the restriction on the flow path of the electrical current and then ulti-
180 mately the current has to flow around the slot. This results in increase of equivalent
181 path length of current on patch. Figure 2b depicts modified geometry of revised
182 wearable fully textile antenna.
183 Thus, traditional rectangular patch design (Antenna #1) is simulated and
184 designed; successively, some alteration with the introduction of two symmetrical
185 slots on either side of the patch (Antenna #2) in order to improve size reduction and
186 overall performance of an antenna is done. Later, four similar slits at each one
t2.1 Table 2 Basic antenna design dimensions

Antenna parameter Design dimension (mm) t2.2
Material type Denim + conductive fabric t2.3
Length (L) × width (W) 52.6 × 46.2 t2.4
Ground plane 70 × 75 t2.5
Substrate height (h) 1.6 t2.6
Feedline width (Wf) 2.8 t2.7
Dielectric constant (εr) 1.6 t2.8
Loss tangent 0.002 t2.9
Total feed length 36.2 t2.10
Fig. 2 Evolution of antenna (a) Antenna #1 basic structure (b) Antenna #2 slot structure (c)
Antenna #3 slot and slit structure
corner are introduced (Antenna #3) for further size reduction. Figure 2 depicts the 187
geometry of all three versions of the design. 188
The proposed fully wearable textile antenna (Antenna #3) is designed on a 189
1.6 mm-thick denim substrate with a relative permittivity of 1.6 and loss tangent of 190
0.002. Coatex conductive fabric with conductivity of 3.5 × 107 s/m is used. The 191
miniaturized structure has a substrate dimension of about 70(L) mm × 75(W) mm 192
attached to the textile radiating patch of dimensions 0.34λ0 × 0.24λ0. Two sym- 193
metrical slot structures on either side of the patch are introduced with the total width 194
of the slot (2 × W2 + W1) as 13 mm, whereas the total length of the slot is similar 195
to the width due to symmetry. 196
For the reduction of overall antenna size, four similar slits, one at each corner, are 197
introduced with length L3 and width W3 as 1.5 mm and 3.8 mm, respectively. 198
The total feed length of the antenna F1 is 36.2 mm and the width 2.8 mm. By 199
creating slits at all four corners efficiently, size reduction is possible, as well as an 200
increase in return loss, whereas other parameters of the antenna, like gain and effi- 201
ciency, do not change much. Figure 3 shows the antenna schematic with two slots 202
and four-corner slit designs with all dimension nomenclature. All dimensions of the 203
proposed design are shown in Table 3. For the fabrication process of prototype sub- 204
strate and conductive materials, pure textile was chose as it provides better flexibil- 205
ity and comfort. Also, for the measurement of electromagnetic properties, the denim 206
broadband spectrometer is used. Before the fabrication process, the denim material 207
is washed and then dried for at least 24 h in temperatures 38–400 C to minimize the 208
shrinking effect of fabric. 209
To achieve substrate thickness as per the design dimensions, three layers of 210
denim material are stitched together with the help of a normal sewing machine. 211
After that, conductive textiles are attached at the top and bottom of the denim- 212
layered substrate as per the design. Conductive glue is used for fabric layer attach- 213
ment, and special care is taken for the alignment of the fabric layers. Finally, the 214
sub-miniature version (SMA) connector is attached to its appropriate position by 215
using silver conductive glue. Figure 4 specifies the fabricated model of a fully tex- 216
tile antenna with a front and rear view. Due to the addition of two symmetrical slots 217
Fig. 3 Geometry of proposed fully textile antenna
Fig. 4 Photographs of the fabricated prototype (a) Top view (b) Rear view
Table 3 Proposed antenna parameter (units are in mm) t3.1
L W LS WS L1 W1 t3.2
45.5 32.2 70 75 5 5 t3.3
L2 W2 L3 W3 F1 Y t3.4
4 4 1.5 3.8 36.2 11.4 t3.5
with appropriate dimensions, size reduction compared to the basic rectangular patch 218
antenna structure from 52.6(L) mm x 46.2(W) mm to 41.5(L) mm x 29.2(W) mm is 219
achieved. This modification in the antenna structure is done through the determina- 220
tion of surface current density. Normally slot dimensions are considered 20λ–100λ; 221
large slot results in more frequency variation and vice versa; in this case, 30λ is 222
chosen for final optimization. Also change by creating a slit at each corner of the 223
radiating patch further reduces the electrical area by increasing the current path, 224
which will result in efficiency enlargement. Finally, the coaxial line is matched and 225
positioned at an optimized offset point from the center. 226
Thus, the advantages of this slot and slit geometry method claimed for size 227
reduction over other complicated methods like EBG [3], SIW [1], MD [7], and 228
metamaterials used in recent literatures are that these methods require supplemen- 229
tary materials, which are needed to form some special kind of structure. However, 230
slit and slot method needs few modifications in the existing geometry. Secondly, it 231
increases the design complexity along with the manufacturing and production cost. 232
Due to the complexity of the EBG structures, it is usually difficult to characterize 233
them through purely analytical methods. Now and then, it suffers from problems 234
such as narrow bandwidth, low gain, and excitation of surface waves. For SIW 235
method, due to the use of dielectric into the antenna structure, dielectric losses will 236
occur, which may result in a decrease in antenna efficiency. 237
5 Performance Analysis 238
For experimental analysis of antenna performance, the measurement of an antenna 239

is carried out on the vector network analyzer. The investigational outcome regarding 240
the measured reflection coefficient represents minor variation as compared to the 241
simulated one as shown in Fig. 5. 242
Fig. 5 Comparison of simulated and measured return loss of proposed fully textile antenna
243 This discrepancy is due to various factors like manual construction and assembly
244 of an antenna, presence of an air cavity due to the attachment, fabric wrinkle ten-
245 dency, etc. Also, owing to the porous nature of the fabric, while stacking its layers
246 to achieve the desired thickness, there is a possibility of change in its original value
247 of relative permittivity. To endorse the precise reflection coefficient characteristics,
248 it is suggested that appropriate care must be taken during the construction of the
249 textile antenna to minimize shift in frequency. The measurement for return loss and
250 other parameters of the proposed fully textile antenna and their comparisons with
251 the simulated results are shown in Table 4.
252 Also, the comparison of the final design with the previous two designs is carried
253 out, which are formulated in Table 5. By insertion of two symmetrical slots and one
254 slit at each corner of the radiating patch, miniaturized antenna is achieved. Size
255 reduction with less modification is the main achievement of the research. Apart
256 from this, improvement in SAR, gain, and efficiency is also achieved. In conclusion,
257 results have been obtained with the lowest value of S11 and with reasonable
258 improvement in efficiency, that is, 70%.
259 A measured and simulated result of the radiation pattern also shows a decent
260 settlement with minor deviation. Figure 6 indicates measured and simulation plots
261 of the radiation pattern. One notable observation is that this miniaturized design has
262 approximately 80% radiation in the forward direction and less radiation in the back-
263 ward direction.
264 Back radiation indicates energy absorbed by the human tissue when placed on
265 the human body. Thus, low SAR value is a noteworthy parameter. The simulated
266 value of a specific absorption rate at operating frequency reaches 0.26 W/kg for 10 g
267 of tissues. As per FCC norms, the SAR level limit for public exposure is 1.6 W/kg.
268 However, the proposed antenna shows very less values as compared to the limit
269 given by the FCC due to its unique structure and a full ground plane. Thus, this is
270 beneficial to increase input power in case of transmitting mode.
271 This antenna provides an excellent solution for body-worn applications where
272 compact design is a demand. The literature on recent miniaturized structures of
273 wearable antennas in this field is compared with the proposed work shown in
274 Table 6. Therefore, it is concluded that the proposed antenna is the smallest textile
275 antenna among the compared ones with reasonable gain and efficiency. This antenna
276 is also compared with a compact inflexible antenna [15] design with FR4, which has
277 dimensions of 50.9 × 33 × 0.8 mm3. The proposed antenna is compact.
278 Thus, it is comprehended; the proposed antenna design has a miniaturized
279 dimension with good gain and reasonable efficiency. This is thus achieved just by
280 creating appropriate slots in the antenna structure without the usage of SIW tech-
281 nique, EBG, or any complicated structure like the one used in [1–6].
Table 4 Measured and simulated results of the final design t4.1
Results Freq. (GHz) Return loss (dB) VSWR Gain (dB) Efficiency (%) t4.2
Simulated 2.50 −42.10 1.01 6.5 70.6 t4.3
Measured 2.52 −23.46 1.13 6.0 69.6 t4.4
Table 5 Comparative analysis of all three antennas (stepwise modified) designs t5.1
S11 SAR Gain η Area t5.2

Antenna type (dB) (W/kg) (dB) (%) (mm2) t5.3
Antenna #1 −19.81 0.01 6.6 67.9 2350 t5.4
Antenna #2 −26.69 0.5 6.3 70.1 1720 t5.5
Antenna #3 −42.10 0.26 6.5 70.6 1500 t5.6
Fig. 6 Comparison of 0
simulated and measured 330 5 30
radiation plot of proposed 0
fully textile antenna –5
300 –10 60
–15
–20
–25
270 90
240 120
210 150
180
Simulated Measured
6 Bending and Human Body Analysis 282
Conferring to the application requirements, these antennas are used on the human 283
body at different positions, and thus the antenna faces bending as per the wearer’s 284
body posture. Analysis of the human body is a bit challenging as the human body 285
material property changes according to frequency. To simulate the bending and 286
human body analysis scenario of two small sections (curved and flat), four-layer 287
skin models are considered, which consist of skin, fat, muscle, and bone. The curved 288
model depicts structural deformation of an antenna in the presence of the human 289
body. Thus, these models are useful for analyzing both the scenario of human body 290
presence and bending. 291
Antenna bending results are compared to those obtained without bending, since 292
the antenna is placed on a flat skin model and then on a circular skin model. Both 293
flat skin model and curved skin model are designed at 2.5 GHz as shown in Figs. 7a 294
and b. The skin, fat, muscle, and bone thickness are considered as 2, 5, 20, and 295
13 mm, respectively. Material parameters of the human body at a frequency of 296
2.5 GHz are shown in Table 7 [16]. Table 8 displays comparisons of simulated 297
Table 6 Comparison of proposed antenna with other wearable antennas from literature t6.1
Reference/Year Size (mm3) Freq. (GHz) ɛr S11 (dB) Gain (dBi) η (%) t6.2
[1] 2017 74.5 × 48 × 3.34 2.45 1.4 −48 5.35 74.3 t6.3
[2] 2017 51 × 46 × 2 2.45 1.6 −16 4.0 NP t6.4
[3] 2017 68 × 38 × 1.57 2.45 2.2 −34 6.88 76 t6.5
[4] 2016 46 × 25 × 2 2.45 1.2 −33 4.48 NP t6.6
[5, 6] 64.9 × 64.9 × 8.6 2.45 1.17 −21 5.9 61.4 t6.7
2017–2018 t6.8
This work 41.5 × 29.2 × 2 2.5 1.6 −40 6.5 70.0 t6.9
*
NP is not provided t6.10
Fig. 7 Antenna on-body (a) Flat skin model and (b) curved skin model with antenna
298 antenna parameters in the presence of biological tissues with and without bending.
299 Dielectric properties of the human body disturb the overall performance of an
300 antenna, but still, readings are below the threshold level.
301 Specific absorption rate (SAR) is a measure of power absorbed per unit mass,
302 e.g., in the human body tissue. It may be spatially averaged over the total mass of an
303 exposed body or its parts, and it is calculated from the root-mean-square electric
304 field strength, i.e., E (in volts per meter) inside the human body; the conductivity,
305 i.e., σ (in Siemens per meter); and the mass density, i.e., ρ (in kilograms per cubic
306 meter) of the biological tissue. The SAR describes the initial rate of temperature rise
307 as a function of the specific heat capacity of the tissue. In this case, the value of SAR
308 is 0.518 W/Kg for 2.5 GHz, which is shown in Fig. 8.
309 7 Parametric Analysis and Variations
310 In this work, the experimental results of the antenna are observed under various
311 parametric changes. To completely comprehend the effect of these factors based on
312 frequency variability, just by changing the sloth length, the parametric study is
Table 7 Material properties of human body at 2.5 GHz t7.1
Properties Skin Fat Muscle Bone t7.2

Permittivity 37.95 5.27 52.67 18.49 t7.3
Conductivity (S/m) 1.49 0.11 1.77 0.82 t7.4
Density (kg/m3) 1001 900 1006 1008 t7.5
Table 8 Bending and on-body analysis t8.1
Type of antenna Freq. (GHz) S11 (dB) SAR Gain (dB) ηrad (%) t8.2
On-body without bending 2.46 −24 0.11 6.3 67.0 t8.3
On-body with bending 2.42 −23 0.23 6.1 65.0 t8.4
carried out. However, the remaining parameters are considered constant at opti- 313
mum values. 314
To fulfill the requirement of refining the overall performance of antenna param- 315
eters, this slot and slit geometry of wearable antenna design has undergone three 316
iterations. In the first iteration, the width of the outer segment of the slot W2 is 317
considered as 3 mm, and simulation is run for the same. However, the second itera- 318
tion and the third iteration W2 end at 4 mm and 5 mm, respectively. Moreover, an 319
important element for efficiency and size reduction are W3 and L3; W1 is the inden- 320
tation width. For all three iterations, the finest return loss is found at a 4-mm slot. 321
Figure 9 presents simulated return loss for the first iteration, second iteration, and 322
third iteration of the final design. 323
Therefore, it is observed that by changing the slots’ length of the radiating patch 324
from 3 mm to 5 mm, the proposed design can operate at three different frequencies: 325
2.2 GHz, 2.5 GHz, and 2.7 GHz. In this way, just changing the slot length frequency 326
variability can be achieved, which may be useful in various frequency changeability 327
wearable applications. To locate the feed point position, a microstrip feedline feed- 328
ing method is used. Theoretically, the position of the feed point is located at such a 329
point where the input impedance value is 50 Ω. Generally, it is considered as length 330
divided by six, since it will not result in return loss as most negative. 331
Therefore, a pilot method is applied for the various positions of the feed point, 332
and finally, the location chooses where the S11 is most negative. For inset fedline, 333
the proposed antenna consists of three iterations. Feed slots with 8 mm, 10 mm, and 334
12 mm are tried, and the outcomes of all dimensions are displayed as shown in 335
Fig. 10. Here, in this analysis, scarcer variation in frequency is observed by chang- 336
ing a feed inner slot. 337
Fig. 8 Simulated specific absorption rate verses frequency graph
Fig. 9 Simulated return loss graph for three different iterations (with variations in the inner
slot length)
338 8 Conclusions and Future Scope
339 To boost the efficiency and overall antenna performance, few alterations are done in
340 the antenna design. The investigated patch is reasonably smaller in size than the
341 recent antennas in the literature. The use of fabric material in designing makes this
342 antenna different from the regular rigid antenna. This proposed and investigated
343 design not only increases the overall performance but can be easily extended to vari-
344 able frequency antennas just by changing the slot length. Thus, the simulated and
Fig. 10 Simulated S11 with variation in feed slot length (8 mm, 10 mm, and 12 mm)
measured results of the proposed design indicate this miniaturized antenna as an 345
appropriate candidate for various wearable applications. This compact antenna can 346
be used in all leisurewear, security, and biomedical wireless wearable applications, 347
which demand compact wearable antenna design. 348
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Terahertz Antenna Technology 1
for Detection of Explosives and Weapons: 2
A Concise Review 3
A. Praveena, V. A. Sankar Ponnapalli, and G. Umamaheswari 4
1 Introduction 5
In recent times, wireless prompt data transmission has grown exponentially as a 6

result of changes in the way of information usage in the modern society. This change 7
is accompanied by a growing need for wireless communication at very high speeds 8
anywhere at any time [1]. Thus, to accelerate data being transferred, a possible 9
interpretation is to establish a distinct frequency band, which signifies a terahertz 10
electromagnetic wave (EMW) in an empty space in the middle microwaves and 11
infrared region [2]. The THz region is a spectrum band which extends a frequency 12
curve within 0.1–10 THz. Although the frequency region below is microwave and 13
the band above is far infrared, this region is enormously researched; however, it 14
remains as the undetermined frequency spectral bands utilized in the field of com- 15
munication [3]. But more recently, this band region attracted the attention of 16
researchers and also is being utilized in a few real-time fields. There are several 17
aspects that contribute against the increased attention toward terahertz waves as 18
mentioned below [4]: 19
• Terahertz waves (T-waves) can enter across hidden objects, in particular packing, 20
book bags, corrugated cardboard, clothing, shoes, etc., to find harmful objects 21
kept inside. 22
A. Praveena (*) · V. A. S. Ponnapalli

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sreyas Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
G. Umamaheswari
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, PSG College of Technology,
e-mail: uma.ece@psgtech.ac.in

Switzerland AG 2022
332 A. Praveena et al.
23 • Several of the objects of interest in terms of safety, including harmful explosives

24 and natural chemicals, contain spectra features of the terahertz region that can be
25 utilized to take fingerprints and identify the hidden objects.
26 • No damage to the terahertz system could be suspected when it was filmed under
27 terahertz radiation.
28 • As terahertz region is located in the middle of microwaves and infrared, THz
29 radiation possesses properties of these areas [5]. This region is non-harmful and
30 non-ionizing living organisms. However, the effects of T-waves on human spe-
31 cifically keratinocyte can be noted from [6–9] (Fig. 1).
32 This region has various advantages over infrared and microwave region [10].
33 • The microwave band is being used for a variety of services, where the bandwidth
34 is limited. Instead, terahertz can provide wider bandwidth.
35 • The T-wave diffraction is less compared to millimeter wave and microwave,
36 which is actually a leading point in the line-of-sight (LOS) signaling link.
37 • The rated frequency of 250 GHz and beyond is not licensed in the latest pro-
38 posal made.
39 • This region is relatively safe, importantly in the technology of broadcast fre-
40 quency spectrum.
41 • Compared with infrared, THz has a lower signal loss in specific atmospheric
42 situations like foggy atmosphere.
43 • A dynamic atmospheric index escalates the scintillation effect on the given infra-
44 red link and can be decreased to the T-wave network connection.
45 • Notable improvements in data transmission in the field of infrared wireless com-
46 munication are slowing because of the need for modern modulation patterns such
47 as orthogonal.
ELECTRONIQUE PHOTONIQUE
Gap
THz
Radio Microondes IR Visible UV
ν 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz 300 GHz 3 THz 30 THz 300 THz
λ 1m 10 cm 1 cm 1 mm 100 µm 10 µm 1 µm
E (meV) 1,2.10–3 12,4.10–3 0,124 1,24 12,4 124 1240
Fig. 1 Electromagnetic spectrum illustrating terahertz region [11]

Terahertz Antenna Technology for Detection of Explosives and Weapons: A Concise… 333
1.1 Sources of Terahertz Frequencies [12] 48
Terahertz frequencies are generated either naturally or artificially. Natural terahertz 49

radiation is emitted as part of a dark body radiation from anything with tempera- 50
tures above 10 K. While these thermal emissions are very weak, exposure to these 51
bumps is important in defining 10–20 K of cold dust in the Milky Way galaxy and 52
in distant galaxies – starburst. On other hand, terahertz frequencies can be generated 53
using gyrotron, far-infrared laser, backward-wave oscillator, free-electron lasers, 54
quantum cascade laser, photo-mixing sources, gas lasers, photoconductive anten- 55
nas, etc. 56
1.2 Detectors of Terahertz Frequencies [13] 57
The detection of terahertz frequency by the conventional electronic means can only 58
reach the lower end of the terahertz region. Therefore, various other methods of 59
obtaining terahertz have been developed. Some of them involve the use of photon- 60
ics. Photoconductive antennas can be used for both the generation and detection of 61
terahertz frequencies and detection with nonlinear crystal materials, bolometer. 62
Further, this chapter is organized as follows: Sect. 2 demonstrates various appli- 63
cations of terahertz frequencies, Sect. 3. analyzes the terahertz properties of materi- 64
als, Sect. 4 discusses the various types of terahertz antenna, and Sect. 5 explains the 65
challenges involved in the design and development of terahertz antennas and pos- 66
sible solutions. Finally, the conclusion is discussed. 67
2 Applications of Terahertz Frequencies 68
Wireless connections to T-wave bands are anticipated to create the origination of 69

more approaches in the near future. More-or-less technology that is missing is likely 70
to be achieved due to their higher data rate requirements and can be applied with a 71
wide range of bandwidth in the T-wave region. Anyway with shorter distance, 72
higher-performance data rate field becomes a possible THz connection. Nevertheless, 73
nanodevices will also be the same capable of operating at T-wave frequencies 74
because those waves have very short wavelengths when compared to millimeter 75
(mm) wavelengths and nanodevices containing small antennas that will be allowed 76
to communicate under such conditions. The wireless nanodevices will bring about 77
several distinct applications [14] (Table 1). 78
Terahertz radiation finds ample applications. In many situations, these use not all 79
but few of the special features of T-waves [13]. It has applications in wireless 80
advanced sensing systems, explosives and biohazards, imaging and communication, 81
etc. [16]. Terahertz radiation has applications at macro-scales as well as nanoscales 82
Table 1 Timeline of terahertz application [15] t1.1
Field/Year 2007 2010 2015 t1.2

Communications 10 Gbps 40 Gbps 100 Gbps t1.3
Medical Cancer imaging On site diagnosis Fibre coupled t1.4
Food Inspection system Food quality t1.5
Security Imaging Explosives Aiports Mobile t1.6
Applications of Terahertz (THz)
Macro-scale Nano-scale
applications Applications
Indoor
Indoor Outdoor On-body Outdoor
Applications
Applications Applications Applications Applications
Nano sensors
Information Precise Internet of in Agricultural
Imaging/
Shower Medicine Nano things Applications
scanning
Terahertz Terahertz 5G Nano Sensors

local area On-chip in Defence
Sensing cellular Nano sensors Communication
network network
Nano sensors
Tera-bit Tera-bit Minimally
in industry 4.0
wireless Wireless wireless local invasive Software
personal area Communication area network surgical defined Meta-
network procedures Materials
Tera-bit Within the

Communication living (VIVO) Mobile Access
procedures
Fig. 2 Broad classification of terahertz applications [19]
83 [17]. Terahertz application at macrolevel includes 5G cellular networks, terabit

84 wireless LAN, terabit wireless PAN, and secure terabit wireless communication. A
85 few major applications of terahertz frequencies at nanoscale are health monitoring
86 systems, advanced sensing for defense applications, the Internet of nanothings, and
87 ultra-high-speed on-chip communication [17, 18]. Few other important applications
88 of terahertz radiation include terahertz spectroscopy and safety aspects [13] (Fig. 2).
89 3 Material Properties at Terahertz Radiation
90 It is important to know the metal and dielectric properties at terahertz radiation. In

91 the design of terahertz systems, it is necessary to have an accurate model for detect-
92 ing metal-dependent metal conductivity and dielectric characteristics at these fre-
93 quencies. Modeling THZ objects such as antennas, filters, and waveguides using
94 computer-aided design tools require precise design of the material because the
smallest error can affect all systems. Suffice it to say that the standard of the Drude 95
model is sufficient to predict the operation of the copper metal terahertz at room 96
temperature. The dielectric constant and tangent losses can be calculated from the 97
refraction index and extinction coefficient found in the terahertz radiation. Using 98
Fourier transform techniques on THz-TDS samples, the complex refractive index 99
values of the material [20] were calculated. 100
4 Types of Terahertz Antenna 101
The typical terahertz antennasinclude terahertz photoconductive antennas, MEMS- 102

based antennas, THz antennas with artificial dielectric substrate, terahertz horn 103
antennas, photonic bandgap-based antennas, graphene-based antennas, terahertz 104
lens antennas, terahertz microstrip antennas, substrate integrated antennas, and tera- 105
hertz on-chip antennas [2, 21]. This section mainly concentrates on terahertz 106
microstrip antennas for various applications. 107
4.1 Overview of Microstrip Antennas 108
A microstrip antenna is known for their low profile, light weight, low cost, and their 109
ease of integration into devices [22]. 110
Microstrip patch antennas, as illustrated in Fig. 3, consist of a very fine radiating 111
metallic patch and a ground plane, which are separated by a dielectric substrate 112
sheet [23]. There are various dielectric materials used in microstrip/planar antennas. 113
patch
W
L
h dielectric (r)
ground
Fig. 3 A basic structural view of microstrip/planar antenna

Fig. 4 Typical patch

shapes for microstrip/
planar antenna
Square Rectangular Circular
Annualr Ring Eliptical Triangle
114 Patches are usually made by conductive radiating materials including gold, cop-
115 per, etc. [3]. Radiating metallic patches can theoretically form any shape, but most
116 preferably, the traditional shapes are round and rectangles. Figure 4 represents vari-
117 ous typical/common shapes used for microstrip patch antennas.
118 Patch and probe feed lines are commonly photo-etched on a dielectric substrate.
119 In a microstrip/planar antenna, the radiation occurs due to the fringing fields occur-
120 ring at the edges of the patch and the ground surface. The fringing field is illustrated
121 in Fig. 5 [13]. The resonance frequency of a microstrip patch is defined by the
122 length and width of the patch.
123 4.1.1 Terahertz Microstrip Antenna and Design Calculations
124 Before designing any microstrip antenna, one should know the application (or) fre-
125 quency at which antenna has to radiate and the dielectric constant (εr) of the chosen
126 dielectric substrate material.
127 Example: Let us design a microstrip antenna with a rectangular patch which radi-
128 ates at 5 terahertz frequency using a dielectric substrate with dielectric constant of
129 4.4 and thickness of 0.7.
130 Solution: Known values from the question
131 Resonance frequency (fr) = 5 terahertz = > 5 × 1012
132 Dielectric constant (εr) = 4.4
133 Velocity of light in free space (Vo) = 3 × 108
134 Height of the substrate (h) = 0.7 mm
135 Design Steps
136 Step 1: Calculate the width using Eq. (1):
Vo 2
W
2 fr r 1
137 (1)
138 Substituting the known values in Eq. (1),we get:
Z
A B
Fringe field
Probe feed
Electrical field
Feed line
Fig. 5 Illustration of fringing field effect microstrip/planar antenna
W 18.2 m
139
Step 1: Calculate the length using Eq. (2): 140
Vo
L 2 L
2 fr eff
(2) 141
where εeff denotes the effective dielectric constant and ΔLis the extra length 142
changed owing to the fringing field effect. 143
Resonance frequency (fr) of an antenna is determined by the definite length of the 144
radiating patch and represented by L: 145
r 1 r 1 1
eff
2 2 h
1 12
w (3) 146
Substituting the values of εr, h, and w in Eq. (3), we get εeff= 4.106. 147
Now on substituting the value of εeff in Eq. (4), we get ΔL = 0.3236. 148
w
eff 0.3 0.264
h
L 0.412h
w
eff 0.258 0.8
h (4)
149
Substituting the values of ΔL and εeff in Eq. (2), the value of L is obtained. 150
We get L = 14.15 μm. 151
After finding all the values of the geometric antenna parameters, a microstrip/ 152
planar antenna can be built into the available antenna simulation tools (Fig. 6). 153
Fig. 6 The flow graph for

antenna simulation in START
HFSS [24]
Select substrate Material
Create Substrate and Ground
Create Patch and Feed line
Assign Excitation and Boundary
No
Verify Design
Model and its
parameters
Yes
HFSS Simulation
Results
END
154 4.2 T
erahertz Microstrip/Planar Antenna for Wireless
155 Detection of Explosives and Weapons
156 Generally, terahertz microstrip antennas find applications in the areas of detection
157 of explosive materials, 5G cellular communications, terabit WLAN and WPAN
158 applications, Internet of nanothings, and RF energy harvesting. This book chapter
159 has concentrated on the detection of explosives and weapons using terahertz
160 microstrip antennas. Explosives are the most powerful material when discharged
161 into the environment, polluting it by placing toxic hazards to the environment and
162 biota. Globally, the soil is polluted by such pollution due to production activities,
163 military operations, and conflicts of varying degrees, open fire (OF), disposal of
164 construction equipment, and more. Among the various types of chemical explo-
165 sives, octahydro-1,3,5,7- tetranitro- 1,3,5,7- tetrazocine (HMX), hexahydro-1,3,5-
166 trinitro-
1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and 2,4, 6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) are the most
167 typical [25].
Fig. 7 (a) Geometric view, (b) return loss plot, and (c) gain terahertz antenna, respectively [27]
In [26], a textile terahertz microstrip patch antenna was designed and modeled 168
using CST Microwave Studio 2014. Denim materials with dielectric constant (εr) 169
1.6 are used as a dielectric substrate and obtained 7.002 dBi directivity, achieving a 170
7.359 dB gain at a resonance frequency of 8.208 THz. The 50.07 Ω of impedance 171
was achieved with an operating frequency (fo) range of 8.0841 THz–8.3321 THz 172
(247 GHz), which is suitable for applications such as detection of trinitrotoluene 173
(TNT) explosive materials. In [27], the antenna has a resonance frequency of 9.108 174
175 THz. The antenna has the operating range of 0.4303 THz (8.8919 THz–9.3225
176 THz) and impedance of 50.06 Ω. The gain of the simulated terahertz antenna is
177 7.357 dB, and the directivity obtained is 7.127 dBi, which is suitable for detection
178 of TNT explosive materials. Fig. 7a illustrates the terahertz antenna designed, and
179 Figs. 7b and c illustrate the retain loss and gain of the antenna.
180 A novel terahertz microstrip patch antenna employing polyimide with photonic
181 crystals as dielectric material for detection of explosives is discussed in [28]. The
182 radiating element that has been placed on polyimide with photonic crystals achieved
183 a high gain of 7.934 dB at a resonance frequency (fr) of 0.6398 THz and width of
184 36.25 GHz and directivity of 8.612 dBi. The performance of the projected antenna
185 is analyzed and compared for various photonic crystal hole radii, cylindrical dis-
186 tance, and different dielectric material heights.
187 Thus, with the advancements in nanostructures and contemporary materials,
188 antenna technology can achieve miniaturization while maintaining the required
189 parametric levels.
190 5 Design and Testing Challenges in Terahertz Antennas
191 While simulation tools offer a variety of effective designs and features for customiz-
192 able functionality, the practical accomplishment of printed antennas above 0.9 THz
193 remains questionable without the availability of appropriate and low-tech technol-
194 ogy. Hard research on this aspect of the practical fulfillment of printed antennas on
195 terahertz waves holds the potential for great wireless communication in the
196 future [29].
197 There are various challenges in designing and testing challenges in employing
198 antennas, which resonates at terahertz frequencies. These challenges include size of
199 the antenna, fabrication and testing, low gain, connectivity, etc.
200 There is a need to test the determining components, such as bandwidth, orienta-
201 tion, etc., with different antennas depending on the requirement of the applications.
202 The major developments in the design as well as the suitability of the antenna ele-
203 ments and antenna design are important to meet the desired properties. Terahertz
204 antenna specifications for impedance, bandwidth, polarization, etc. have not
205 methodically modeled. It is one of the major challenges in the field of terahertz
206 antenna technology [15] and these antennas find applications in various advanced
207 wireless applications [30–33].
208 6 Conclusions
209 The rapid development of various advanced wireless applications in diversified

210 fields makes the microwave spectrum congested, thereby demanding higher fre-
211 quency bands (terahertz) with high transmission data rates for next-generation
wireless systems. Terahertz antennas are important devices for transreceiving tera- 212
hertz frequencies in wireless communication systems. The performance of terahertz 213
has a major impact on the quality of the communication system. This chapter has 214
done an analysis on terahertz antennas, including the basic concepts, types of tera- 215
hertz antennas, and application fields. By analysis, it can be found that terahertz 216
antenna is currently facing a low gain, high cost, and precise fabrication challenges. 217
There is much scope of research in the field of terahertz antennas as most of the 218
terahertz antenna research is at theory stage, and due to the fabrication challenges, 219
these are manufactured very rarely. 220
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Part VII 1
Microstrip Antenna Design for Various 2
and Miscellaneous Applications 3

Determination of Moisture Content 1
from Microstrip Moisture Sensor 2
with Minimum Mean Relative Error 3
Sweety Jain 4
1 Introduction 5
The increasing population across the world is a phenomenon of discussion in terms 6

of their changing food habits. With the rise of their different eating habits, it is nec- 7
essary to fulfill their daily needs. It is possible only when food security is main- 8
tained [1–2]. 9
Cereals and grains are very essential part of human life. Without grains, nobody 10
can survive in the world because it provides necessary nutrition [3–6]. Hence, it is 11
inevitable to store and to protect the grains from the moisture content (MC) for a 12
long time. The microstrip moisture sensor (MMS) plays an essential role in detect- 13
ing the moisture content [7–10]. 14
To achieve this, microstrip moisture sensor is designed, whose aim will be to 15
detect the moisture content (mc) in stored grains accurately. While designing a sen- 16
sor, the first preference is given to its accuracy. Earlier, various designs have been 17
proposed: one that was based on a single-frequency sensor [11], one that had MRE 18
of 6% printed on RT/duroid 5880 [12], one that had MRE of 2.32% [13], one that 19
had MRE of 17.5% printed on RT/duroid 5880 [14], and one that had MRE of 3%. 20
Similarly, the proposed dual-frequency sensor [15] had MRE of 0.85% [16] 21
and 0.49%. 22
It is necessary that the presence of mc in grains should be as minimum as pos- 23
sible. So, the sensor which is about to be designed should have least MRE to main- 24
tain accuracy. By study, it was also found that with the increase in frequency, MRE 25
was also reduced. By keeping this in mind, during study, four-frequency sensor is 26
S. Jain (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication, Samrat Ashok Technological Institute,
Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh, India

Switzerland AG 2022
346 S. Jain
27 proposed over triple-frequency sensor with the aim that MRE will be further reduced
28 to 0% or near 0.
29 Here, it is indicated that in the result and discussion section (discussed below),
30 both designs are discussed simultaneously, but actually triple-frequency sensor is
31 designed first and then the four-frequency sensor. The reason behind the design of
32 four-frequency sensor is not having zero (or near zero) accuracy in the former sensor.
33 2 Results and Discussions
34 2.1 Design and Analysis of Microstrip Moisture Sensor
35 The microstrip moisture sensor is designed and analyzed with the help of CST soft-
36 ware [17]. The schematic view of the proposed microstrip sensor optimized dimen-
37 sions listed in Table 1.
38 Sensor is designed for 4.9 GHz, 6.7 GHz, and 8 GHz (triple-frequency sensor);
39 the motive behind the design of the sensor at this frequency is the lowest reflection
40 coefficient (simulated) of −15.72 dB, −37.58 dB, and −35.99 dB at 4.9 GHz,
41 6.7 GHz, and 8 GHz, respectively, among the range of frequencies (3 GHz–9 GHz)
42 determined with the help of CST software, and the same phenomenon can be seen
43 for measured reflection coefficient obtained from the VNA, which is also the lowest
44 among the range of frequencies, i.e., −14.16 dB, −35.98 dB, and −33.75 dB,
45 respectively, as shown in Fig. 1a.
46 Similarly, sensor is designed for these four frequencies (3.7 GHz, 5.8 GHz,
47 6.9 GHz, 8.4 GHz) because during simulation, the reflection coefficients are lowest
48 for these frequencies ranging from 3 GHz to 9 GHz: − 18.50 dB, −17.50 dB,
49 −22.27 dB, and −27.97 dB respectively. During measurement, the reflection coef-
50 ficients obtained are −17.28 dB, −15.97 dB, −20.35 dB, and −25.58 dB for these
51 four frequencies, as shown in Fig. 1b.
t1.1 Table 1 Optimized dimensions of microstrip moisture sensor

Parameter Triple-frequency Four-frequency t1.2
Length of the ground 20 mm 60 mm t1.3
Width of the ground 20 mm 50 mm t1.4
Length of the substrate 20 mm 60 mm t1.5
Width of the substrate 20 mm 50 mm t1.6
Relative permittivity 4.4 4.4 t1.7
Thickness (h) 1.676 mm 1.676 mm t1.8
Loss tangent (tanδ) 0.001 0.001 t1.9
Outer radius of circle 2.1 mm 8 mm t1.10
Inner radius of circle 1 mm 4 mm t1.11
Determination of Moisture Content from Microstrip Moisture Sensor with Minimum… 347
Fig. 1 Reflection coefficient of the proposed (a) triple-frequency sensor and (b) four-
frequency sensor
2.2 Obtained Calibration Equation and Regression Coefficient 52
To further check whether the triple-frequency sensor will actually work at 4.9 GHz, 53
6.7 GHz, and 8 GHz or not, regression coefficient and sensitivity need to be ana- 54
lyzed. For accuracy of the sensor, regression coefficient and sensitivity at 4.9 GHz, 55
6.7 GHz, and 8 GHz are determined, and it is found that regression coefficient is 56
highest among the range of frequencies (3 GHz–9 GHz) at 4.9 GHz, 6.7 GHz, and 57
8 GHz: 0.995, 0.975, and 0.992, respectively. In the same way, sensitivity is also 58
found highest at 4.9 GHz, 6.7 GHz, and 8 GHz: 2.418, 0.995, and 1.075, as shown 59
348 S. Jain
Table 2 Parameters of microstrip moisture sensor t2.1
Simulated Measured t2.2

Sensor reflection reflection Regression t2.3
parameters Frequency coefficient coefficient coefficient Sensitivity t2.4
Triple- 4.9 GHz, −15.72 dB, −14.16 dB, 0.995, 0.975, 2.418, 0.995, t2.5
frequency 6.7 GHz, and −37.58 dB, −35.98 dB, and 0.992 and 1.075 t2.6
sensor 8 GHz −35.99 dB −33.75 dB t2.7
Four- 3.7 GHz, −18.50 dB, −17.28 dB, 0.999, 0.990, 1.307, 2.030, t2.8
frequency 5.8 GHz, −17.50 dB, −15.97 dB, 0.996, and 1.465, and t2.9
sensor 6.9 GHz, 22.27 dB, −20.35 dB, 0.998 1.387 t2.10
8.4 GHz 27.97 dB −25.58 dB t2.11
60 in Table 2. Hence, it can be said that sensor at 4.9 GHz, 6.7 GHz, and 8 GHz is
61 accurate.
62 Similarly, to check the accuracy of the four-frequency sensor (3.7 GHz/5.8 GHz/
63 6.9 GHz/8.4 GHz), regression coefficient and sensitivity are analyzed. It is found
64 that this sensor is accurate in terms of both parameters as shown in Table 2.
65 Reflection coefficient is obtained from the VNA for samples having different water
66 contents: 30 ml, 40 ml, 50 ml, 60 ml, and 70 ml for triple-frequency and four-
67 frequency sensors. Now, the graph is plotted between reflection coefficient, AMC,
68 and PMC for both sensors (triple-frequency and four-frequency sensors) as shown
69 in Figs. 2 and 3.
70 AMC, by MODW method, is calculated with the help of the following formula:
mwet mdry
MC %
71 mwet
72 where
73 mwet = mass of the samples before drying,
74 mdry = mass of samples after drying in microwave oven.
75 PMC at different water contents is calculated with the help of calibration equa-
76 tion, in which reflection coefficient is obtained from the VNA.
77 After obtaining PMC, MRE is calculated with the help of the formula:
m.c.Actual m.c.Predicted
MRE
78 m.c.Actual
79 By analysis, it is found that reflection coefficient variation depends upon the state
80 of rice (dry or wet). It is concluded that with the increase in water content, reflection
81 coefficient is also increased for both sensors as shown in Figs. 4a and 4b, which
82 means that even if there are only small percentages of water present in rice, the sen-
83 sor will be able to detect it accurately because reflection coefficient showed instant
84 variation at small quantity of water. The reflection coefficient measured by vector
85 network analyzer is shown in Fig. 4c.
Fig. 2 Relationship between reflection coefficient; (a) graph is plotted between AMC and reflec-
tion coefficient for 4.9 GHz and determined the equation with regression coefficient; (b) graph is
plotted between AMC and reflection coefficient for 6.7 GHz; (c) graph is plotted between AMC
and reflection coefficient for 8 GHz; (d) graph is plotted between PMC and reflection coefficient
for 4.9 GHz; (e) graph is plotted between PMC and reflection coefficient for 6.7 GHz; (f) graph is
plotted between AMC and reflection coefficient for 8 GHz
350 S. Jain
Fig. 26.2 (continued)
Fig. 3 Relationship between reflection coefficient; (a) graph is plotted between AMC and reflec-
tion coefficient for 3.7 GHz, and calibration and regression coefficient is obtained; (b) graph is
plotted between AMC and reflection coefficient for 5.8 GHz; (c) graph is plotted between AMC
and reflection coefficient for 6.9 GHz; (d) graph is plotted between AMC and reflection coefficient
for 8.4 GHz; (e) graph is plotted between PMC and reflection coefficient for 3.7 GHz; (f) graph is
plotted between PMC and reflection coefficient for 5.8 GHz; (g) graph is plotted between PMC
and reflection coefficient for 6.9 GHz; (h) graph is plotted between PMC and reflection coefficient
for 8.4 GHz
352 S. Jain
Practically, when the above observation is analyzed, the same phenomenon is 86

observed, i.e., at free space, the reflection coefficient is very low, but when water is 87
added, the reflection coefficient suddenly increased for both sensors (triple- and 88
four-frequency), as shown in Figs. 5a and b. 89
For triple-frequency microstrip sensor, MRE of 0.16% is obtained between PMC 90
and AMC. Similarly, for four-frequency microstrip sensor, MRE is 0.073%. The 91
variation between AMC and PMC is shown in Figs. 6a and 6b. The comparison of 92
the proposed microstrip moisture sensor is shown in Table 3. 93
354 S. Jain
Fig. 4 Reflection
coefficient of proposed
microstrip moisture sensor
with dry rice and wet rice
for (a) triple-frequency
sensor and (b) four-
frequency sensor. (c)
Measured reflection
coefficient by VNA
Fig. 5 Relationship between the reflection coefficients with frequency for different percentages
(%) of mc for (a) triple-frequency sensor and (b) four-frequency sensor
3 Conclusion 94
The proposed triple- and four-frequency sensors show the thorough analysis of 95
designing a sensor, in which MRE is found to be 0.16% and 0.073% for triple- and 96
four-frequency sensors, respectively. Further, it is also proved that the working effi- 97
ciency of the triple-frequency sensor is 99.84% and the four-frequency sensor is 98
99.927% with compact size and low cost. It can be concluded that MRE of the four- 99
frequency sensor is minimum, almost zero, in comparison with the triple-frequency 100
sensor. So, it would be more preferable to adopt four-frequency sensor where accu- 101
racy is required. Otherwise, any of the sensors can be adopted. Both sensors have 102
applications in various fields such as agriculture, horticulture, textile industries, etc. 103
356 S. Jain
Fig. 6 Predicted MC against actual MC (a) Triple-frequency sensor (b) Four-frequency sensor
Table 3 Comparison of the proposed microstrip moisture sensor t3.1
Substrate t3.2
and Regression MC MRE t3.3
Sensors Dimension Frequency economy coefficient (%) (%) t3.4
Triple 20 × 20 mm2 4.9 GHz, FR4 and 0.995, 0.975, 10.69% – 0.16 t3.5
frequency 6.7 GHz, and low cost and 0.992 21.84% t3.6
8 GHz t3.7
Four 60 × 50 mm2 3.7 GHz, 0.999, 0.990, 10.70% – 0.073 t3.8
frequency 5.8 GHz, 0.996, and 21.85% t3.9
6.9 GHz, and 0.998 t3.10
8.4 GHz t3.11
References 104
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mination of moisture content in rice with improved mean relative error. Microw. Opt. Technol. 106
Lett. 61(7), 1764–1768, (2019 July). ISSN number: 1098-2760. https://doi.org/10.1002/ 107
mop.31763 108
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patch antenna. Prog. Electromagn. Res. -M. 76, 175–185 (2018) ISSN number: 1937-8726 110
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nique using microstrip ring sensor. Eng. Vib. Commun. Inf. Process. (Lecture notes in 112
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Rice Grain Moisture Measurement, pp. 1–3. American Institute of Physics (2018). https://doi. 116
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frequencies. Subsurf. Sens. Technol. Appl. 1(4), 489–496 (2000) 119
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ICSPCom.2015.7150629 149
Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector 1
for 5G Smart Antenna Applications 2
J. V. Gaitonde and R. B. Lohani 3
1 Introduction 4
The emerging 5G and 6G communication technologies are known for their high- 5
speed wireless mobile and other related telecommunications. 5G spectrums span 6
the 450 MHz–6 GHz, 24.250 GHz–52.600 GHz, 5925–7150 MHz, and 7
64 GHz–86 GHz ranges [1]. 6G and higher variants may employ the 95 GHz–3 THz 8
bands [2]. These high-frequency RF bands are gradually getting exhausted. Thus, 9
the communication technology is shifting toward the optical domain, which can 10
accommodate much higher bandwidth with optical spectrum ranging from 385 THz 11
to 800 THz [3]. Antennas are an integral part of many communication systems [4, 12
5, 6]. Conventional antennas employed FDMA (frequency division multiple access), 13
TDMA (time division multiple access), or CDMA (code division multiple access) 14
technologies. FDMA shared the frequency or bandwidth among the users in the 15
entire communication duration. TDMA provided fixed time slots to different users 16
in an orderly manner in the entire bandwidth, whereas in the case of CDMA, a 17
unique code was assigned to each user. In this manner, the entire bandwidth could 18
be used by all the users for the total duration of the call. To further increase the 19
capacity of the system, SDMA (space division multiple access) technology was 20
introduced [7]. In this case, the large geographical area was divided into cells, and 21
frequency was reused in each cell. Further, the capacity could be enhanced by spa- 22
tially directing the main beam toward the intended users. Thus, the transmission can 23
J. V. Gaitonde (*)
Electronics and Telecommunication Department, Goa Engineering College (Goa University/
Government of Goa), Ponda, Goa, India
R. B. Lohani
Goa Engineering College (Government of Goa), Ponda, Goa, India
e-mail: rblohani@gec.ac.in

Switzerland AG 2022
360 J. V. Gaitonde and R. B. Lohani
24 be carried out at a single-carrier frequency simultaneously by various users. Either

25 switched beam or tracking beam array of antennas can accomplish the spatial trans-
26 mission. The individual antenna elements are called the phased arrays and operate
27 through an adaptive feedback loop. The adaptive antenna functions by direction of
28 arrival estimation and accordingly adjusting the weights applied to each of the
29 antenna elements whose output combination gives the desired signal to be sent in
30 the preferred direction. The weights induce the desired signal by varying the ampli-
31 tude and phase of the voltages applied to each of the antenna elements. The so-
32 formed beam can either be continuously steered or be switched to certain prefixed
33 directions using a set of priori weights. As opposed to mechanical beam steering
34 antenna, which is prone to acceleration, vibration, and momentum effects due to
35 movement, the dynamically steering phased array is insensitive and robust to such
36 external constraints [8, 9]. Decreased co-channel interference, enhanced robustness
37 to multipath, high security, and capability to handle path loss while keeping the
38 emitted power low are the characteristics of phased array antennas [10].
39 The control of adaptive antennas can be achieved either electronically or opti-
40 cally. The optical control has the advantages of higher bandwidth and lower losses
41 as compared to electronic control [11]. Further, electrical beam-forming requires
42 bulky devices [10]. Optical phased arrays allow fast, stable, and precise beam
43 steering [8].
44 Integration of photonics with electronics leads to low-cost, compact, and light-
45 weight solutions with immunity toward electromagnetic interference [12]. Further,
46 optical control provides additional degrees of freedom as compared to electronic
47 control, such as optical power, wavelength, and the way in which the device is illu-
48 minated (illumination model). This increases the given data and helps in greater and
49 efficient control of the dynamically steered phased array antenna.
50 The optical control is possible with the help of lasers, modulators, and photode-
51 tectors. Among these components, the photodetectors play a major role since these
52 are the ones which directly control the voltages to be applied to the phased arrays.
53 Photodetectors convert the intensity-modulated continuous-wave optical signal into
54 microwave signal, which is directly fed into the antenna. Depending upon the rela-
55 tive amplitudes and phases of the photodetector output current, the main beam will
56 be directed in a specific direction, and the nulls will be set to other directions. This
57 adaptive control is accomplished by various signal processing algorithms such as
58 maximum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) algorithm, minimum variance distortionless
59 response (MVDR), sample matrix inversion (SMI) technique, least mean squares
60 (LMS) error algorithm, and direct data domain algorithm [7]. Among all the above
61 algorithms, the direct data domain algorithm is very simple and computationally
62 fast and employs FFT (fast Fourier transform) and conjugate gradient method to
63 generate the desired weights. Alternatively or additionally, the adaptive control is
64 also possible using a predefined or calibrated lookup table which records the output
65 for each and every change in the input.
66 There exist several kinds of photodetectors such as MSM (metal-semiconductor-
67 metal) diodes, Schottky photodiodes, PIN diodes, p-n junction diodes, avalanche
68 photodiodes (APDs), HBTs (heterojunction bipolar transistors), HEMTs (high
Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector for 5G Smart Antenna Applications 361
electron mobility transistors), MESFETs (metal-semiconductor field effect transis- 69

tors) also known as OPFETs (optical field effect transistors), and so on. The photo- 70
diodes can act as fast photodetectors but do not record any gain except the APDs. In 71
contrast, the transistor-based detectors are known for their inherently high gain- 72
bandwidth product. Specifically, the OPFET device has been investigated in the past 73
several years for its operation as a photodetector, optically controlled oscillator, 74
mixer, switch, and amplifier [13–23]. In this chapter, the authors investigate and 75
analyze the extent to which the gain, phase, and bandwidth of the GaAs’ OPFET- 76
based photodetector can be varied by varying the drain bias, gate bias, optical power, 77
and modulation frequency, as well as by choosing different illumination models and 78
different structural dimensions. From these investigations, the optimum signal-to- 79
noise+interference ratio in the desired direction can be derived. This work involving 80
adaptive signal processing and the complete implementation of the optical phase 81
array antenna system will be considered for future work. 82
2 OPFET Model 83
The surface-gate and buried-gate front-illuminated OPFETs are represented in 84

Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. In these figures, “M” is for metal contact, and “SI” 85
denotes semi-insulating. The simulations consider the active layer to be n-type and 86
Fig. 1 The schematic of the surface-gated front-illuminated OPFET [15]

Fig. 2 The schematic of the buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET [16]
87 the substrate region to be p-type both uniformly, moderately doped. The substrate
88 behaves as semi-insulating due to doping with deep level impurity, Cr (chromium).
89 A transparent gate is considered for the surface-gate device, whereas the gate is
90 opaque for the buried-gate OPFET. In the case of surface-gate OPFET, the transpar-
91 ent gate allows the radiation to enter and get absorbed in the channel and substrate
92 regions, creating electron-hole pairs. On the other hand, the buried-gate device is
93 illuminated from the active-layer side. The holes are attracted toward the junctions,
94 whereas the electrons move toward the channel. The electrons contribute to the
95 channel’s conductivity by drifting across the two electrodes upon the application of
96 drain bias, thus generating enhanced drain-to-source current (photoconductive
97 effect). The holes contribute to photovoltage upon crossing the Schottky junction,
98 which narrows the depletion width and boosts the drain-to-source current (external
99 photovoltaic effect). The internal photovoltaic effect at the active layer-substrate
100 junction ceases to exist in the case of surface-gate OPFET. This is due to the mod-
101 erately doped channel and semi-insulating substrate, which renders the depletion
102 width to zero on the channel side and causes total depletion of the substrate side.
103 With the gate being opaque, there is no substrate effect in the buried-gate OPFET. The
104 device structures are the same for the back-illuminated counterparts of the above
105 discussed models. But, in the case of surface-gate OPFET, illumination enters the
106 channel through the substrate by inserting a fiber up to the substrate-active layer
107 interface. In the case of the buried-gate OPFET, the gate is considered as transpar-
108 ent, and radiation is allowed to pass through the transparent gate by inserting a fiber
109 up to the substrate-gate interface.
2.1 Device Modeling 110
We present below the analytical solutions of the electron and hole continuity equa- 111
tions in various regions [17, 19–21]. 112
2.1.1 P
hotogenerated Hole Density in the Gate Junction Region 113
in Front-Illuminated Devices 114
1 y
p y A1 p B1 1 exp ,
1 vy p
vy p
(1) 115
p exp y
A1 ,
1 vy p
116
1
B1 exp ydg .
v

y p 117
In Eq. (1), vy is the saturated hole velocity, α is the absorption coefficient of the 118
semiconductor, Φ is the photon flux density, τωp is the lifetime of holes under ac 119
condition, ydg is the gate junction extension of the depletion region measured from 120
the surface, and y is the distance from the surface toward the substrate. Drift and 121
recombination are the transport phenomena in this region. 122
In Eq. (1), the term (1–αvyτωp) is to be considered as it is if (αvyτωp) < 1 and is to be 123
substituted with a maximum value closer to 1 when it exceeds or equals 1. 124
2.1.2 P
hotogenerated Hole Density in the Gate Junction Region 125
in Back-Illuminated Devices 126
p exp t sm y
p y

1 vy p
(2) 127
where tsm is the active layer thickness. 128

129 2.1.3 P
hoto-Induced Channel Electron Density
130 in the Front-Illuminated OPFETs
y
n y n A2 exp B2
131 Ln (3)
1 n exp y
where A2 1 2 2 and B2 ;

132

Ln 1 2 Ln 2 1
133 τωn is the electron lifetime under ac condition; Lnω is the ac electron diffusion
134 length, given by Lnω = (Dnτωn)1/2; and Dn is the electron diffusion coefficient. The
135 carrier transport in this region is governed by diffusion and recombination.
136 2.1.4 P
hoto-Induced Channel Electron Density
137 in the Back-Illuminated OPFETs
138 Surface-Gate OPFET

1
n y n 1 2 2
Ln 1

exp t sm ydg

ydg y n exp t sm y
exp
139
Ln

2 Ln 2 1 (4)
140 Buried-Gate OPFET
2L 2
n y n 2 n2 exp t sm

Ln 1

y n exp t sm y
exp
141
Ln
2 Ln 2 1 (5)
142 2.1.5 P
hoto-Induced Depletion Region Electron Density
143 in the Front-Illuminated OPFETs
n exp y
n y ,
144
1 v
y1 n (6)
where vy1 is the electron saturation velocity. Drift and recombination are the 145
transport phenomena in this region. 146
2.1.6 P
hoto-Induced Depletion Region Electron Density 147
in the Back-Illuminated OPFETs 148
n exp t sm y
n y .

1 v
y1 n (7) 149
For detailed modeling including the continuity equations, the reader is advised to 150
refer to [17, 19–21]. 151
The individual contributions from the doping-induced charge under illumination, 152
the photo-induced channel electron charge, and the gate and substrate depletion 153
charges constitute the total drain-to-source current. 154
2.1.7 Drain Current 155
The drain current is calculated by [24]: 156
I ds I dss tan h VDS VDS / Rsh ,

(8) 157
where η is the ratio of drain-to-source conductance computed at VDS = 0 to the satu- 158
ration current, VDS is the drain voltage, Rsh is the drain-to-source shunt resistance, 159
and Idss is the drain-to-source saturation current. Refer to [25] for the modelling of 160
series resistances. 161
Some parameters depicted in Figs. 1 and 2, such as d and a, do not directly 162
appear in the above equations; however, they have their own significance. The 163
parameter d refers to the surface to substrate thickness and is relevant only in the 164
case of surface-gate front-illuminated OPFET since the photogeneration takes place 165
in the substrate region also (d = 1 μm). This parameter will affect the total current 166
depending upon the electron density in the substrate depletion region. In other cases, 167
since either the device is illuminated from the surface with gate made opaque or the 168
fiber is inserted up to the active layer-substrate interface or the fiber is inserted up to 169
the gate-substrate interface, the substrate effect is ruled out. Thus, the choice of 170
dimensions in the case of buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET for structural opti- 171
mization is irrespective of the surface-to-substrate thickness. The parameter a is 172
relevant only in the case of buried-gate OPFETs, denoting the active layer thickness 173
which is different from the effective layer thickness (tsm) by an amount equal to the 174
gate thickness. The value of this parameter is chosen proportional to that given in 175
[16]. This parameter will affect the current through the series resistances since the 176
series resistances are calculated based upon the charge available in the gate-to- 177
source and gate-to-drain spacings, which have a thickness of a. 178
179 2.1.8 S Parameters
180 The common source OPFET equivalent circuit is depicted in Fig. 3, where the sym-
181 bols represented there have their usual meaning.
182 From the equivalent circuit, the Y-parameters of the intrinsic device have been
183 obtained [26].
jCgs
Y11 jCgd
184
1 jC gs Ri
(9)
Y12 jCgd
185 (10)
gm exp j
Y21 jCgd
1 jCgs Ri
186 (11)
Y22 j Cgd Cds 1 / Rds

187 (12)
188 The intrinsic Y-parameters are converted to intrinsic ABCD-parameters [27].
189 The intrinsic ABCD-parameter matrix is multiplied by the ABCD representation of
190 the gate and drain leads as given in [26]. The resultant matrix is converted to
191 Z-parameters [27]. The resulting matrix is added to the Z-matrix of the source to
192 give the complete Z-parameters of the OPFET [26]. Finally, the Z-parameters are
193 converted to complete S-parameters under suitable source/load impedances [27].
194 One important factor which is necessary but not sufficient for unconditional stabil-
195 ity [28] is the Rollett’s stability factor (K-factor). It should be greater than unity for
196 all frequencies under consideration. It is given by:
Fig. 3 Equivalent circuit of OPFET

2 2 2
1 S11 S22
K ,
2 S12 S21
(13) 197
where Δ = S11S22 − S12S21. This parameter should be less than 1 for all operating 198
frequencies. One more additional criterion is that there should be no RHP poles in 199
network terminated with defining impedances. 200
In case the K-factor is less than 1, then the device is conditionally stable at a 201
particular set of load and source impedances. This can be ensured if the following 202
conditions are satisfied [28]: 203
No RHP poles in network terminated with defining impedances, 204
S22 < 1 forallfrequencies,

(14) 205
in 1forallfrequencies,
(15) 206
S12 S21 L Z Z0
in S11 L L
where 1 S22 L is the input reflection coefficient, Z L Z 0 is the 207
reflection coefficient of the load, and ZL is the load impedance. Z0 is the characteris- 208
tic impedance of 50 ohms. 209
The simulation results have been obtained in MATLAB. The wavelength of optical 211
source is considered to be 600 nm. The drain bias is varied between 0 and 10 V, 212
whereas gate bias is set between −2 V and 0 V. The radiation flux densities of 1015, 213
1017, 1019, 1021, and 1023 /m2-s used in the simulations correspond to the optical 214
power densities of 0.033 μW/cm2, 3.3 μW/cm2, 0.33 mW/cm2, 33 mW/cm2, and 215
3.3 W/cm2, respectively. The transparent gate (wherever applicable) is assumed to 216
be made up of ITO (Indium-Tin-Oxide). The parameters utilized in calculations are 217
listed in Table 1. The device dimensions chosen for structural optimization are 218
Table 1 Parameters used in the calculation t1.1
Symbol Parameter Value References Unit t1.2

ΦB Schottky barrier height (ITO-GaAs) (0.98) [29] (eV) t1.3
μ Low field electron mobility ~(0.52) [30] (m2/V.s) t1.4
vy1 Saturated electron velocity ~1.2 × 105 [18] (m/s) t1.5
vy Saturated hole velocity in the y- direction ~0.9 × 105 (m/s) t1.6
τp Lifetime of holes 10−8 [18] (s) t1.7
τn Lifetime of electrons 10−6 [18] (s) t1.8
ε Permittivity 1.14 × 10−10 [30] (F/m) t1.9
α Absorption coefficient 4 × 106 [31] (/m) t1.10
219 obtained from scaling rules [32] spanning from medium to long gate lengths. Only
220 the four most relevant sets are shown for comparison. The source/load impedances
221 being considered are (300 Ω + j2πω (19.7 nH))/ (300 Ω + j2πω (73 nH)).
222 At first, we estimate the 3-dB bandwidth performance of the OPFET detector
223 with respect to the different illumination models as well as the different dimensions,
224 as this parameter will decide the maximum frequency of operation of the individual
225 antenna elements. The bandwidth performance is tabulated in Table 2. Referring to
226 Table 2, it is observed that the bandwidth increases with optical power at the lower
227 flux densities due to enhancement of the photovoltaic effect with the hole lifetime
228 in GaAs being of the order of nanoseconds. It falls at the higher intensities due to
229 additional contribution from the photoconductive effect with the electron lifetime of
230 the order of microseconds. It is also observed that the bandwidth is high at the lower
231 intensities in all the cases (greater than 1 GHz) suitable for 5G applications. This is
232 attributed to the extra amplification factor of (αvyτωp) in the hole density Eq. (1)
233 over the primary hole density and the decreasing denominator term (1−αvyτωp) by
234 one order magnitude in the front-illuminated devices. In addition, the absorption
235 coefficient at 600 nm (4 × 106 /m) with an absorption depth of 0.25 μm is large
236 enough to create a significant number of electron-hole pairs in the depletion region,
237 which eventually cross the Schottky junction. In the back-illuminated devices, the
238 photovoltages developed are lower since the additional factor ceases to exist, the
239 constant of integration being zero from the physical condition [18]. Nevertheless,
Table 2 Bandwidth performance of GaAs’ OPFET illumination models t2.1
Bandwidth (Hz) at the gate length (L = 4 μm), gate width (Z = 150 μm), active layer
Photon thickness (tsm = 0.3 μm), and doping concentration (Ndr = 4 × 1022 /m3), VDS ~ 0.42 V t2.2
flux and vgs ~ −1 V t2.3
density Surface-gate Buried-gate Surface-gate Buried-gate t2.4
(/m2-s) front-illuminated front-illuminated back-illuminated back-illuminated t2.5
1015 3.1 GHz 2.62 GHz 4.57 GHz 6.81 GHz t2.6
1017 5.8 GHz 8.64 GHz 17.7 GHz 39.2 GHz t2.7
1019 12.87 GHz 13.9 GHz 53.9 GHz 129.3 GHz t2.8
1021 3.1 GHz 3.326 GHz 45.2 MHz 2.031 MHz t2.9
1023 13.71 MHz 5.71 MHz 4.156 MHz 23.93 MHz t2.10
Photon Bandwidth (Hz) of buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET at VDS ~ 0.42 V and t2.11
flux vgs ~ −1 V t2.12
density (L = 3 μm, Z = 100 μm, (L = 4 μm, (L = 5 μm, (L = 8 μm, t2.13
(/m2-s) tsm = 0.27 μm, Z = 150 μm, Z = 200 μm, Z = 350 μm, t2.14
Ndr = 5.33 × 1022 /m3) tsm = 0.3 μm, tsm = 0.4 μm, tsm = 0.45 μm, t2.15
Ndr = 4 × 1022 / Ndr = 3.2 × 1022 / Ndr = 2 × 1022 / t2.16
m3) m3) m3) t2.17
1015 3.6 GHz 2.62 GHz 3.326 GHz 4.22 GHz t2.18
1017 7.98 GHz 8.64 GHz 5.8 GHz 8.64 GHz t2.19
1019 11.88 GHz 13.9 GHz 11.88 GHz 17.7 GHz t2.20
1021 3.326 GHz 3.326 GHz 0.62 GHz 0.53 GHz t2.21
1023 4.5 MHz 5.71 MHz 5.71 MHz 7.25 MHz t2.22
the bandwidths are considerably higher than the front-illuminated OPFETs. This 240
feature can be explained by the difference in photo-induced hole density roll-off 241
rates between the two sets of devices, the roll-off rate being proportional to 242
(α2 × Φ × vy × τωp2) in the front-illuminated devices as compared to (α × Φ × τωp) 243
in the back-illuminated OPFETs. The squared lifetime term in the former case as 244
opposed to the non-squared lifetime term in the latter case results in wider roll-off 245
rate in the back-illuminated devices. The buried-gate devices exhibit in overall 246
higher bandwidths than the surface-gate devices since the former structures have 247
lower series resistances [23]. The difference is large in the case of back-illuminated 248
OPFETs since the currents involved are comparatively of lesser magnitude due to 249
the lower photovoltages, which incur lower voltage drops across the series resis- 250
tances and allow full exploitation of the difference in series resistances. In the front- 251
illuminated OPFETs, due to higher photovoltages, the currents involved are of 252
greater magnitude, which limit the sensitivity. Since we are restricting our domain 253
to 5G applications, we neglect the bandwidth response at the higher intensities 254
where there is an overall fall in the bandwidth. Switching to the structural optimiza- 255
tion of the bandwidth response of the buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET, we 256
know from previous analysis [19, 20] that at constant photovoltage, and gate-to- 257
source voltage, the depletion width variation with applied illumination is larger in 258
the device having lower doping concentration. Since from scaling rules, with the 259
increase in gate length, there is a proportional decrease in doping concentration, the 260
bandwidth which is directly proportional to the depletion width variation tends to 261
enhance with gate length. This feature is verified on the whole from the results pre- 262
sented in Table 2. The exception is at the gate length of 5 μm where the series resis- 263
tance limiting effects are large due to large active layer thickness which increases 264
the drain-to-source current. We extend this discussion by commenting on the sensi- 265
tivity of device parameters on various dimensions. The gate length elongation 266
induces a proportional increase in the longitudinal area producing more charge but 267
also tends to reduce the current through the inverse dependence of the drain current 268
on gate length. According to scaling rules, with the increase in gate length, there is 269
a proportionate increase in other dimensions such as active layer thickness (tsm) and 270
a reduction in the doping concentration (Ndr). The gate width is unconstrained since 271
no scaling rules exist, which relate the scaling rules presented in [32] to the gate 272
width. The structural optimization takes into account the entire range of device 273
dimensions with gate length varying from 3 μm to 8 μm, but only the four relevant 274
sets are provided here for analysis. The optimization reveals that the device perfor- 275
mance increases with respect to the 3-dB bandwidth as discussed earlier for higher 276
gate lengths and widths. The photocurrent and the drain-to-source current also 277
increase with device dimensions. There is no excessive dark current even with the 278
device possessing the highest dimensions, since the drain bias voltage is in the lower 279
range (less than 4 V). The transconductances and gate-to-source capacitances are 280
also boosted with the increase in dimensions due to the enhanced depletion width 281
sensitivity to applied gate-to-source voltage at lower doping concentrations similar 282
to the case of 3-dB bandwidth. But, the slope of transconductance increase is lower 283
than that of the capacitance, resulting in decreased gain and phase. Thus, there is a 284
285 trade-off between bandwidth and gain-phase relationship, which can be optimized
286 by properly choosing the dimensions.
287 We now discuss the extent of the gain and phase variation with respect to the
288 control parameters, such as the drain bias, gate bias, modulating frequency, and
289 optical power, the choice of illumination model, as well as the device dimensions.
290 Figure 4a and b, respectively, show the simulated gain and phase of the different
291 illumination models as a function of drain bias at a gate-to-source voltage of −1 V,
292 a modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and an optical flux density of 1015 /m2-s. The
293 entire analysis can be carried out based on the relative contributions of the transcon-
294 ductances and the gate-to-source, gate-to-drain, and drain-to-source capacitances
295 under the influence of the various control parameters since these parameters domi-
296 nate the contributions to the intrinsic Y-parameters. The analysis will also be assisted
297 by the contribution from the photovoltaic effect. The gain increases with drain bias
298 in all the cases and eventually saturates at the higher drain voltages. This is ascribed
299 to the fact that at lower drain voltages, as the voltage increases, the transconduc-
300 tance increases due to the boosting of the drain-to-source current, whereas all the
301 capacitances decrease due to the increase in the depletion width. Since the transcon-
302 ductance is directly related to the real part of the Y21- and hence the S21-parameter,
303 whereas the reduction in capacitances suppresses the imaginary parts of Y-parameters
304 and hence boosts the imaginary part of the S21-parameter, the gain increases. The
305 saturation of the gain at higher voltages is due to the saturation of transconductance
306 following the saturation of the drain-to-source current. The differences observed in
307 the gains of different illumination models are owing to the differences in photo-
308 voltages which affect both the transconductances and the capacitances along with
309 the differences in series resistances between surface-gate and buried-gate devices.
310 At a considerable drain bias of 0.6 V, the surface-gate front-illuminated OPFET
311 shows the least gain due to the high photovoltage, which although boosts the
Fig. 4 Gain (a) and phase (b) versus drain bias for different illumination models at a gate voltage
of −1 V, modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and flux density of 1015 /m2-s
transconductance also simultaneously boosts the capacitances, and along with the 312
contribution from the higher series resistances. The next lowest gain is exhibited by 313
the surface-gate back-illuminated OPFET on account of its low photovoltage, which 314
suppresses the transconductance along with series resistance effects. The buried- 315
gate front-illuminated device shows higher gain due to the high photovoltage and 316
lower series resistances. The highest gain is exhibited by the buried-gate back- 317
illuminated OPFET on account of the lower photovoltage, which suppresses the 318
capacitances and also due to lesser series resistances. Though there is variation in 319
gain among these illumination models at this drain voltage of 0.6 V, for practical 320
purposes, it can be considered as constant, and as such at low drain voltages, the 321
device functions as a constant gain detector. At higher drain voltages, there is sig- 322
nificant variation in gain since the capacitances are suppressed to a large extent, 323
which means the gain is highly amplified by the combination of high transconduc- 324
tances and suppressed capacitances. At these voltages, the device behaves as a vari- 325
able gain detector. Also, the gain can be varied between −15 dB and +14 dB by 326
varying the drain bias from 0.2 V to 3.8 V. 327
On the other hand, the phase also shows significant increase as the drain bias 328
increases. This can be explained by the fact that with the increase in voltage, the 329
transconductance is enhanced while the capacitances decrease. This increases the 330
real part of the S21-parameter so also the imaginary part, but the rate of rise of imagi- 331
nary part is higher than that of the real part, increasing the phase. The back- 332
illuminated devices show higher phases than the front-illuminated OPFETs on 333
account of the lower transconductances and suppressed capacitances. There is 334
around 5-degree variation in phase with the change in the illumination model at a 335
particular drain bias so that the total variation is around 15–20 degrees. The phase 336
can be varied between 20 degrees and 142 degrees with a change in bias from 0.2 V 337
to 3.8 V. 338
Figure 5a and b are the gain and phase plots obtained at the same set of control 339
parameters as that in Figs. 3 and 4 but at a higher modulation frequency of ~5 GHz. 340
The consequence of higher modulation frequency is the significant reduction in the 341
transconductance due to roll-off of photovoltage with frequency. Also, the higher 342
frequency increases the imaginary components of the Y-parameters, although the 343
capacitances decrease with the modulation of photovoltage with frequency. Thus, 344
both the real and imaginary parts of the S21-parameter are reduced, resulting in 345
degraded gain. The gain also reduces through the transconductance delay compo- 346
nent at high frequencies. The phase also shifts toward negative directions, mainly 347
because of the significant boost of the imaginary components of Y-parameters along 348
with the transconductance delay. It is observed that at high frequencies, both the 349
gain and phase can be controlled to a larger extent with the change in illumination 350
model. The increase in gain and phase with drain bias remained almost the same as 351
that with low frequencies. 352
Figure 6a and b represent the gain and phase responses versus drain bias of the 353
buried-gate front-illuminated OPFETs with different dimensions at a gate voltage of 354
−1 V, modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and flux density of 1015 /m2-s. It can be seen 355
from the above plots that the gain reduces with the increase in dimensions at the 356
Fig. 5 Gain (a) and phase (b) versus drain bias for different illumination models at a gate voltage
of −1 V, modulation frequency of ~5 GHz, and flux density of 1015 /m2-s
Fig. 6 Gain (a) and phase (b) versus drain bias for different dimensions of buried-gate front-
illuminated OPFET at a gate voltage of −1 V, modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and flux density of
1015 /m2-s
357 lower drain biases and tends to increase at higher voltages. This can be explained by
358 the fact that at the lower voltages, both the transconductances and capacitances
359 increase with dimensions (depletion width sensitivity being larger at lower doping
360 concentrations), but the rate of increase of capacitances is higher than that of the
361 transconductances. At larger voltages, the gain tends to increase, attributed to the
362 significant boost of transconductances and suppression of capacitances. The phase
363 reduces with the increase in dimensions. At the lower voltages, this is ascribed to the
364 same reason as that for the gain response. At higher voltages, the boost of
transconductances is higher than that of the suppression of capacitances, thus reduc- 365
ing the phase. It is also observed that the gain and phase can be controlled to a large 366
extent by varying the dimensions. The phase range that can be controlled with the 367
increase in dimensions is 52–150 degrees and 20–130 degrees for gate lengths of 368
3 μm and 4 μm, respectively, as the drain bias is varied between 0.2 and 3.8 V, 0–97 369
degrees for gate length of 5 μm with drain bias variation from 0.2 to 5.1 V and −25 370
to 70 degrees for 8 μm gate length with change in bias from 0.2 to 6.5 V. This shows 371
the versatility of the choice of dimensions on the phase responses; the dimensions 372
should be carefully chosen along with the consideration of the dependence of 3-dB 373
bandwidth and gain on gate length to give optimum results for a particular 374
application. 375
Figure 7a and b show the gain and phase plots as a function of drain bias for 376
buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET with a gate length of 8 μm at different gate 377
voltages, modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and flux density of 1015 /m2-s. The plots 378
clearly show that the gain and phase can be controlled to a large extent with gate 379
bias. The gain is lowered with the increase in gate voltages at the lower drain bias 380
since both transconductance and capacitances increase with gate voltage, but the 381
slope of increase of capacitances is larger than that of the transconductances. The 382
transconductances are low at low drain biases due to the smaller magnitude of drain- 383
to-source currents, whereas the capacitances being independent of drain-to-source 384
currents show large values. At higher drain bias, the gain increases with gate voltage 385
due to the significant boost of transconductances and suppression of capacitances. 386
The phase response shows a decrease with gate voltage at all drain biases due to the 387
same reasons as mentioned above. 388
Fig. 7 Gain (a) and phase (b) versus drain bias for buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET with a
gate length of 8 μm at different gate voltages, modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and flux density of
1015 /m2-s
Fig. 8 Gain (a) and phase (b) versus drain bias for buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET with a
gate length of 4 μm at different flux densities, modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and gate bias of −1 V
389 Figure 8a and b depict the gain and phase plots of the buried-gate front-
390 illuminated OPFET with a gate length of 4 μm at different flux densities, modula-
391 tion frequency of 1 GHz, and gate bias of −1 V. It is observed that the gain slightly
392 reduces with the increase in optical power at the lower drain voltages since the rate
393 of increase in capacitances is slightly larger than that of the transconductances.
394 Almost equal gains are recorded at the higher drain voltages, the reason still being
395 investigated. For practical purposes, the gain can be considered constant with opti-
396 cal power. The phase responses are shown to reduce by 5 degrees with a step increase
397 in optical power with a total variation of 10 degrees due to the same reasons as
398 mentioned above.
399 In the plots represented in Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, the x-y plots were used to depict
400 individually the gain and phase responses since the comparative analysis using three
401 or more values for control parameters was better represented using x-y plots. Polar
402 plots, on the other hand, give superior pictorial depiction when the number of values
403 for control parameters is less as in the case of Fig. 9a and b. Through these figures,
404 we demonstrate that positive phase responses are also possible at high frequencies
405 through optimization. Specifically, using higher value of gate voltage (0 V) and a
406 source/load impedance value comparable to the frequency of operation would serve
407 the purpose. Also, larger gains are achieved at higher drain voltages. The source/
408 load impedances used for this purpose were (300 Ω + j2πω (1 nH)).
409 In all the above plots, the stability analysis has been done, and it is found in over-
410 all that the device will produce unconditional stable response at the low-to-mid
411 drain voltages. The unconditional stable response can be achieved at all drain volt-
412 ages with further optimization. Nevertheless, the device produces conditional stable
413 responses at the source and load impedances under consideration at all drain
414 voltages.
Fig. 9 Polar plots (a) as a function of frequency (1.7 GHz to 13.2 GHz) for buried-gate front-
illuminated OPFET with a gate length of 4 μm at a gate bias of 0 V, a drain bias of 0.63 V, and an
optical intensity of 1017 /m2-s, and (b) as a function of drain bias (0.2 V to 3.8 V) at a frequency of
~5 GHz with other control parameters maintained the same
4 Conclusion 415
We presented the potential of GaAs’ OPFET illumination models to function as 416

configurable photodetector elements for 5G phased array smart antenna applica- 417
tions. The simulations revealed that the device acts as almost constant gain variable 418
phase detector when the optical power is varied or by the choice of different illumi- 419
nation models, but the extent of variation is of smaller magnitude within 10–20 420
degrees. On the other hand, the device can be configured as a variable gain variable 421
phase shift detector by varying the drain bias or gate bias or by the choice of differ- 422
ent dimensions, and the extent of variation is large. At higher frequencies, the gain 423
is significantly reduced, and phase is shifted to negative directions. By proper opti- 424
mization, positive phase shifts were achieved also at higher frequencies. Further, the 425
structural optimization of the buried-gate front-illuminated device showed that the 426
3-dB bandwidth increases with the increase in device dimensions, however with 427
some exceptions. Specifically the device with the longest gate length under consid- 428
eration of 8 μm exhibited the highest bandwidths of 4.22 GHz, 8.64 GHz, and 429
17.7 GHz at the flux densities of 1015, 1017, and 1019 /m2-s, respectively. Also, it was 430
found that the back-illuminated devices exhibit higher bandwidths than the front- 431
illuminated devices and that the bandwidth increases with the increase in optical 432
power under photovoltaic conditions. In addition, it was noticed that the gain and 433
phase decreased with device dimensions as well as the gate voltages, except the gain 434
which tends to increase at higher drain voltages. The gain and phase significantly 435
increased with the increase in the drain voltage, whereas they decreased with the 436
increase in optical power except at higher drain voltages where there is a slight 437
increase in gain. The frequency range of operation of these devices shows that they 438
will serve better purpose in 5G Internet of things (IoT) [33, 34]or optical wireless 439
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AU1 Please provide page range for Ref. [10].
Bandwidth Optimization of a Novel Slotted 1
Fractal Antenna Using Modified Lightning 2
Attachment Procedure Optimization 3
Rohit Anand and Paras Chawla 4
1 Introduction 5
The fractal term was originated by Mandelbrot in 1975 [1]. In fractal geometries, 6
each segment is a diminished part of the whole object. Fractal geometries are very 7
important in designing the multiband antennas [2] that are very much useful for the 8
high-speed wireless applications like wireless local area network, satellite commu- 9
nication, mobile communication, military applications, and many others [3]. Fractal 10
antenna [4, 5] is an antenna having self-affine geometry. It is designed to transmit or 11
receive over the multiband frequencies. One more advantage of designing the frac- 12
tal antennas is that their electrical size is much greater than the physical size [6]. 13
Due to their multiband behavior and larger electrical length, the novel shapes of the 14
fractal antennas are being developed by various researchers. The most commonly 15
used generators for designing the fractal antennas are square, rectangle, triangle, 16
polygon, circle, and many others as they are the basic geometries for designing vari- 17
ous fractal antennas like Minkowski, Sierpinski, Hilbert, and Koch geometries. A 18
novel slotted fractal geometry is the basic geometry of the proposed antenna in 19
this work. 20
The main aim of applying the optimization is to achieve the most acceptable 21
result for any objective function [7]. This acceptable result may be achieved by 22
applying either the maximization or minimization operating function. To achieve 23
the accurate results in antenna design, one or other optimization technique must be 24
applied. But to obtain the most optimum result, any optimization technique must be 25
R. Anand (*)
G.B. Pant Engineering College, New Delhi, India
P. Chawla
University Institute of Engineering, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India
e-mail: drparaschawla.ece@cumail.in

Switzerland AG 2022
380 R. Anand and P. Chawla
26 applied, so it undergoes a lot of iterations [8]. The various traditional optimization

27 techniques are very much prolonged. Besides, their sensitivity is also not so good
28 [9]. Hence, some evolutionary optimization techniques known as meta-heuristic
29 techniques are being applied since the last few years as they are very much sophis-
30 ticated and are applicable to all the convex as well as non-convex problems [10].
31 The optimization technique may be based on a single solution or population-based
32 solution [11, 12]. Most of the population-based techniques are influenced by nature
33 and hence are referred to as the nature-based optimization techniques [13]. Some of
34 the most commonly used nature-inspired optimization techniques are ant colony
35 optimization (ACO) [14], genetic algorithm (GA) [15], brain storm optimization
36 (BSO) [16], bat algorithm (BA) [17], firefly algorithm (FA) [18], particle swarm
37 optimization (PSO) [19], invasive weed optimization (IWO) [20], bacterial foraging
38 optimization (BFO) [21], etc.
39 In the past, various antennas have been found to be designed and optimized using
40 any of the nature-inspired techniques. The parameters that may be used for the opti-
41 mization are size, gain, bandwidth, reflection coefficient, side lobe level, imped-
42 ance, etc. Some of the optimization techniques exhibit fine diversification to get the
43 global optimum value, while others exhibit nice intensification around the neighbor-
44 hood to get the local optimum value. A very few techniques exhibit a good fairness
45 between diversification and intensification [22]. Some optimization techniques are
46 able to converge slowly, while others are not able to do so. The optimization tech-
47 nique, which is best in all respects, is applied to a novel fractal antenna in the pro-
48 posed work.
49 The contribution of this chapter is to design a novel fractal antenna using high-
50 frequency structure simulator (HFSS) version 17.0, followed by its optimization
51 using a very recent nature-inspired technique known as modified lightning attach-
52 ment procedure optimization (modified LAPO). The modified LAPO is used along
53 with the curve fitting technique. The modified LAPO is applied as it converges
54 quickly and has right equilibrium between the exploration and exploitation, so the
55 algorithm gives the best possible optimized value. The optimized antenna has been
56 found to be enhanced in terms of bandwidth. Further, the proposed antenna also
57 provides appreciable amount of peak gain.
58 2 Related Work
59 Since the last few years, various antennas have been optimized using many nature-
60 inspired evolutionary meta-heuristic techniques.
61 The authors in [23] developed a wire antenna and used genetic algorithm to opti-
62 mize its bandwidth and efficiency so that it may be used for various high-speed
63 applications. In [24], the authors proposed a novel prefractal antenna and then opti-
64 mized using particle swarm optimization to shrink the antenna size and to minimize
65 the standing wave ratio. The designed antenna is applicable for WiMAX applica-
66 tions. Further, the authors in [25] suggested a fine optimization method known as
Bandwidth Optimization of a Novel Slotted Fractal Antenna Using Modified Lightning… 381
space mapping for optimizing the scattering parameter in a double annular ring 67
antenna. A linear antenna array has been designed and optimized using Tabu search 68
technique to minimize the side lobe level (SLL) in the antenna [26]. The optimiza- 69
tion technique has been very fine, but its convergence speed is poor. In [27], the 70
authors used harmony search (HS) method for optimizing the side lobes in the 71
antenna array. The HS technique has been observed to be very good in convergence 72
speed. The developed antenna may be used in the applications where nulling is 73
required in the radiation pattern. 74
The authors in [28] developed a Yagi-Uda antenna and then optimized the gain 75
and VSWR of the antenna using differential evolution (DE) technique. The opti- 76
mized antenna may be used for GSM and wireless LAN applications. In [29], the 77
authors optimized the pattern and gain of a particular patch antenna using invasive 78
weed optimization (IWO). The convergence speed of the technique has been 79
observed to be very fast. A firefly algorithm (FA) has been used for the optimization 80
of the radiation pattern of the receiving antenna to optimize the side lobe level 81
(SLL) [30]. The firefly algorithm has been proved to be good from global and local 82
search point of view. The authors in [31] optimized the gain of a circular antenna 83
array using bat algorithm (BA). The advantage of this optimization technique is that 84
it converges very fast with a very few iterations. The proposed antenna may be used 85
for various direction-finding applications. Further, the authors in [32] proposed a 86
novel technique based on grey wolf optimization (GWO) for an antenna to avoid the 87
local optima trapping. This algorithm has been proved to be very efficient. It may be 88
used for various real-world optimization problems. 89
In [33], the authors designed a slotted patch antenna and optimized it using adap- 90
tive bacterial foraging optimization (ABFO) technique to improve the speed of con- 91
vergence. An array antenna has been optimized in terms of side lobes using moth 92
flame optimization (MFO). The MFO technique has been found to be very good in 93
convergence and accuracy. In [34], the authors optimized the bandwidth of a square 94
fractal antenna by combining bacterial foraging optimization (BFO) with particle 95
swarm optimization. The designed antenna may be used for S-band and C-band 96
applications. The authors in [35] optimized an E-shaped microstrip antenna by 97
using evolutionary monarch butterfly optimization (MBO) technique. The gain of 98
the optimized antenna has been observed to be quite appreciable. A technique called 99
brain storm optimization (BSO) has been used to optimize the antenna in [16]. The 100
technique has been very effective than many of the traditional techniques. 101
In the proposed chapter, a very recent optimization technique called modified 102
LAPO has been applied to optimize the bandwidth of a novel fractal antenna as this 103
technique is very fast in convergence and balances the exploration and exploitation. 104
105 3 Antenna Geometry
106 The proposed antenna design is shown in Fig. 1. The green section refers to the
107 conducting part, while the white section indicates the substrate part as well as
108 etched part.
109 The proposed antenna is a rectangular patch antenna with the inner geometry
110 made up of a slotted geometry, having a combination of distorted square shape (or
111 “plus” shape) and “circular” shape with the four similar scalable shapes (each of
112 which is shrunk to half of the central initiator geometry). The proposed antenna is
113 having a substrate area equal to L × W mm2, with the ground plane having exactly
114 same dimensions as the substrate. The material FR4 with thickness of 1.6 mm, rela-
115 tive permittivity of 4.4, and loss tangent of 0.01 is used as a substrate. The rectangu-
116 lar microstrip feedline is used because it is easy to design [6]. The slotted structure
117 is used to increase the bandwidth [2] of the structure. This bandwidth will further be
118 increased using an optimization technique that will be discussed in the next section.
119 The different dimensions of the proposed antenna design are shown in Table 1.
Fig. 1 Geometry of the proposed antenna

t1.1 Table 1 Dimensions of the proposed antenna

Notation Dimension (mm) t1.2
L 34 t1.3
W 34 t1.4
L1 20 t1.5
W1 20 t1.6
L2 7 t1.7
W2 3 t1.8
X1 6 t1.9
X2 6 t1.10
S 5 t1.11
S1 1.5 t1.12
S2 1.5 t1.13
D 5 t1.14
X3 2 t1.15
X4 2 t1.16
S3 2.5 t1.17
S4 0.75 t1.18
S5 0.75 t1.19
D1 2.5 t1.20
The geometrical parameters that will be used for the bandwidth optimization in 120
MATLAB are width of the feedline (W2), diameter of the central circular conduct- 121
ing element (D), and diameter of the smaller circular conducting element (D1). 122
4 Bandwidth Optimization 123
As discussed earlier, the modified LAPO technique based on lightning phenomenon 124
is used for the bandwidth optimization in the proposed work. 125
Lightning in the clouds is a natural phenomenon [36] that involves the follow- 126
ing steps: 127
(i) The breakdown of air within the clouds occurs due to the large potential differ- 128
ence between the upper and lower portion of the cloud. 129
(ii) Due to the huge breakdown, the light starts moving toward the Earth with each 130
step having higher electric field than the preceding one. All these steps are sto- 131
chastic in nature. This process is repeated at each random path followed from 132
the clouds to the Earth. 133
Let i correspond to any of the test points for the entire population and j be the test 134
point that will contribute to the formation of steps toward the ground. Let ti be the 135
electric field for a particular ith test point, tj be the electric field for a particular jth 136
test point, and f(tj) be the fitness value for a jth point. Let tavg be the average value of 137
138 the electric field for the test points and f(tavg) be the fitness value for this average
139 electric field.
140 If f(tj) > f(tavg),
then ti new ti rand tavg rand t j

141
else ti new ti rand tavg rand t j

142 (1)
143 where rand is a uniformly distributed random number in the interval [0,1].
144 (iii) Simultaneously, there is also the corresponding upward movement from the
145 Earth to the clouds due to the large difference in the electric field.
146 Let step count be represented by:
count
count Iter
SC 1 exp
147 Iter (2)
148 where Iter indicates the upper bound of the number of iterations and count indicates
149 the present count.
150 (iv) When both upward and downward movements meet at a point, the charge
151 within the clouds is neutralized.
152 All the steps mentioned above correspond to the lightning attachment procedure
153 optimization (LAPO). Further, the “fitness” of the objective function in this optimi-
154 zation corresponds to the electric field at all the test points, which are nothing but
155 the “individual points” considered in this optimization technique. Although the
156 LAPO technique balances the exploration and exploitation, its solution may move
157 sometimes toward the worst point in some situations as the process is random in
158 nature. So, the modified LAPO is used in the proposed work, so that the solution
159 always moves away from the worst point (i.e., tworst) and toward the best point (i.e.,
160 tbest). This is illustrated in Eq. (3):
ti new ti rand t best rand t worst . (3)

161
162 The dimensions shown in Table 1 have been considered after using the manual
163 optimization, which is very much time-consuming. The modified LAPO technique
164 discussed above is automatic in the respect that it considers all the local and global
165 points at each iteration by itself.
166 The various steps to optimize the antenna are shown in Fig. 2.
167 (i) First of all, the population is created by varying the parameters W2, D, and D1
168 with the parametric variation in HFSS. The population corresponds to the val-
169 ues of reflection coefficient at the various values of W2, D, and D1. W2 is
170 varied by 0.1 mm within the bounds (lower bound as 2.6 mm and upper bound
171 as 3.4 mm), D is varied by 0.1 mm within the bounds (lower bound as 4.7 mm
Creaon of Populaon
Processing of Test points
Implementaon of Curve Fit-

ng to design the Equaons
Implementaon of Modified LAPO
Antenna Dimensions aer Opmizaon
Fig. 2 Steps involved in the proposed optimization
and upper bund as 5.3 mm), and D1 is varied by 0.1 mm within the bounds 172
(lower bound as 2.3 mm and upper bound as 2.7 mm). So, the variations for all 173
the three parameters at 1001 values of frequency from 8 GHz to 18 GHz cor- 174
respond to the 21,021 test points obtained in the population. 175
(ii) All the test points obtained are processed thereafter. The reflection coefficient 176
values less than −10 dB are truncated to −10 dB, while those having values 177
more than −10 dB are taken as unchanged. Subsequently, the mean of all the 178
frequencies is taken for all the parametric variations resulting into 9 points, 7 179
points, and 5 points for W2, D, and D1, respectively. 180
(iii) The points obtained in step (ii) are undergone to the curve fitting using 181
MATLAB. This generates Eqs. (4), (5), and (6) of degree 3: 182
R1 24.4 W 23 1012 W 2 2 2048.1W 4779 (4)

183
R2 123.5 D 1049.8 D 667.5 D 119.8

3 2
(5) 184
R3 199.3 D1 593.4 D1 577.4 D1 5792.3 (6)

3 2
185
Equations (4), (5), and (6) represent the relation of reflection coefficient (R1/R2/R3) 186
with W2, D, and D1 values. 187
t2.1 Table 2 Optimized geometrical dimensions of the proposed design

Optimized dimension Value (mm) t2.2
W2 3.2 t2.3
D 5.2 t2.4
D1 2.4 t2.5
188 (iv) The modified LAPO as described earlier is applied thereafter by using the fit-
189 ness function based on minimization as the reflection coefficient is to be mini-
190 mized to obtain the high bandwidth.
191 (v) The optimized geometrical parameters are obtained after applying the modified
192 LAPO. The optimized parameters obtained are shown in Table 2.
193 The rest of the geometrical parameters in the optimized design remains the same as
194 shown in Table 1.
196 Since bandwidth of the antenna is optimized after minimizing the reflection coeffi-
197 cient, in this section, the reflection coefficient of the unoptimized antenna is plotted
198 followed by the plot of the reflection coefficient of the optimized antenna. Then, the
199 radiation pattern is plotted at the most important resonance frequency (i.e., the fre-
200 quency at which the reflection coefficient is minimum) for the optimized antenna.
201 Subsequently, the peak gain of the optimized antenna is plotted with respect to the
202 frequency. Since the focus is on X-band and Ku-band, frequency axis is taken from
203 8 GHz to 18 GHz that covers both bands.
204 5.1 Reflection Coefficient
205 The reflection coefficient for the unoptimized design is plotted in Fig. 3 and that for
206 the optimized design is plotted in Fig. 4.
207 It may be observed that the unoptimized structure has three frequency bands,
208 while the optimized design yields a single band having a very wide bandwidth. The
209 comparison is also shown in Table 3.
210 It is observed from Table 3 that the reflection coefficient for the unoptimized
211 design is −30.68 dB while that for the optimized geometry is −43.34 dB that is
212 quite fantastic. Also, the bandwidth for the unoptimized design is 4970 MHz (i.e.,
213 230 MHz + 980 MHz + 3760 MHz), while the bandwidth for the optimized design
214 is 9140 MHz. So, the bandwidth for the optimized design is increased by 83.9%,
215 which is excellent.
Fig. 3 Reflection coefficient for the unoptimized design
Fig. 4 Reflection coefficient for the optimized design

Table 3 Reflection coefficient for the unoptimized and optimized design t3.1
Design Minimum reflection coefficient Frequency band Bandwidth t3.2

Unoptimized −30.68 dB (at 16.24 GHz) 9.54–9.77 GHz 230 MHz t3.3
12.01–12.99 GHz 980 MHz t3.4
14.24–18.00 GHz 3760 MHz t3.5
(Total 4970 MHz) t3.6
Optimized −43.34 dB (at 11.34 GHz) 8.86–18.00 GHz 9140 MHz t3.7
Fig. 5 Radiation pattern at 11.34 GHz for the optimized antenna in (a) E-plane (b) H-plane
216 The huge increase in the bandwidth is due to the fair amount of intensification
217 and diversification exhibited by the modified LAPO technique.
218 5.2 Radiation Pattern
219 The radiation pattern drawn in the form of normalized curve for the resonant fre-
220 quency of 11.34 GHz is shown in Fig. 5 for the optimized antenna. The radiation
221 pattern is plotted in terms of gain plotted with respect to the elevation angle for
222 E-plane (XZ-plane) and H-plane (YZ-plane).
The graph shows that the optimized antenna is distorted omnidirectional or 223
deteriorated for the H-plane while it is somewhat more directive for the E-plane. 224
The deterioration is due to the formation of some side lobes in the radiation 225
pattern. 226
5.3 Gain 227
To know the directivity of the antenna at all the frequencies, the gain of the opti- 228
mized antenna is plotted in the form of peak gain with respect to frequency in 229
X-band and Ku-band as shown in Fig. 6. It is evident from the graph that peak gain 230
is observed to be the highest at 17.54 GHz and the value of this gain is 8.50 dB, 231
which is great for this antenna having small size. 232
6 Comparison 233
Table 4 shows the comparison of the proposed optimized antenna with various other 234
optimized antennas of the existing literature in terms of increased bandwidth (in 235
%age) and the type of optimization technique used. 236
Fig. 6 Graph of the peak gain for the optimized antenna

Table 4 Comparison with other optimized designs in terms of enhanced bandwidth t4.1
Increase in t4.2
References bandwidth Optimization technique t4.3
[33] 51.6% Adaptive bacterial foraging optimization (ABFO) t4.4
[37] 23.5% Genetic algorithm(GA) t4.5
[38] 48% Particle swarm optimization (PSO) t4.6
Proposed 83.9% Modified lightning attachment procedure optimization t4.7
(MLAPO) t4.8
237 7 Conclusion
238 This chapter developed a new slotted fractal antenna followed by its optimization
239 using modified lightning attachment procedure optimization and curve fitting
240 method. The antenna after undergoing the optimization has been found to be very
241 much enhanced in bandwidth than that of the actual design. The proposed antenna
242 works in X-band and Ku-band. Various other parameters like radiation pattern and
243 gain of the optimized antenna are also analyzed. The gain of the optimized antenna
244 has also been found to be quite appreciable. Lastly, the bandwidth of the optimized
245 antenna has also been compared with the optimized bandwidth in the existing work
246 based on other nature-inspired techniques.
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Design and Fabrication of Axially 1
Corrugated Gaussian Profiled Horn 2
Antenna 3
Prashant D. Sachaniya, Jagdishkumar M. Rathod, and Utkal Mehta 4
1 Introduction 5
It is now well-established that corrugated horns have desirable radiation character- 6

istics such as pattern symmetry, low cross-polarization, and low side lobe levels. 7
These horns are widely used as feed antenna in high-performance and low noise 8
reflector antenna systems. It is also used in high-performance microwave communi- 9
cation, radar application, and remote sensing system. A reflector antenna consists of 10
a paraboloid reflector antenna and a horn antenna as a feed of reflector. In a trans- 11
mitting antenna, the feed horn must match the microwave signals from the source to 12
the reflector antenna and illuminate the reflector with minimum energy and maxi- 13
mum efficiency. There are various possible designs for this horn, but presently, the 14
corrugated horn is the preferred choice. 15
There is one efficient structure of the horn antenna, and it is the corrugated horn 16
antenna. The inside wall of the corrugated horn is manufactured in a succession of 17
“slots” and “teeth” [2]. Corrugated horn antenna can propagate through hybrid 18
modes (combination of TE and TM modes) to produce radiation patterns with 19
extremely good beam symmetry with low cross-polarization levels, high beam effi- 20
ciency with very low side lobes, and the potential for wide-bandwidth performance 21
P. D. Sachaniya (*)
Electronics & Communication Engineering Department, Gujarat Technological University,
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
J. M. Rathod
Department of Electronics, Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya, Anand, Gujarat, India
e-mail: jmrathod@bvmengineering.ac.in
U. Mehta
Electrical and Electronics Engineering at the University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji
e-mail: utkal.mehta@usp.ac.fj

Switzerland AG 2022
394 P. D. Sachaniya et al.
22 [2–3]. Corrugated horn antenna is used as a direct feed antenna for moderate gain
23 applications and is used with a parabolic reflector antenna for achieving high-gain
24 applications. Corrugated horn antenna is called a gold antenna among all feed
25 antennas [2]. Corrugated horn antennas are used in radar surveying, satellite com-
26 munications, target detection, radio astronomy, national security, microwave remote
27 sensing, weather radar, and the feed for reflector antenna [1–3].
28 2 Design Parameters
29 In this section, design theory and equations of two different profiles of corrugation
30 and the design dimensions of proposed corrugated horn are presented.
31 2.1 Axial Profiled Corrugated Horn Antenna
32 Axial profiled corrugated horn antenna is designed for the lower-gain application of
33 10–12 dBi. The axial profile of corrugated horn antenna has the advantage of a
34 broad radiation pattern with size compactness. It has numerous disadvantages like
35 less gain, an acceptable level of cross-polarization, and beam asymmetry. The radius
36 and depth of each slot are calculated from Eqs. (1) and (2) [13]:
37 a j = ai + j ρ for1 ≤ j ≤ Nslots (1)
 
 
λ  1 
d j = exp  1.134 
(2)
4  2.114  2π a j  
   
38   λ  
39 where aj = radius of jth slot, dj = depth of jth slot, and Nslots = no. of slots.
40 2.2 Gaussian Profiled Corrugated Horn Antenna
41 The Gaussian profiled corrugated horn antenna has a distinguish advantage of high
42 directive gain, lower cross-polarization value, and beam symmetry. However, this
43 has a common demerit of larger size and overall dimension. The Gaussian profiled
44 horn antenna can be designed using the following expression [13]:
2
 2x 
R ( x ) = ro 1 +  2 2  (3)
45  kα ro 
Design and Fabrication of Axially Corrugated Gaussian Profiled Horn Antenna 395
ro is the input radius and the output radius of the mode converter. α is an essential 46
parameter for miniaturization, and its value is chosen to 1. x = 1,2,3…..Nslots. The 47
radius of each slot and depth of each slot is calculated from Eqs. (4) and (5) [13]: 48
2
 ρλ ( x − 1) 
a x = ao 1+   for 1 ≤ x ≤ N (4)
 π ao 
2
49
 
 
 1 
 1.134 
  2 π a x  
 2.114   
 λ 
d x = 0.25λ e  
for N MC + 1 ≤ x ≤ N (5) 50
where Nslots = no. of slots, NMC = no. of slots in mode converter, and ao = out- 51
put radius. 52
2.3 A
xially Corrugated Gaussian Profiled Horn 53
Antenna (ACGPHA) 54
The axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna is a dual profiled corrugated 55
horn antenna. It consists of an axial profile and a Gaussian profile of corrugation. 56
The axial profile of corrugation has the advantage of size compactness and directive 57
radiation pattern. In contrast, the Gaussian profile of corrugation has an advantage 58
of a lower value of cross-polarization and a good value of beam symmetry and 59
directive gain. The advantages of these two profiles are used for the proposed design 60
of the corrugated horn antenna, i.e., axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn 61
antenna. These two profiles of corrugations are shown in Fig. 1. 62
The design dimensions of axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna are 63
shown in Table 1. 64
3 Result Summary 65
In this section, the result summary of axially corrugated Gaussian profiled corru- 66
gated horn antenna is presented in terms of simulated result and measured result. 67
3.1 Simulation Design 68
The proposed axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna is designed at 69

2.48 GHz in the HFSS software, and it is shown in Fig. 2. The S11-parameter of axi- 70
ally corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna is shown in Fig. 3. It is −26.1751 dB 71
Fig. 1 Axial and Gaussian profile of corrugation
Table 1 Design dimension of axially corrugated Gaussian profiled corrugated horn antenna t1.1
Sr. no. Parameters Dimensions t1.2

1 Design frequency (fc) 2.48 GHz t1.3
2 Frequency band 2–4 GHz (S-band) t1.4
3 Wavelength (λ) 121.90 mm t1.5
4 Gain (G) 15 dBi t1.6
5 Input radius (ai) –WG 451 57.29 mm t1.7
6 Output radius (ao) 158.4 mm t1.8
7 Horn flare angel(𝟁c) 45°(axial) and 30°(Gaussian) t1.9
9 No. of slots (Nslots) 15 t1.10
10 Slot pitch-to-width ratio (δ) 0.72 t1.11
11 Slot pitch (ρ) 15.1 mm t1.12
12 Slot width (w) 10.9 mm t1.13
13 Width of the slot teeth (t) 4.2 mm t1.14
14 Length of horn (L) 323.5 mm t1.15
15 Corrugation profile Dual (axial and Gaussian) t1.16
72 at 2.48 GHz and below −20 dB for the entire S-band. The gain, cross-polarization,
73 and beam symmetry of the proposed axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn
74 antenna are 14.2743 dBi, −35.8704 dB, and ± 50 degrees (100 degrees) at 2.48 GHz,
75 as shown in Fig. 4. The 3D radiation pattern of axially corrugated Gaussian profiled
76 horn antenna is shown in Fig. 5, and there is a lower value of side and back lobes.
77 The proposed design of The corrugated horn is 2.6 λ long with an aperture radius of
78 1.3 λ only. The proposed corrugated horn antenna has only 15 corrugations in the
79 antenna structure.
Fig. 2 Side, top, and 3D view of the proposed axially corrugated Gaussian profiled corrugated
horn antenna
3.2 Fabricated Design 80
The proposed corrugated horn antenna is tested using the vector network analyzer 81
for return loss measurement, as shown in Fig. 6. An anechoic chamber is used to test 82
the gain, radiation pattern, and cross-polarization of the corrugated horn antenna, as 83
shown in Fig. 7. 84
The simulated and measured value of the S11-parameter for the proposed corru- 85
gated horn antenna is shown in Fig. 8. The S11-parameter remains −20 dB down for 86
the frequency range of 2.15 GHz–4 GHz (1.85 GHz) in the simulated result and the 87
frequency range of 2.35 GHz–4 GHz (1.65 GHz) in the measured result. 88
The simulated and measured value of gain for the whole S-band at the designed 89
frequency is shown in Fig. 9. The proposed corrugated horn antenna is designed for 90
the gain of 15 dBi. The simulated result of the gain of the proposed corrugated horn 91
Fig. 3 S11-parameter of the proposed axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna
Fig. 4 Gain, cross-polarization, and 3D radiation pattern of the proposed axially corrugated
Gaussian profiled horn antenna
92 antenna remains in the range of 14 dBi for the whole S-band. The measured result of
93 gain is slightly increased than the designed and simulated value due to input wave-
94 guide converter and waveguide transition. The overall length of the horn increased
95 due to the transition structure, which causes an improvement in the gain (Fig. 10).
96 The comparison of the simulated and measured value of cross-polarization at
97 2.48 GHz is shown in Fig. 11. The simulated result of cross-polarization remains
98 below −20 dB for the entire S-band, while the measured value of cross-polarization
99 remains below −18 dB for the whole S-band, as shown in Fig. 11.
Fig. 5 3D radiation pattern of the proposed axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna
Fig. 6 Testing of axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna using vector network analyzer
Fig. 7 Testing of axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna in anechoic chamber
Fig. 8 Simulated and measured value of S11-parameters for axially corrugated Gaussian profiled
horn antenna between 2 and 4 GHz
Fig. 9 Simulated and measured value of gain for axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn
antenna between 2 and 4 GHz
Fig. 10 Simulated and measured Gain of axially corrugated gaussian profiled horn antenna at
2.48 GHz
Fig. 11 Simulated and measured value of cross-polarization for axially corrugated Gaussian pro-
filed horn antenna between 2 and 4 GHz
100 4 Conclusion
101 The novel corrugated horn is designed at 2.48 GHz. The value of gain at designed
102 frequency is 16.28 dBi, S11 of -21.37 dB, and cross-polarization of -30.34 dB is
103 obtained with the good value of beam symmetry. The value of S11 & cross-polar-
104 ization remains -20 dB down while the value of gain remains nearer to 15 dBi for
105 the whole S-Band. The novel design of corrugated horn is 2.6 λ long with an aper-
106 ture radius of 1.3 λ only. The novel design of corrugated horn is compact in size
107 with a wide bandwidth performance.
108 References
109 1. Sachaniya, P.D., Dhandhukia, H., Rathod, J.M.: Review and analyze low cross polarized feed
110 for offset parabolic reflector antenna for S-band application. J. Commun. Eng. Syst. 8(3),
111 30–36 (2018)
112 2. Prashant, S., Shah, S., Rathod, J.: Hybrid feed horn for S-band application. In: 2019 IEEE
113 Indian Conference on Antennas and Propagation (InCAP), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2019)
114 3. Sachaniya, P.D., Rathod, J.M.: Miniaturization of asymmetrical gaussian profiled corrugated
115 horn. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 1070(1), 012078. IOP Publishing (2021)
116 4. Alexander, H., Markus, P., Simon, A.: Design of wide-band corrugated feed horn for reflector
117 antenna in radar applications. In: 2016 German Microwave Conference (GeMiC). IEEE (2016)
118 5. Wang, L., Lei, L., Wang, S.: The design of a new H plane corrugated horn antenna in THz
119 frequency. In: 2016 2nd IEEE International Conference on Computer and Communications
120 (ICCC). IEEE (2016)
6. Makwana, B.J., Sharma, S.B., Parikh, K.: A multimode feed for compact offset parabolic 121
reflector antenna system. In: 2016 IEEE Indian Antenna Week (IAW 2016). IEEE (2016) 122
7. McKay, J.E., Robertson, D.A., Speirs, P.J., Hunter, R.I., Wylde, R.J., Smith, G.M.: Compact 123
corrugated feed horns with high Gaussian coupling efficiency and −60 dB sidelobes. IEEE 124
Trans. Antennas Propag. 64(6), 2518–2522 (2016) 125
8. Moy-Li, H.C., Ferrando-Bataller, M., Sánchez-Escuderos, D., Baquero-Escudero, M.: Band- 126
pass unit cell for extended low-profile lens over radially-corrugated circular horn. In: 2016 127
IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation (APSURSI). IEEE (2016) 128
9. Vishnu, G.J., Jani, G., Pujara, D.: Design and optimization of a Ku-band compact axial cor- 129
rugated horn antenna using ANFIS. In: 2016 International Symposium on Antennas and 130
Propagation (APSYM). IEEE (2016) 131
10. Wang, J., Yao, Y., Cheng, Y., Liu, X., Qi, L., Chen, Z., Yu, J., Chen, X.: Design of a 94 GHz 132
compact corrugated horn with ultra-low sidelobe. In: 2016 IEEE International Symposium on 133
Antennas and Propagation (APSURSI). IEEE (2016) 134
11. Wu, Y., Xie, L., Zhou, J., Biao, D.: Wideband wide flared corrugated horns designed for the 135
square kilometre Array. In: 2016 IEEE International Conference on Microwave and Millimeter 136
Wave Technology (ICMMT), vol. 1. IEEE (2016) 137
12. Zhang, P., Qi, J., Qiu, J.: Modal-matching-based analysis for axially corrugated dielectric-rod- 138
loaded horn. Radio Sci. 51(7), 895–904 (2016) 139
13. Granet, C., James, G.L.: Design of corrugated horns: a primer. IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag. 140
47(2), 76–84 (2005) 141
Antipodal Vivaldi Antennas Arranged 1
in Circular Array for RADAR 2
Sasmita Mohapatra 3
1 Introduction 4
Since the mid-1960s, automotive RADAR has been under development for various 5
applications. The basic use of any RADAR system is to detect and track any object/ 6
vehicle. The positioning of the target with respect to range, velocity, and angle is of 7
prime importance, which is applicable for both stationary and moving targets. For 8
this, the main constraint for any RADAR system is that the RADAR has to operate 9
effectively in very adverse climatic conditions; also at the same time, the complete 10
RADAR system must be compact and should be able to produce consistent perfor- 11
mance over a wide frequency range. 12
Array-based UWB microwave antenna system has greater efficiency in perform- 13
ing better in various short-range applications such as RADAR system, wireless 14
communication, covered weapon discovery, ground entering, clinical analysis, RCS 15
imaging, and so on. By consolidating with beam-forming, such framework can pos- 16
sibly accomplish improved execution regarding high three-dimensional goal, can- 17
tering, and electronic-beam controlling abilities. 18
The main challenge of designing an array antenna for any RADAR system is that 19
the individual antenna element should be designed with small dimension so that 20
many antennas can be accommodated within an imaging device and large fractional 21
bandwidth should be carried by individual antenna for a wider coverage of operat- 22
ing bandwidth. Analyzation has been carried out, and results have been found for 23
various types of small UWB antennas, such as stacked patch antenna [1], tapered 24
slot antennas [2], resistively loaded pyramidal horn antenna [3], and leaky lens 25
antenna [4]. 26
S. Mohapatra (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sir M Visvesvaraya Institute of
Technology, Bengaluru, Visvesvaraya Technological University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Switzerland AG 2022
406 S. Mohapatra
27 Among all these antennas, the Vivaldi antenna is one of the best solutions, which
28 has got very high gain, simple design, and compact structure with constant perfor-
29 mance over a very high operating bandwidth.
30 In the previous work [5], an array of Vivaldi antenna has been proposed with a
31 radome, which can be used mainly for MTI RADAR system where the performance
32 of the complete array antenna is dependent on the individual antenna characteris-
33 tics, the pattern the antennas are arranged in an array, the spacing between the
34 antennas, the characteristics (dielectric constant and thickness) of the radome, etc.
35 In the present work, an array antenna has been proposed where antipodal Vivaldi
36 antennas are arranged in spherical fashion with proper intra-antenna spacing for
37 minimum interference between individual antenna coverage and improvement of
38 overall coverage of the array. Again, the antenna array has been covered by a radome
39 of certain permittivity and thickness to make it suitable to be used for RADAR sys-
40 tems in any adverse climatic conditions and achieve maximum efficiency of radia-
41 tion with high directivity and coverage.
42 2 D
esigning and Characteristics of Individual Antipodal
43 Vivaldi Antenna
44 The proposed antenna array consists of antipodal Vivaldi antennas arranged in a

45 circular fashion to gain maximum coverage. Here each one of the antipodal Vivaldi
46 antennas comprises tapered slot etched on a metal film of very low thickness. It
47 works as an end-fire antenna with very high directivity and ultra-wideband opera-
48 tion. So most suitably the antipodal antenna has been selected to be used in the array
49 for efficient and wide operations.
50 The feeding of antenna is a great challenge, which can improve the impedance
51 matching and in turn can improve the power radiation by the antenna. The proposed
52 antipodal Vivaldi antenna is a properly balanced structure which has got a balun
53 which provides a match between 50 Ω microstrip feedline and antenna. This balun
54 consists of a 50 Ω microstrip to parallel plate transmission line which is tapered to
55 a slot line configuration, and subsequently the antenna is fed by the slot line
56 structure.
57 In the proposed work, a low-profile tapered slot antipodal Vivaldi antenna has
58 been designed. The designed antipodal Vivaldi antenna has been simulated using
59 Ansys HFSS to find its different characteristics. The antenna’s performance with
60 respect to different parameters is excellent over a wide frequency range of
61 2.0 GHz–20 GHz.
62 Figure 1 shows the geometry of the proposed antipodal Vivaldi antenna. Three
63 important parts play a significant role in the construction of the antenna. The first
64 section signifies the main transition from microstrip line to the double-sided parallel
65 stripline, which is the circularly flared tapered part. The second part is the main car-
66 rier of the signal to antenna at the feeding end, which is a parallel stripline. This is
Antipodal Vivaldi Antennas Arranged in Circular Array for RADAR 407
Fig. 1 Prototype diagram of the antipodal Vivaldi antenna
a balanced structure which provides transitions over a wide frequency band. The 67
third part of the overall construction is the radiation flare which mainly converts the 68
guided wave to a free wave or radiation. This radiation part mainly has three curves, 69
which include the inner and outer edges which are well defined by exponential 70
equations. The outside lines which are tapered consist of 1/4 elliptical arcs of differ- 71
ent axis ratio, which can reduce the reflections if there is any impedance mismatch 72
with its continuous structure. The designing equations for the antipodal antenna are 73
given as: 74
V = C1 eα u + C2 (1)
75
V 2 − V1
whereC1 =
eα u 2 − eα u1 (2) 76
α u2 α u1
V 1e − V 2 e
and C2 =
eα u 2 − eα u1 (3) 77
where α = axis ratio of the tapered line 78
(u1, v1) = starting point of the tapered line. 79

(u2, v2) = ending point of the tapered line. 80
The main challenge in designing the proposed antipodal antenna is in its transi- 81
tion region from microstrip to parallel stripline and again from parallel stripline to 82
slot line. The transition regions must be designed very smooth as it can lead to dis- 83
continuities during the high-frequency performance of the antenna. As the designed 84
antipodal antennas are arranged in an array which can be used as RADAR antenna, 85
408 S. Mohapatra
Return Loss
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
–10
–20
S11 in dB
–30
–40
–50
–60
–70
Frequency (GHz)
Simulated Results
Fig. 2 Simulated and measured results of return loss
86 care has been taken to reduce the overall size of the antenna array. For these, the
87 individual antipodal Vivaldi antenna is designed to be very compact.
88 According to the formula and approximation, the antenna is optimized to have
89 the dimension of 60 mm × 25 mm. The different designing parameters are
90 w = 3.00 mm, L = 35 mm, ε =2.0, and h = 1 mm.
91 The simulated results of the return loss are shown in Fig. 2. It can be seen that the
92 return loss is less than −10 dB from nearer to 2.0 GHz–20 GHz, which shows that
93 the antenna performance is almost stable over a wide frequency band (Fig. 3).
94 The 3D radiation pattern for the antenna has been observed at different frequen-
95 cies. The radiation pattern shows that the antenna performance is stable and similar
96 over a wide frequency range (Fig. 4).
97 The above figure shows the simulated gain of the individual antipodal Vivaldi
98 antenna, which shows that the antenna has a high gain over the overall frequency
99 range. The gain of the antenna is found to be 8.4 dB at 12 GHz.
100 3 Array of Antipodal Vivaldi Antenna
101 Array of antennas always plays a crucial role in many wireless applications, which
102 mainly helps in increasing the coverage area. The antenna array mainly helps in
103 increasing the signal strength, so very high directivity in a particular direction can
104 be achieved. By the use of array antenna, minor lobes of the radiation are reduced,
105 thus increasing signal-to-noise ratio. Overall, the array structure can achieve a very
106 high gain, which is dependent on the number of antennas used in the array structure.
107 Thus, a better performance can be achieved by reducing power wastage (Fig. 5).
108 As discussed in [5], there are many challenges in arranging antennas in an array.
109 The main challenge in designing the array antenna is feeding of the array as the
110 phase difference between the feeding point matters a lot in gaining the overall gain
Fig. 3 3D radiation pattern of designed Vivaldi Antenna
Gain in dB
8.4 dB
9
8
7
6
Gain in dB
5
4
3
2
1
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (GHz)
Gain in dB
Fig. 4 Gain with respect to frequency of designed Vivaldi Antenna
of the antenna array. Again, the cross-coupling between antennas is another chal- 111
lenge. For this reason, the side lobes should be significantly reduced, and the indi- 112
vidual element gain should be made as high as possible. To overcome these 113
problems, in the present, the architecture of microstrip array antennas has been done 114
under corporate feed techniques and series feed techniques for excitation. 115
In the previous section, the characteristics of the individual antenna has been 116
analyzed with respect to the S-parameter and gain of the antenna. In the present sec- 117
tion, the simulation has been done for the array of antipodal Vivaldi antennas kept 118
in a spherical structure. The characteristics of the array structure have been analyzed 119
with respect to VSWR of the complete structure, which is a key to decide the overall 120
gain and power loss of the antenna structure (Fig. 6). 121
As shown in the above figure, the overall radiation beam of the antenna array is 122
expected to be a combination of the individual beam of each active element where 123
the total angular sweep in the broad side direction is expected to be more than 60°, 124
410 S. Mohapatra
Fig. 5 Array of Vivaldi Antennas placed in a circular fashion
Fig. 6 Collimated radiation beam of Vivaldi antenna array
125 which increases the total area of coverage for scanning by the array of antenna
126 (Fig. 7).
127 The above figure shows the performance in terms of VSWR for the array of
128 antipodal Vivaldi antenna array. The VSWR is predicted for infinite array by using
129 PB-FDTD analysis [6]. One polarization is fed and scanned to broadside, 60°
130 E-plane, and 60° H-plane. The other polarization is terminated in 50 Ohms.
131 4 Array of Antipodal Vivaldi Antenna with Radome
132 The proposed antenna can have vast application in the RADAR system, because of
133 which a radome is used as a shield for the complete antenna array to protect the
134 antenna system.
135 Usually for any antenna system, low profiling of antenna is a major issue in the
136 present researches. In the case of antipodal Vivaldi antenna [7], if the antenna length
137 of Vivaldi antenna is reduced, then the performance of the antenna deteriorates. It is
138 observed that using single- or multilayer of dielectric around the antenna array in
139 close proximity improves the impedance matching over a wide bandwidth. Even
VSWR for antenna array

2.5
1.5
Broad side values
VSWR
1 60° E-plane
60° H-plane
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Frequency in GHz
Fig. 7 VSWR of the designed Vivaldi antenna array
Fig. 8 Array of Vivaldi antennas covered by a radome
this improvement is present for relatively short antipodal Vivaldi antennas also 140
(Fig. 8). 141
In the above figure, the basic configuration of a dielectric cover used as radome 142
is shown. Here, a single sheet is used for thickness t and permittivity εr. The dielec- 143
tric is placed flush against the array surface. The thickness of sheet and its dielectric 144
constant plays a major role in deciding the overall performance of the antenna array 145
as the covering radome can work as a reflecting agent, thus reducing the efficiency 146
of the overall antenna array by increasing VSWR (Fig. 9). 147
The above figure shows the performance of the antenna array in terms of its 148
VSWR while covered by radome of different dielectric constant materials. The 149
graph shows that as required for ideal VSWR characteristics, the value is very close 150
to unity when a material of εr = 3.3 is used. This analysis is done over a frequency 151
412 S. Mohapatra
VSWR (Broadside) for cover of different εr

3.5
3
2.5
2
VSWR
1.5
1
0.5
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency in GHz
εr=3.3 εr=5 εr=6
Fig. 9 VSWR of the Vivaldi antenna array with radomes of materials of different dielectric constant
VSWR (Broadside) for cover of different

thickness with εr=3.3
4
3.5
3
2.5
VSWR
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Freqency in GHz
No Cover t=0.2 cm t=0.4 cm t=0.6cm t=0.8cm t=1.0cm
Fig. 10 VSWR for the Vivaldi antenna array with radomes of different thickness at εr = 3.3
152 range from 2.0 GHz to 20.0 GHz. And the improvement happens as the frequency
153 increases. So, the covering material is selected for εr = 3.3 (Fig. 10).
154 The above figure shows the performance of the array with material of εr = 3.3
155 with different thickness. The performance is seen to be very good for materials with
156 thickness varying from t = 0.5 cm to t = 1.0 cm. Anyway, for the present, designing
157 the material with thickness = 0.8 cm is considered to be the best (Fig. 11).
158 The above figure shows the performance of the antenna array with radome of
159 material of εr = 3.3 and thickness t = 0.8 cm, which shows that the antenna array
160 system behaves almost uniformly over a very wide scanning area.
VSWR for chosen cover

6
4
VSWR
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency in GHz
Broad side 60° E-plane 60° H-plane
Fig. 11 VSWR for broadside, 60° E-plane, and 60° H-plane for array of Vivaldi antennas with
selected radome
5 Conclusion and Future Scope 161
In the proposed antenna system for RADARs, the simulations of phased array sys- 162
tem containing antipodal Vivaldi antennas arranged in a circular fashion show that 163
the array transmits the signal with maximum efficiency, almost constant amplitude 164
over wide frequency band, and very low delay dispersion over operation bandwidth. 165
The results are very good with respect to VSWR over a wide frequency range, 166
which shows that power loss is very less. It is also observed that the array while 167
covered by the radome of particular thickness and directivity performs better with 168
respect to impedance matching and better amplitude bandwidth. But the dispersion 169
of the group delay increases slightly. 170
Further, the performance of the antenna system can still be improved if the indi- 171
vidual active elements of the antenna system can be replaced by any other individ- 172
ual antenna which has high directivity. 173
References 174
1. Nilavalan, R., Craddock, I.J., Preece, A., Leendertz, J., Benjamin, R.: Wideband microstrip 175
patch antenna design for breast cancer tumour detection. IET Microw. Antennas Propag. 1(2), 176
277–281 (2007) 177
2. Khor, W.C., Bialkowski, M.E., Abbosh, A., Seman, N., Crozier, S.: An ultra-wideband micro- 178
wave imaging system for breast cancer tumour detection. IET Microw. Antennas Propag. 1(2), 179
277–281 (2007) 180
3. Li, X., Hagness, S.C., Choi, M.K., van der Weide, D.W.: Numerical and experimental inves- 181
tigation of an ultra-wideband ridged pyramidal horn antenna with curved launching plane for 182
pulse radiation. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 2, 259–262 (2003) 183
414 S. Mohapatra
184 4. Bruni, S., Neto, A., Marliani, F.: UWB leaky lens antenna. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag.
185 55(10), 2642 (2007 October)
186 5. Sasmita, M.: Array of Vivaldi antenna arranged in circular fashion for MTI RADAR. J. Xidian
187 Univ. 14(8), 685–693 (2020)
188 6. Turner, G.M., Christodoulou, C.: FDTD analysis of phased array antennas. IEEE Trans.
189 Antennas Propag. 47(4), 661–667 (1999 April)
190 7. Hood, A.Z., Karacolak, T., Topsakal, E.: A small antipodal vivaldi antenna for ultrawide-band
191 applications. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 7, 656–660 (2008)
Index 1
2 A Axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn 36

3 Adaptive algorithms, 120 antenna, 394 37
4 Adaptive array elements, 286 fabricated design, 397, 398, 401, 402 38
5 Adaptive bacterial foraging optimization simulation design, 395, 396, 399 39
6 (ABFO), 381 Axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn 40
7 Adaptive beamformer, 113 antenna (ACGPHA) 41
8 Analytical hierarchy process (AHP), 234 design parameters, 395, 396 42
9 Ant colony optimization (ACO), 380 Axial profiled corrugated horn antenna 43
10 Antenna, 3, 359 design parameters, 394 44
11 Antenna efficiency, 9
12 Antenna optimization
13 antenna performance, 70 B 45
14 microstrip patch antenna, 70, 71 Back-illuminated devices 46
15 parametric variations, 70 gate junction region, photogenerated hole 47
16 rectangular patch antenna, Taguchi’s density in, 363 48
17 method, 72–77, 80 Back-illuminated OPFETs 49
18 flexible antenna and implementation, photo-induced channel electron 50
19 76, 77, 79, 81–83 density in, 364 51
20 Taguchi’s optimization method, 72, 73 photo-induced depletion region electron 52
21 wireless communication, density in, 365 53
22 requirements for, 69 Bacterial foraging optimization (BFO), 380, 381 54
23 Antipodal Vivaldi antennas, 406 Bandwidth (BW) enhancement, 33, 45, 46 55
24 array of, 408–410 Bandwidth (BW) of microstrip antenna, 45 56
25 designing and characteristics, 406–408 Bandwidth (BW) optimization 57
26 with radome, array of, 411, 412 novel slotted fractal antenna, 383–386 58
27 Aperture coupled microstrip patch antenna Base station (BS), 113 59
28 (ACMPA), 10 Basic MP (BMP), 204 60
29 Array factor (AF), 273 Bat algorithm (BA), 380, 381 61
30 Artificial magnetic conductor (AMC), 180 Beamforming algorithm, 119, 120 62
31 quad-port orthogonal wideband MIMO CMA, 122, 123 63
32 antenna, 181, 182 LMS, 120, 121 64
33 Artificial neural networks (ANN), 267, 269 MD algorithm, 123, 124 65
34 Autonomous underwater vehicle MVDR, 121 66
35 (AUV), 35 RLS, 121, 122 67

Switzerland AG 2022
Communication and Computing, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76636-8
416 Index
68 Beamforming networks (BFN), 115, 116 Compact dual-fed self-diplexing antenna 119
69 Beamforming technology, 114 for wireless communication 120
70 beamforming networks, 115, 116 application, 15, 16 121
71 digital beamforming method, 117 hardware realization, 17, 20 122
72 existing OSPBFN, 119 parametric analysis, 19, 21, 22 123
73 optical signal processing beamforming realization of, 16, 18 124
74 network, 117, 118 Compactness, 70, 79 125
75 phased array antenna, 114, 115 Complementary split-ring resonator 126
76 RF beamforming method, 116 (CSRR), 139 127
77 Bending Conductive glue, 321 128
78 low-profile compact EBG integrated Co-planner feed, 5 129
79 circular monopole antenna, Co-pole radiation pattern, 48 130
80 307, 308 Corrugated horn antenna, 393, 394 131
81 slot-based miniaturized textile Coverage, 406 132
82 antenna, 325 CPW feed, 224 133
83 Biconvex shape, 97 CPW-fed UWB antenna, 164 134
84 Brain storm optimization (BSO), 380, 381 CPW-fed UWB-simulated antennas, 134 135
85 Buried-gate OPFET, 364 Cross-shaped defected ground structure 136
(CSDGS), 234 137
Curved skin model, 326 138
86 C Cylindrical coordinate system (CCS), 98 139
87 CADFEKO simulator, 35
88 CADFEKO software, 316
89 Calibration equation, 347–349, 351, 353, 356 D 140
90 Cavity-backed slot antenna, 15 Data transmission, 331 141
91 CDMA-based mobile communication DC-controlled varactor-based matching 142
92 system, 125 network, 86 143
93 Channel capacity loss (CCL), 155, 156 Decision tree 144
94 four-element MIMO antenna, 174, 175 maximum arc-to-arc length, optimization 145
95 Channel estimation techniques, 197 for, 104 146
96 block type, 198, 199 Defected ground structure (DGS), 134, 234, 147
97 comb type, 199 238, 239, 248, 254 148
98 DFT-based channel estimation, 202, 203 advantages and disadvantages, 248 149
99 doubly selective channel estimation application, 248 150
100 technique, 203, 204 full-wave analysis, 248 151
101 lattice type, 200 stepwise analysis, 249 152
102 least square channel estimation, 201, 202 technique, 248 153
103 minimum mean square channel Delrin, 36 154
104 estimation, 202 Dependable oceanic communications, 35 155
105 pilot structure, 198 Device modeling, 363 156
106 pilot symbol-based channel estimation, 201 back -illuminated devices 157
107 sparse channel estimation, 204 gate junction region, 363 158
108 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 10 back-illuminated OPFETs 159
109 Circular disc cavity, 98, 99 photo-induced channel electron 160
110 Circular textile antenna, 303 density in, 364 161
111 Cloud services, 265 photo-induced depletion region electron 162
112 CMA algorithm, 122, 123 density in, 365 163
113 Coaxial feed, 5 drain current, 365 164
114 Cognitive radio (CR), 85 front-illuminated devices 165
115 Collimated radiation beam, 410 gate junction region, 363 166
116 Commission-measured impedance front-illuminated OPFETs 167
117 bandwidth, 134 photo-induced channel electron 168
118 Communication modules, 264 density in, 364 169
Index 417
170 photo-induced depletion region electron E-plane polarization, 108 221

171 density in, 365 E-plane radiation, 219 222
172 parameters, 366–375 Existing OSPBFN, 119 223
173 DFT-based channel estimation, 202, 203 Explosives 224
174 DGS-based fractal antenna detection of, 338, 340 225
175 dimensions, 254 wireless detection of, 338–340 226
176 fractal structure, 249–252
177 S11 with and without defective
178 ground, 253 F 227
179 Dielectric resonating antenna Fabricated antenna, 59 228
180 circular polarization and the Fabrication method, 69 229
181 revitalization of, 97 Fast Fourier transform (FFT), 360 230
182 Differential evolution (DE) technique, 381 F/B ratio, 58 231
183 Digital beamforming method, 117 Feeding techniques, 5–7 232
184 Direct coupling, 47 FEM-based high-frequency structure 233
185 Direction of arrival (DOA), 286 simulator (HFSS) software, 214 234
186 Directive gain (DG), 156, 159, 292 Fifth-generation (5G), 50, 359 235
187 four-element MIMO antenna, 172, 173 applications, 97 236
188 Doppler frequency, 199 massive MIMO-OFDM system model, 193 237
189 Doubly selective channel estimation mobile communication, 287 238
190 technique, 203, 204 mobile handset, 180 239
191 Drain current, 365 wireless communication, 163 240
192 Drain-to-source currents, 373 WLAN/WiFi applications, 165 241
193 DRLMS adaptive algorithm, 121 Finite element method (FEM), 238 242
194 Drude model, 335 Firefly algorithm (FA), 380, 381 243
195 DSP processor, 270 First generation (1G), 111 244
196 Dual-band compact transparent fractal First-null beamwidth (FNBW), 273 245
197 antenna, 213, 214 Flat skin model, 326 246
198 anechoic chamber setup, 218, 219 Folded T-type element (FTSE), 136 247
199 gain and efficiency, 220 Food security, 345 248
200 radiation characteristics, 216 Four-element MIMO antenna 249
201 structure of, 214, 215 channel capacity loss, 173–175 250
202 transparent antenna characteristics, 220 with decoupling structure, 169, 170 251
203 voltage standing wave ratios, 217 without decoupling structure, 166–168 252
204 Dual-band microstrip patch antenna, 25–26 diversity gain, 172 253
205 Dual notched band of UWB envelope correlation coefficient, 171, 172 254
206 antennas, 137–139 mean effective gain, 175, 176 255
207 Dual polarization, 153 performance comparison, 176 256
208 and multiband MIMO antennas, 153 performance metrics analysis, 170, 171 257
total active reflection coefficient, 173, 174 258
Four-element/port MIMO antenna array, 165 259
209 E Four-frequency sensor, 346, 348, 355, 356 260
210 E-field polarizations, 106 Fourth generation (4G), 111 261
211 Electromagnetically coupled feed, 6 framework, 111 262
212 Electromagnetic bandgap (EBG), 139, 316 internet networks, 23 263
213 Electromagnetic coupling theory (ECT), 138 and 5G handheld devices, 119 264
214 Electromagnetic spectrum, 332 and 5G technology, 111 265
215 Electromagnetic wave (EMW), 331 FR4, 24, 29, 31, 32, 356 266
216 Electronically steerable passive array radiators Fractal antenna, 254, 379 267
217 (ESPARs), 49, 50 Fractal structure, 249–252 268
218 Envelope correlation coefficient (ECC), 156, Front-illuminated devices 269
219 184, 292 gate junction region, photogenerated 270
220 four-element MIMO antenna, 171, 172 hole density in, 363 271
418 Index
272 Front-illuminated OPFETs J 319

273 photo-induced channel electron Jerusalem cross-based EBG array integrated 320
274 density in, 364 circular monopole antenna, 305 321
275 photo-induced depletion region electron
276 density in, 365
277 Full-wave analysis, 248 K 322
Keysight technologies, 75 323
Koch fractal geometry, 139 324
278 G Ku-band, 390 325
279 Gain
280 novel slotted fractal antenna, 389
281 Gap coupling, 47 L 326
282 Gaussian profiled corrugated horn antenna Least square channel estimation, 201, 202 327
283 design parameters, 394, 395 Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm, 272 328
284 Genetic algorithm (GA), 380 Lightning attachment procedure optimization 329
285 Global positioning system (GPS), 262, 263 (LAPO), 381, 384 330
286 Grey wolf optimization (GWO), 381 Linear antenna array, 381 331
Linear equation system (LES), 124 332
Linear regression 333
287 H remodeled circular patch, 101, 102 334
288 Half-mode SIW (HMSIW), 15 Line feeding technique, 235 335
289 Hardware realization LMS algorithm, 120, 121 336
290 self-diplexing antenna, 17, 20 Logistic regression 337
291 Harmony search (HS), 381 remodeled circular patch, 102, 103 338
292 Hausdorff measure, 250 Long-term evolution (LTE), 247 339
293 Hausdorff method, 250 Low-profile circular monopole textile antenna 340
294 Hexagonal radiator, 165 design of, 302, 303 341
295 H-field polarizations, 106 Low-profile compact EBG integrated circular 342
296 High-frequency RF bands, 359 monopole antenna 343
297 High-frequency structure simulator (HFSS), for wearable medical application, 301 344
298 16, 22, 25, 105, 234, 380 bending, 307, 308 345
299 High-gain dual-fed self-diplexing antenna, 22 design and implementation, 302 346
300 High impedance surface (HIS), 180 EBG design, 304, 305 347
301 High transmission data rates, 340 Jerusalem cross-based EBG array 348
302 H-plane polarization, 108 integrated circular monopole 349
303 H-plane radiation, 219 antenna, 305 350
304 Human body analysis low-profile circular monopole textile 351
305 slot-based miniaturized textile antenna, design of, 302, 303 352
306 antenna, 325 reflection coefficient, 307 353
307 Hydex, 37 SAR, 308–312 354
UWB healthcare application, 302 355
wideband characteristics, 302 356
308 I LTE/WWAN application-based tablet 357
309 Infrared and microwave region, 332 devices, 56 358
310 Internet of things (IoT), 213, 223 L-type slots, 135 359
311 microstrip antenna, 259, 260
312 in-vehicles for safety, 262, 263
313 sensor network antennas, 263, 264 M 360
314 smart home, 264, 265 Massive MIMO-OFDM system model, 361
315 wearable gadgets, 261 195, 196 362
316 Invasive weed optimization (IWO), 380, 381 BER Vs SNR, 206 363
317 Inverted HE-shaped microstrip patch channel estimation, 197 364
318 antenna, 26 block type, 198, 199 365
Index 419
366 comb type, 199 calibration equation and regression 419

367 DFT-based channel estimation, coefficient, 347–349, 353–356 420
368 202, 203 design and analysis of, 346, 347 421
369 doubly selective channel estimation Microstrip patch antenna, 131, 179 422
370 technique, 203, 204 antenna optimization, 70, 71 423
371 lattice type, 200 UWB antennas, 132 424
372 least square channel estimation, dual notched-band characteristics 425
373 201, 202 of, 137–139 426
374 minimum mean square channel microstrip/CPW feed, 134, 135 427
375 estimation, 202 microstrip feed, 132–134 428
376 pilot structure, 198 single notched band characteristics of, 429
377 pilot symbol-based channel 135, 136 430
378 estimation, 201 triple/quadra/quintuple notched-band 431
379 sparse channel estimation, 204 characteristics of, 139, 140 432
380 limitation, 205 Microwave antenna, 149 433
381 Massive MIMO system model, 194, 195 Microwave oven drying technique, 348 434
382 Matching pursuit, 204 Millimeter-wave communications, 179 435
383 MATLAB, 367 Miniaturization, 223 436
384 Maximum arc-to-arc length, optimization for Minimum mean square channel estimation 437
385 remodeled circular patch, 101 (MMSE), 202 438
386 decision tree, 104 MLP-based neuro-computational model, 270 439
387 linear regression, 101, 102 mMIMO, 193, 194 440
388 logistic regression, 102, 103 Mobile communication 441
389 naive Bayes classifier, 104 beamforming algorithm, 119, 120 442
390 polynomial regression, 103 CMA, 122, 123 443
391 Maximum directivity (MD) algorithm, comparison of, 126 444
392 123, 124 LMS, 120, 121 445
393 Mean absolute error (MAE), 105 MD algorithm, 123, 124 446
394 Mean effective gain (MEG), 185 MVDR, 121 447
395 four-element MIMO antenna, 175, 176 RLS, 121, 122 448
396 Mean squared error (MSE), 105 beamforming technology, 114 449
397 Medical local area networks (MBAN), 259 beamforming networks, 115, 116 450
398 MEMS devices, 259 digital beamforming method, 117 451
399 Mentor Graphics software package, 224 existing OSPBFN, 119 452
400 Microelectromechanical system-spatial light optical signal processing beamforming 453
401 modulation (MEMS-SLM), 119 network, 117, 118 454
402 Microstrip antenna, 3, 4, 233, 335, 336 phased array antenna, 114, 115 455
403 design and performance parameters, 4, 5 RF beamforming method, 116 456
404 directivity and gain, 7, 8 4G/5G technology, 111, 112 457
405 feeding techniques, 5–7 multiple-input multiple-output, 112, 113 458
406 radiating pattern and efficiency, 8, 9 polar coordinates, 125 459
407 return loss, 8 radiation patterns, 125 460
408 topologies, 9, 10 rectangular coordinates, 125 461
409 design parameters of, 10–12 smart antenna system, 113, 114 462
410 internet of things, 259, 260 Modified LAPO, 380, 386 463
411 in-vehicles for safety, 262, 263 Moisture content (MC), 345 464
412 sensor network antennas, 263, 264 Monarch butterfly optimization, 381 465
413 smart home, 264, 265 Monolithic microwave integrated chip 466
414 wearable gadgets, 261 (MMIC) methods, 119 467
415 Microstrip-fed patch antenna with RF Monopole antenna 468
416 switch, 48 antenna design, 37 469
417 Microstrip line antenna, 248 gain vs frequency simulation, 38, 39, 41 470
418 Microstrip moisture sensor (MMS), 345 structure, 38 471
420 Index
472 Moth flame optimization (MFO), 381 Neuro-computational model (NCM), 268, 270, 523
473 MRE, 345, 355 271, 275, 277, 278, 280 524
474 Multiband antenna, 233, 247, 254 Next-generation communication design, 49–51 525
475 Multiband laptop antenna, 56, 57 Next-generation wireless systems, 340–341 526
476 bandwidth spans, 59 Novel compact frequency and polarization 527
477 characteristics, 64 reconfigurable slot antenna, 85, 86 528
478 design configuration, 57, 58 axial ratio, 95 529
479 gain and efficiency, 63 design, 86, 87 530
480 ground length variation, 59 equations, 88, 89 531
481 maximum current distribution, 59 dimensional parameters, 89 532
482 parameters, 58 four switching states 533
483 performance analysis of antenna, 58 S11 plot for, 89 534
484 radiation pattern measurement setup, 63 VSWR, 90 535
485 reflection coefficient, 60 minimum return loss, 90 536
486 structure and parametric variation, 57 parameters, comparison of, 91 537
487 2D radiation patterns, 59, 62 radiation pattern, 91 538
488 Multiband slot microstrip antenna, 23, 24 reconfiguration, 94 539
489 design considerations, 26 switch state, axial ratio plot for, 93 540
490 existing techniques, 24–26 3D gain plot, 92 541
491 return loss, 29, 30 Novel slotted fractal antenna 542
492 structure, 26, 28 adaptive bacterial foraging 543
493 VSWR, 30, 32, 33 optimization, 381 544
494 Multilayer perceptron (MLP), 269, 270 antenna geometry, 382, 383 545
495 Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) bacterial foraging optimization, 381 546
496 antenna, 112, 113, 149, 150, 163, bandwidth optimization, 383–386 547
497 179, 287 brain storm optimization, 381 548
498 configuration, 154 enhanced bandwidth, optimized 549
499 design, 292–295 designs in, 390 550
500 and diversity performance, 153–157, 159 gain, 389 551
501 2×2 dual-polarization and multiband genetic algorithm, 380 552
502 MIMO antennas, 153 grey wolf optimization, 381 553
503 gain and radiation efficiency, 158 LAPO, 381 554
504 2×2 UWB/super-wideband MIMO linear antenna array, 381 555
505 antennas, 150, 151 monarch butterfly optimization, 381 556
506 smart antennas, 286 moth flame optimization, 381 557
507 technology, 49 radiation pattern, 388 558
508 ultra-wideband antenna, 134 reflection coefficient, 386, 388 559
509 VSWR comparison, 158 Novel slotted fractal geometry, 379 560
510 wireless systems, 113 Novel ultra-wideband monopole 561
511 Multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)- antenna, 233–235 562
512 based microstrip patch antenna, 10 comparative analysis, 243 563
513 MUSIC algorithm, 268 design and configuration, 235 564
514 Mutual coupling, 239 simulation and experimental aspect, 238, 565
515 MVDR algorithm, 121 239, 241, 243 566
UWB monopole antenna design, 236 567
design equation, 236–238 568
516 N
517 Naive Bayes classifier
518 maximum arc-to-arc length, O 569
519 optimization, 104 On-chip antenna, 180 570
520 Nano-fillers, 10 OPFET device, 361 571
521 Narrow bandwidth (BW), 7 OPFET model, 361, 362 572
522 N-coaxial connector, 5 device modeling, 363 573
Index 421
574 back-illuminated devices Photo-induced channel electron density 625

575 back-illuminated OPFETs, photo- in back-illuminated OPFETs, 364 626
576 induced channel electron in front-illuminated OPFETs, 364 627
577 density in, 364 Photo-induced depletion region 628
578 front-illuminated OPFETs, photo- electron density 629
579 induced channel electron back-illuminated OPFETs in, 365 630
580 density in, 364 front-illuminated OPFETs in, 365 631
581 gate junction region, 363 Physical vapor deposition (PVD), 10 632
582 back-illuminated OPFETs, photo- Pilot symbol-based channel estimation, 201 633
583 induced depletion region electron Planar antennas, 56 634
584 density in, 365 Planar multiband smart antenna 635
585 drain current, 365 for wireless communication 636
586 front-illuminated devices applications, 285–287 637
587 gate junction region, 363 design, 288, 289 638
588 front-illuminated OPFETs, photo- design, progression of, 288, 289 639
589 induced depletion region electron other MIMO antennas, 295, 296 640
590 density in, 365 radiating element performance, 290 641
591 parameters, 366–375 radiation efficiency, 292 642
592 Optical beamformers, 126 radiation pattern, 291 643
593 Optical control, 360 rectangular cut and slot, 289, 290 644
594 Optical equivalent carrier, 118 return loss value, 291 645
595 Optical signal processing (OSP), 117 S-parameter values, 292 646
596 Optical signal processing beamforming Polarization diversity, 134 647
597 network (OSPBFN), 117, 118 Polarization reconfiguration, 49 648
598 Optimization technique, 380 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 37 649
599 Orthogonal array, 70, 72, 77 Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG), 37 650
Polynomial regression, 103 651
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 37 652
600 P Printed circuit board (PCB), 3 653
601 Parasitic antennas, 43–45
602 next-generation communication design and
603 passive radiator, 49–51 Q 654
604 performance enhancement Quad-band antenna, 290 655
605 arrays with steerable radiation Quad-band flat-plate antenna, 63 656
606 pattern, 46, 47 Quad-port orthogonal wideband 657
607 bandwidth enhancement, 45, 46 MIMO antenna 658
608 parasitic element-based reconfigurable AMC design structure, 181, 182 659
609 antenna, 48, 49 MEG, 185 660
610 Parasitic block-based microstrip antennas, 45 radiation efficiency, 186, 188 661
611 Parasitic coupling for broad BW, 47 simulations and analysis, 183–187 662
612 Parasitic element-based microstrip antenna specific absorption rate analysis, 186, 663
613 design, 51 187, 189 664
614 Parasitic element-based reconfigurable Quality of service (QoS), 285 665
615 antenna, 48, 49 Quasi-Yagi and stacked series planar antenna 666
616 Particle swarm optimization (PSO), 380 array, 180 667
617 Particle swarm optimization method
618 (PSOM), 135
619 Patch metallization, 99 R 668
620 Patch resonator, 58 RADAR, 233, 405, 413 669
621 Perturbed circular patch, 97 Radiating patch, 138 670
622 Phased array antenna (PAA), 114, 115 Radiation, 25, 43 671
623 Phased beam system, 267 novel slotted fractal antenna, 388 672
624 Photodetectors, 360 parasitic antennas, 46, 47 673
422 Index
674 Radio frequency (RF), 56 Rice, 348, 354 728

675 Radome RLS algorithm, 121, 122 729
676 array, antipodal Vivaldi antenna Root mean squared error (RMSE), 105 730
677 with, 410–412
678 RCS (RADAR cross-section), 132, 134
679 Reconfigurability, 86 S 731
680 Reconfigurable intelligent surface SAR value, 324 732
681 (RIS), 49, 51 Satellite communications, 394 733
682 Reconfiguration, 86 S-band, 396 734
683 Rectangular microstrip patch antenna, 5 Scaling “δ scale measure” technique, 250 735
684 Rectangular patch antenna, 70 Second-generation wireless mobile 736
685 Taguchi’s method for, 72–74, 76 infrastructure, 111 737
686 flexible antenna and implementation, Self-decoupled MIMO, 164 738
687 76, 77, 79, 81–83 Self-diplexer antenna, 15 739
688 minimum fitness function and Self-healing algorithms, 285 740
689 maximum S/N ratio, 77, 80 Self-similarity, 164 741
690 simulated and fabricated Sensor network antennas, 263, 264 742
691 antenna, 75, 79 Side lobe level (SLL), 381 743
692 width of feed, 75 Signal-to-noise ratio, 77 744
693 width of patch, 75 Silver nanoparticles, 10 745
694 width of slot, 75 Simple 2X2 wideband U-slot patch antenna 746
695 Reflection coefficient, 354 array, 180 747
696 low-profile compact EBG integrated Simple coaxial feed microstrip antenna, 46 748
697 circular monopole antenna, Simple microstrip patch antenna, 44 749
698 306, 307 Single-input and single-output (SISO) 750
699 novel slotted fractal antenna, 386, 388 systems, 112 751
700 Reflector antenna, 393 Single notched band of UWB antennas, 752
701 Reflector element, 44 135, 136 753
702 Regression coefficient, 347–349, 353–356 SIW-based self-triplexer antenna, 15 754
703 Remodeled circular patch, 97 SIW cavity-backed antenna, 317 755
704 E-plane polarization, 108 6G, 359 756
705 28 GHz application, 107 60 GHz frequency, 179, 181, 186 757
706 H-plane polarization, 108 Slot and slit geometry method, 323 758
707 mathematical analysis of Slot antenna, 25 759
708 circular disc cavity, 98, 99 Slot-based miniaturized textile antenna 760
709 proposed design and boundary for wearable application, 315 761
710 conditions, geometry of, 99 bending, 316 762
711 resonance frequency, 100, 101 bending and human body 763
712 wave equation, solution of, 100 analysis, 325–328 764
713 maximum arc-to-arc length, optimization design procedure, 319–323 765
714 for, 101 electromagnetic bandgap (EBG) 766
715 decision tree, 104 array, 316 767
716 linear regression, 101, 102 literature survey, 316 768
717 logistic regression, 102, 103 parametric analysis and variations, 769
718 naive Bayes classifier, 104 327, 329 770
719 polynomial regression, 103 performance analysis, 324, 325 771
720 performance evaluation, 102, 105, 106 single-band two-mode wearable 772
721 S-parameter, 106 antenna design, 317 773
722 Remote health care, 261 textile material investigation, 318, 319 774
723 Resonance frequency, 100, 101 Smart antenna system, 113, 114, 267 775
724 Return loss adaptive beamforming systems, analytical 776
725 microstrip antenna, 8 techniques of, 268 777
726 multiband slot microstrip antenna, 29, 30 ANNs, 269 778
727 RF beamforming method, 116 beamwidth, 274, 280 779
Index 423
780 four-element dual-polarized STPA, 269 Tapered circular CPW-fed wideband fractal 832
781 gain, 274 patch antenna, 223, 224 833
782 neuro-computational model, 275, 277, dimensions, 225, 226 834
783 278, 280 geometry construction, stages of, 225 835
784 side lobes, 269 Mentor Graphics software package, 224 836
785 system design, 269–273 S-parameters, 226 837
786 variable-step-size normalized least mean S11-parameters, 226 838
787 square algorithm, 268 Tecaform, 37 839
788 Smart devices, 213, 214 Terahertz antenna technology, 331, 332 840
789 Smart home, 264, 265 design and testing challenges, 340 841
790 Smooth curved hexagonal-shaped four- and design calculations, 336, 337 842
791 element MIMO antenna, 164 explosives and weapons, wireless detection 843
792 channel capacity loss, 173–175 of, 338–340 844
793 with decoupling structure, 169, 170 terahertz frequencies 845
794 without decoupling structure, 166–168 applications of, 333, 334 846
795 development, 165, 166 detectors of, 333 847
796 diversity gain, 172 sources of, 333 848
797 envelope correlation coefficient, 171, 172 terahertz radiation, material properties at, 849
798 mean effective gain, 175, 176 334, 335 850
799 performance comparison, 176 types of, 335 851
800 performance metrics analysis, 170, 171 microstrip antennas, 335, 336 852
801 total active reflection coefficient, 173, 174 Terahertz electromagnetic wave, 331 853
802 Spacecraft interface association, 36 Terahertz frequencies 854
803 Space division multiple access (SDMA) applications of, 333, 334 855
804 technology, 359 detectors of, 333 856
805 S-parameters, 106, 156, 183 sources of, 333 857
806 Sparse channel estimation, 204 Terahertz radiation 858
807 Spatial diversity (SD), 113 material properties at, 334, 335 859
808 Spatial multiplexing(SM), 113 Terahertz waves (T-waves), 331 860
809 Specific absorption rate (SAR), 69, 132, Textile polyester material, 76 861
810 180, 326 Third-generation system, 111 862
811 low-profile compact EBG integrated Time division multiple access (TDMA), 359 863
812 circular monopole antenna, 308, Total active reflection coefficient (TARC), 864
813 309, 312 156, 157, 184 865
814 quad-port orthogonal wideband MIMO four-element MIMO antenna, 173, 174 866
815 antenna, 186, 187, 189 Tree-shaped quad-element MIMO, 164 867
816 Sub-miniature version (SMA) connector, 321 Triple/quadra/quintuple notched-band 868
817 Substrate integrated waveguide (SIW), of UWB antennas, 139, 140 869
818 316, 323 Tunable self-diplexing patch antenna, 15 870
819 Surface-gate OPFET, 364 2D radiation patterns, 59, 62 871
820 Surface-mountable antenna, 58
821 Switched beam system, 267
822 Switched beamforming, 113 U 872
823 Switched parasitic array (SPAs), 49 ULTEM, 37 873
824 Switch parasitic antenna (SPA), 45 Ultrathin inverted E-shaped novel antenna, 56 874
Ultra-wideband (UWB), 164 875
Ultra-wideband (UWB) communication, 302 876
825 T Underwater communication 877
826 Taguchi’s optimization method, 70, 72, 73 antenna encapsulating materials, 37 878
827 rectangular patch antenna monopole antenna 879
828 flexible antenna and implementation, antenna design, 37 880
829 76, 77, 79, 81–83 gain vs. frequency simulation, 881
830 rectangular patch antenna, 38, 39, 41 882
831 implementations, 72–77, 80 structure, 38 883
424 Index
884 Unidirectional dual-layer microstrip patch textile material investigation, 318, 319 930
885 antenna, 7–8 Wearable body area network (WBAN), 261 931
886 Uniplanar eight-band antenna, 56 Wearable gadgets 932
887 UWB antenna, 132, 138 for remote health care, 261 933
888 dual notched-band characteristics Wearable medical application 934
889 of, 137–139 low-profile compact EBG integrated 935
890 microstrip/CPW feed, 134, 135 circular monopole antenna for, 301 936
891 microstrip feed, 132–134 bending, 307, 308 937
892 single notched band characteristics of, design and implementation, 302 938
893 135, 136 EBG design, 304, 305 939
894 triple/quadra/quintuple notched-band Jerusalem cross-based EBG array 940
895 characteristics of, 139, 140 integrated circular monopole 941
896 UWB healthcare applications, 310 antenna, 305 942
897 UWB MIMO antenna, 165 low-profile circular monopole textile 943
898 UWB monopole antenna, 233 antenna, design of, 302, 303 944
899 novel ultra-wideband monopole antenna, 236 reflection coefficient, 307 945
900 design equation, 236–238 SAR, 308–312 946
901 UWB/super-wideband MIMO antennas, UWB healthcare application, 302 947
902 150, 151 wideband characteristics, 302 948
903 UWB technology, 131 Wideband antenna, 24 949
Wi-Fi, 233, 243 950
WiMAX, 25, 55, 380 951
904 V Wireless body area networks (WBAN), 952
905 Variable step-size LMS (VS-LMS), 120–121 301, 315 953
906 Variable step-size normalized LMS Wireless communication, 23, 69 954
907 (VS-NLMS), 121, 268 compact dual-fed self-diplexing antenna 955
908 Variable step-size sign LMS (VS-SLMS), 121 for, 15, 16 956
909 Voltage standing wave ratios (VSWR), 26, 33, hardware realization, 17, 20 957
910 46, 216, 411, 413 parametric analysis, 19, 21, 22 958
911 multiband slot microstrip antenna, realization of, 16, 18 959
912 30, 32, 33 planar multiband smart antenna 960
for, 285–287 961
design, progression of, 288, 289 962
913 W radiating element performance, 290 963
914 Wave equation, solution of, 100 radiation efficiency, 292 964
915 Wearable application radiation pattern, 291 965
916 slot-based miniaturized textile antenna rectangular cut and slot, 289, 290 966
917 for, 315 return loss value, 291 967
918 bending, 316 S-parameter values, 292 968
919 bending and human body Wireless communication systems, 15, 55, 267 969
920 analysis, 325–328 WLAN, 55 970
921 design procedure, 319–323 WLAN/WiMAX/5G applications, 177 971
922 electromagnetic bandgap (EBG)
923 array, 316
924 literature survey, 316 X 972
925 parametric analysis and variations, X-band, 390 973
926 327, 329
927 performance analysis, 324, 325
928 single-band two-mode wearable Y 974
929 antenna design, 317 Yagi-Uda antenna, 44, 381 975

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EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication 1

Imrich Chlamtac, European Alliance for Innovation, Ghent, Belgium 4

41 More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15427

B T P Madhav • Geeta Kalkhambkar 44

Latest Trends in Design and Application 48

50 ISSN 2522-8595 ISSN 2522-8609 (electronic)

taught me to be an independent and 72

determined person, without whom I would 73

never be able to achieve my objectives and 74

Late (Sr.) Dharamveer Singh 77

Phagwara, Punjab, India Praveen Kumar Malik 92

Part I Overview and Introduction of Microstrip Antenna 98

 Compact Dual-Fed Self-Diplexing Antenna

Part II Performance Analysis of Micro-strip Antenna 118

151 Part IV Fractal and Defected Ground Structure Microstrip Antenna

Part V Importance and Uses of Microstrip Antenna in IoT 171

Part VI Ultra-Wide-Band Antenna Design for Wearable Applications 182

 Low-Profile Compact EBG Integrated Circular Monopole

Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna for Wearable Application���������� 315 187

Terahertz Antenna Technology for Detection 189

Part VII Microstrip Antenna Design for Various 192

Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector 197

Praveen Kumar Malik is a professor in the School of Electronics and Electrical 218

248 recent EU interdisciplinary (computer science and psychology) projects: Edumecca

Geeta Kalkhambkar is working as a Ph.D. scholar in the Department of 287

Queries Details Required Author’s Response

Overview and Introduction of Microstrip 2

Hirendra Das, Mridusmita Sharma, and Qiang Xu 3

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 3

20 power-handling capacity, and tolerance problems have been overcome by continu-

2.1 Feeding Techniques 73

Fig. 2 A schematic representation of different feeding techniques used in microstrip antenna

Table 1 Parameters of different feeding techniques: a comparison t1.1

2.2 Performance Parameters 112

2.2.1 Directivity and Gain 113

Here, Prd is antenna input power. 119

132 2.2.2 Return Loss

138 where RL → return loss in dB

147 2.2.3 Radiating Pattern and Efficiency

2.3 Microstrip Antenna Topologies: A Review of Literature 160

215 3 Design Parameters of Microstrip Antenna

Table 2 Different substrates with most pertinent parameters t2.1

where c → velocity of light 233

The length of the patch is given by: 236

Antenna for Wireless Communication 2

Alpesh Vala, Amit V. Patel, Rashmi Vaghela, Keyur Mahant, Hiren Mewada, 4

Modern wireless communication system requires a multi-band antenna system with 7

A. Vala · A. V. Patel (*) · R. Vaghela · K. Mahant

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 15

27 2 Realization of Self-Diplexing Antenna

28 To realize the self-diplexing antenna, initially, a circular patch antenna is designed

Fig. 1 (a) Circular patch antenna (b) Simulated return loss

Fig. 2 Geometry of the

Fig. 3 Reflection coefficient value of the proposed antenna

Table 1 Dimensions of self-diplexing antenna t1.1

4 Parametric Analysis of the Proposed Structure 63

Fig. 6 Measured return loss of the antenna

Resonance frequencies (GHz) Gain (dBi)

Table 3 Parametric analysis by changing the length of the slot t3.1

Slot length (mm) 11.0 10.0 9.00 8.00 t3.2

Table 4 Parametric analysis by changing the width of the slot t4.1

Slot width (mm) 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 t4.2

Table 5 Parametric analysis by changing the length of the slot t5.1

Phagwara, Punjab, India Praveen Kumar Malik 92

Part I Overview and Introduction of Microstrip Antenna 98

Compact Dual-Fed Self-Diplexing Antenna

Part II Performance Analysis of Micro-strip Antenna 118

151 Part IV Fractal and Defected Ground Structure Microstrip Antenna

Part V Importance and Uses of Microstrip Antenna in IoT 171

Part VI Ultra-Wide-Band Antenna Design for Wearable Applications 182

Low-Profile Compact EBG Integrated Circular Monopole

Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna for Wearable Application�� 315 187

Terahertz Antenna Technology for Detection 189

Part VII Microstrip Antenna Design for Various 192

Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector 197

2.1 Feeding Techniques 73

2.2 Performance Parameters 112

2.2.1 Directivity and Gain 113

132 2.2.2 Return Loss

147 2.2.3 Radiating Pattern and Efficiency

2.3 Microstrip Antenna Topologies: A Review of Literature 160

215 3 Design Parameters of Microstrip Antenna

27 2 Realization of Self-Diplexing Antenna

4 Parametric Analysis of the Proposed Structure 63

36 2 Review of the Existing Techniques

124 3 Antenna Design Considerations of Proposed Work

136 4 Antenna Structure

5.1 Return Loss (dB) 164

179 5.2 VSWR

2 Antenna Encapsulating Materials Used 69

2.1 Bandwidth Enhancement 75

107 2.2 Parasitic Antenna Arrays with Steerable Radiation Pattern

130 2.3 Parasitic Element-Based Reconfigurable Antenna

2 Antenna Structure and Parametric Variation 69

3 Results and Discussion 105