English As A GLOBAL& GLOCAL Language. World English

Alla D.
Belova , Doctor of Sciences (Linguistics), Full Professor - Lectures on Theory of

English
World Englishes
The 20th century will still be the century of the men who speak English
Theodore Roosevelt
English is no longer the possession of the British, or even the British and the Americans, but . . . exists
in an increasingly large number of different varieties . . . But the most important development of all is
seen in the emergence of varieties that are identified with and are specific to particular countries from
among the former British colonies. In West Africa, in the West Indies, and in Pakistan and India . . . it is
no longer accepted by the majority that the English of England, with RP as its accent, are the only
possible models of English to be set before the young. (pp. 293)
Randolph Quirk 1962
The Use of English
I myself came from the Inner Circle of Englishes, the OVEs (Old Variety of Englishes) as
they are called in South-East Asia; so I would like to start by reminding you that within this
circle there are and always have been many different Englishes around. I’m not talking about
the relatively recent worldwide varieties – British, North American, South African, Oceanic;
but about the old dialects within Britain itself, Northumbrian, Mercian, Wessex, and Kentish
at one period in the language’s history.
M.A.K. Halliday
Many historians and sociologists ask a question how it happened that in 1600 England –
second-rate country, in the 19th c. the British Empire dominated in the world. The well-known
phrase The Sun never sets in the British Empire was transformed into The Sun never sets in the
empire of the English language. To put things metaphorically, whereas once Britannia ruled the
waves, now it is English which rules them.
 language spread -- a process during which the uses and/or users of a language increase, often
under conditions of political expansionism, prestige or technological influence.
Quirk’s (1988) analysis is considerably more complex, dividing the spread of English into
three separate varieties – imperial, demographic and econocultural.
English as a GLOBAL language

In Mass Media there are numerous facts about English spread worldwide, for example:
 400 mln English mother tongue speakers
 350 mln English as a second language
 100 mln use it fluently as a foreign language
 2/3 world scientists write in English
 ¾ world mail in English
 80% electronic information
 In 1997 81% of Internet users used English, in September 2002 only 36,5%
English speakers in line with NationMaster

 USA 280,000,000
 India 100,000,000
 UK 55,000,000
 Canada 17,000,000
 Australia 15,682,000
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Alla D.Belova , Doctor of Sciences (Linguistics), Full Professor - Lectures on Theory of
English
 South Africa 3,500,000
 New Zealand 3,312,000
The USA 2007 – 5 years and older
 267,444,149 - 95,19%
 225,505,963 - Mother tongue
 41,938,196 - additional language - do not speak English at home but know it ‘very well’
or ‘well’
 Great Britain (David Crystal) 2003 - 97,74%
1,500,000 - additional language
 Canada 85,91%
7,551,390 - additional language
 Australia (2001) – 97,03%
 New Zealand – 97,82%
 Ireland – 96,3%
Germany 56%, 272,504- L1 China – 0.83% - 10,000,000

France 39% no L1 Russia 4,9% 6,963,511
Italy 34% no L1 Kazakhstan - 15,4%
Spain 22% no L1 Bulgaria 25%
The Netherlands – 90% (2012), no L1 Slovakia 26%
Austria – 73% Slovenia 59%
Israel - 84,97% Lithuania 38%
Denmark - 86% Latvia 46%
Switzerland – 61,28% Estonia 50%
Norway – 89%
Singapore – 80%
2/3 world scientists write in English

¾ world mail in English
80% electronic information
In 1997 81% of Internet users used English, in September 2002 only 36,5%
World companies adopt English as a working language:
In Germany 98% specialists in Physics and 93% in Chemistry communicate in English
 Besides economic and political factors, vogue for English computers & electronic
produce made their contribution→ communicative shift (Lotman)
or semiotic revolution (Kabakchi) : Computers (IT) + English
Semiotic revolution has changed the nature of communication making it

 Electronically/ digitally-based, computer-mediated, in virtual world with focus on audio
and video
In Europe:
$ 600 mln for translation papers into the languages of member-states
47% residents of EU claim English as their second foreign language
 Language policy in different countries aimed at protection their mother-tongue, for
example , in 1992 Academy of France published the Dictionary of French with 6000
borrowings from other languages despite all criticism of purists. Among the words
forbidden to use are: baby-sitter, boss, camping, cheeseburger, cocktail, copyright,
drugstore, fast-food, know-how, marketing, parking, pickpocketing, sandwich, self-made
man, sponsor, supermarket etc.
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English
 One of the reasons English words squeeze out French equivalents is that English ones are
much shorter:
French VS English
Téléscopie fax
Courriel e-mail
Imprimante printer
Ordiphone smartphone
Terminal de poche smartphone
(2018)
mobile smartphone
televiseur connecté smartTV
 Latin America complains about English invasion, about exposure to English but 57%
young Spanish-speaking people claim their native language is Spanish but give
preference to English in numerous situations,
Some sociolinguists claim that English becomes endangered in the USA as the Chinese
increased 98%, Vietnamese 150%, Korean by 127% during the last decade, the number of
native English speaking population (WASP) in the USA decreases as a result of graying and
browning of America. After President Obama’s inauguration the newspapers published photos
with caption “Will America paint the White House Black?”
 In comparison with other languages English is presented as

English VS other languages
 World localized
 Link confining
 Window closed
 Neutral biased
Criticism of English
 Negative impact of English was first noticed in British colonies, in India, Ghandi,
national leader, stated it brings alienation, intoxication, denationalization and mental
slavery, later on other terms were coined internationally : Linguistic imperialism ,
linguicism, anglocentricity, glottopolitics
 Donor-recipient relations,
 Dominant and domineering cultures,
 English linguistic hegemony
 Linguistic imperialism
 Linguistic globalisation.
 Anglo-American hegemonic culture
 English as ‘a killer language’
 English-Only Europe? (2003) by Phillipson
 “the overarching dominance of anglophone nativespeakerism”
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English
 English & Ideology: Some politicians state that British Council was set up as an
institution to promote English, that English invasion was masterminded.
 In China teachers of English initiated the slogan which has become global “Think
global, teach local! Mind the gap! “
 American English also contributed to English invasion: in 1986 the Economist

assembled a list of English words that have become more or less universal: airport, hotel,
passport, telephone, bar, soda, cigarette, sport, golf, tennis, stop, O.K.,weekend, jeans,
know-how, sex, no problem
English and other languages: defeat or interaction?

 -ing family is the most popular except in French:
Un lifting, le pushing, un dancing, parking, camping, un lashing, a living, smoking
 Pressing Fr. – a dry-cleaner’s shop Germ – tackling as at football It. -
putting pressure, Chile - bluyins - jeans
 Portug. Queque -little cake
 Serbo-Croatian – nylon hotel – brothel nylon beach – for nudists
 It. Le bronzing (sunbathing)
Japan
Sumato - smart Erebeta – elevator
Nyuu ritchi – newly rich Nekutai – necktie
Haikutasu – high class Bata – butter
Kyapitaru gein – capital gain Beikon – bacon
Rushawa – rush hour Sarada - salad
Pepadoraiba –paper driver – not practising
driver
Singapore Shims ( she-hims) transvestites
German :
Brunchen, clicken, fighten, jobben, shoppen, mobben, outen, relaxen etc.
Old-timer , handy
Sport terms in Germany
Aerobic classes Warm-up Cool-down jogging
 English German
Professional (pro) profi
Last but not least last not least
Take-off start
Veteran car old-timer
Male model dress model
The Netherlands/ Many phrases in Dutch were triggered by English ones:
Bij de veg – by the way
Dat is alles voor nu – that’s all for now
plakje cake – piece of cake
Niet mijn copie thee – not my cup of tea
Zie je later – see you later
Dutch equivalents are no longer used: Leidinggevende → manager, Ontspannen → relax,

Dienstverlening → services
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English
Even slogans of international companies located in the Netherlands are in English:
Heinekken – ‘Heinekken refreshes the parts that other beers cannot reach’
Philips - ’ Let’s make things better’,

Sense &Simplicity
T-mobile – ‘life is for sharing’
 Many words appeared in different historical periods to describe mixture of English and
Dutch: Nederengels, Dunglish, Amerilands, Englutch, Engerlands, Dutchlish, Dutchglish
IT loans in the Netherlands

Password
User
Surfen browsen bloggen mailen deleten printen forwarden editen typen
Sports loans - no Dutch equivalents for sport terms ( racen, squashen, joggen, fitnessen,
golf, keeper, penalty
Code-switching
The room is vol people ( full of)
I have ook received it (too)
They try, nee, they tried to help us (no)
And then you neem another one (took)
He distributed it aan everybody (to)
Recent borrowings from English into European languages (2010 -

2015)
English words borrowed by French
 Smoothie
 Gag (noun) - French equivalent “idée drôle“ – used in French in the sense of “joke”.
 Marshmallow (noun) – French equivalent “pâte de guimauve”
a sweetened paste or confection made from the root of the marshmallow.
English words borrowed by German
 das Selfie – a photo (There is no equivalent in the German language.)
 Flash‧mob eine johlende Flashmob zog durch die Straßen
 Googlen – something with help of the Google-search or even simply Internet searcher
hatte ihren Namen, nach Informationen gegoogelt
 Fake (Fälschung) bezeichnet man ein Imitat, einen Schwindel oder eine Vortäuschung
falscher Tatsachen. (2014). Es gibt viele Gründe, warum Menschen Fake-Profile
anlegen…
 Nerd ( Fachidiot, Computerfreak, Sonderling, Streber / Geek, Außenseiter ) ist ein
gesellschaftliches Stereotyp, das besonders für in Computer, Science-Fiction oder andere
Bereiche aus Wissenschaft und Technik vertiefte Menschen steht. (2012).
Nerd is a descriptive term, often used pejoratively, indicating that a person is overly
intellectual, obsessive, or lacking social skills.
John und Hanks Fans haben eine eigene Seite, auf der sie die Videos der Green-Brüder
verbreiten, passenderweise nennen sie sich "Nerdfighters“. Damit nehmen sie auf die
Schippe, dass viele sie und ihre Interessen normalerweise "uncool“ finden. (
http://www.yaez.de/Internet/3723-Dank-YouTube-Vom-Nerd-zum-Superstar.html )
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English
 das Multiplex, das Multiplex-Kino - das Großkino - multiplex (cinema);

 outen - sich offenbaren, sich zu etw bekennen – to go out.
 Thoughtbomb (ls similar to brainstorm ) - when a group of people meet in order to try to
develop ideas and think of ways of solving problems
Zu einem Thoughtbomb zu neuen Produktideen einladen
 outfit - das Outfit: das äußere Erscheinungsbild bestimmende Kleidung, Ausstattung,
Ausrüstung Beispiel: ihr neues Outfit überraschte alle.
 event - der Event: besonderes Ereignis. Beispiel: Dieser Abend mit der Filmvorführung
von Rocky war schon ein Event, das man nicht so schnell vergisst.
 to chill – chillen: sich entspannen, eigentlich = abkühlen. Beispiel: ich möchte heute
Abend einfach nur ein bisschen chillen.
 Etip Gloves – die iPhone Handschuhe (bereits in 2009-2011). It is gloves for iPhone,
which is also known as iGloves. You can use them. When it is very chill and you can’t go
outside without gloves. Aber das neue Modell der North Face – eigenen iPhone
Handschuche, die aktuelle Version der Etip Gloves, verdient sich – passend zum
anbrechenden Herbst – eine kleine Präsentation.
 Epic fail – episches Scheitern. (2010) - “total failure”. Von meinem Epic fail auf
meinem allerersten Regiejob schreibe ich bei dieser Fashion Show.
 Hipster – jemand, der über alles, was modern ist, Bescheid weiß, in alles Moderne
eingeweiht ist (2012).
 Refugee – der Flüchtling (2014).
 Normcore ist ein Unisex-Modetrend, der sich durch unauffällige, durchschnittliche
Kleidung auszeichnet(2014). It is a unisex fashion trend characterized by unpretentious,
average-looking clothing.
 der Champion – der Spitzensportler
 z.B. Er ist immer der Erste, er hat immer den ersten Preis gewonnen, er ist ein
Champion.
 der Whistleblower - ist eine Person, die für die Allgemeinheit wichtige Informationen
aus einem geheimen oder geschützten Zusammenhang an die Öffentlichkeit bringt.
It is a person who exposes any kind of information or activity that is deemed illegal,
dishonest, or not correct within an organization.
z.B. Ein Whistleblower hatte den Skandal im Internet ins Rollen gebracht.
English words borrowed by Italian
 Selfie,
 Googlare,
 Sharare (it.) - to share
 Forwardare (it.) - to forward
 Stoppare - comes from the verb ‘to stop’; the form is changed with the help of suffix
‘are’ . It is mainly used in sport language in meaning of block.
 Chattare – comes from the verb ‘to chat’; the form is changed with the help of suffix
‘are’. It has the same meaning as its English equivalent.
 Slot- machine - comes from English and means ‘the vending machine’ .There is an
Italian equivalent “mangiasoldi”, but English variant is mainly used.
 Il fiction: In English the meaning of this word is connected with narrative forms of
literature (e.g. novel). In Italian it`s commonly used to indicate TV series (not only
science-fiction as in English but all types of them including dramas, soap operas).
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English
 Il bomber: In English the definition of this word is “a combat aircraft designed to attack
ground and sea targets by dropping air-to-ground weaponry”. But in Italian language it
means a kind of jacket which in English is called “a bomber jacket”.
 Lo spot: In English it is “a small round or roundish mark” but in Italian this word means
a television commercial.
English words borrowed by Spanish

*according to the Dictionary of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language (DRAE),
2014 edition.
 ‘Input’ : ‘Nuevos tipos de input en HTML5.’ – New types of input in HTML5.
Marked as ‘(Voz ingl.).’ – English borrowing.
 ‘Copyright’ : ‘El copyright existe para beneficiar a los usuarios.’ – The copyright exists
to benefit users. Marked as ‘(Voz ingl.).’ – English borrowing.
 ‘Cuásar’ or ‘quásar’ : ‘Los cuásares nacen de la colisión de dos galaxias.’ – Quasars are
born when two galaxies collide. Assimilation: preserves meaning but has different
spelling and pronunciation: /ˈkwasaɾ/. Has plural form: quásares. Marked as ‘(Del ingl.
quasar, acrón. de quasi stellar [radio source] '[fuente de radio] cuasi estelar').’ – a word
derived from English acronym quasi stellar.
 Navegar – from Spanish “navegate”. It is totally adapted by Spanish although the
Spanish language has its own equivalent “pasillear”.
 Smartphone (esmartfone) – mostly used as an international term, two ways of spelling

is acceptable. Like words bistec,bisteq, bifsteak, etc.Spanish alternative: teléfono
inteligente
 The word “Tableta” is the Spanish version of English “tablet” or “tablet computer”. It
has been used since 2011 when tablets appeared on the Spanish technology market. This
word is adapted to Spanish language; we can see the ending “a” that means that this word
is of feminine gender. In Spanish this word has six meanings according to the dictionary
of the Spanish language (DRAE); the 4th meaning “Dispositivo electrónico portátil con
pantalla táctil y con múltiples prestaciones” was added to the dictionary only in the last
edition of 2014.
English and other languages: false friends of interpreters

Pakistan
Bootpolish – to lick sb’s boots
Cheap –sly, petty, low-class
Lift – special attention
Light – electric power
Meter – he’s lost his temper “His meter has gone full circle”
Korea
Second – kept mistress
Super- supermarket
T- T-shirt
Talent- TV actor
Old miss – unmarried woman past conventional age of marrying, spinster
Over - overcoat
Pro- TV/ radio guide
Rouge - lipstick
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English
Thailand
Air- air-conditioned
Apartmet
Campaign – advertising
Fan – girl/boyfriend
Over – overexaggerate
Repeat – repeat a year in a college
Smart – elegantly dressed
Japan
Companion – attractive young lady at the exhibition
Half- half-Japanese
Hearing – listening
Hot –hot coffee
Talent –young media celebrity
Silver – relating to old age
Text – textbook of foreign language
Tobacco - cigarette
Italian - fame – rumour
Spanish – assistant - daily helping woman
Audience- court hearing
Librarian – book seller
Mascara – disguised person
Ghana (Семенец О.Е.,1985)
Linguist – a person who speaks on behalf of a tribe leader
Oracle - herbalist
(Quack - in Western Africa)
Cover cloth - overcoat
Canvas – shoes
A motor - bicycle
Storey – (storeyhouse) – more than 1
Electrolux – any fridge
Colgate - any ---
Kodak - any ---
Hoover - any –
To take seed/ to take in - to become pregnant
Euro-English
 Mainland Europeans, in the process of creating a pan-European culture in and through
English, can also be seen to be on the periphery. English, for them, can act as a form of
empowerment.
 One indication of this development into a separate variety is the use of Eurospeak or
Eurojargon within EU institutions. First recognized as a lexical register utilized by
Eurocrats, the conceptualization Eurospeak is now becoming much more commonly
noticed and cited.
 Lexical items and multi-word units peculiar to Europe, such as
Brussels to refer collectively to EU institutions,

Maastricht to refer to the agreement signed there,
Schengen land
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English
Euro land, Euro area, and Euro zone for those countries where the euro has been adopted
as the currency,
Eurosceptic for someone skeptical of European integration,
internal market, a designation for the EU as a free-trade zone, and
Berlaymont, a synonym for “red tape,” as well as designations such as the “four freedoms”
Indeed, the term member state itself, a European invention, says much about how Europeans
are molding language to accommodate a new political reality.
Varieties of English
The term “variety” is an academic term used for any kind of language production, whether
we are viewing it as being determined by region, by gender, by social class, by age or by our
own inimitable individual characteristics.
Among the varieties of English, there is a division into

1) the “Old Englishes” (usually British, American,Australian, Canadian and a few others) and
2) the “New Englishes” that have emerged in such nations as India, Nigeria,Singapore, and the
Philippines.
It has become customary to use the plural form ‘Englishes’ to stress the diversity to be found in
the language today, and to stress that English no longer has one single base of authority, prestige
and normativity.
The concepts of language variety and variation lie at the heart of the world Englishes enterprise:
“varieties of English,”
“localized varieties of English,”
“non-native varieties of English,”
“second-language varieties of English,”
“new varieties of English.”
The issue of linguistic variety is also central to both traditional dialectology and contemporary
linguistics, where it is often subsumed into the study of language variation and change. New
varieties of English are also known as Global Englishes, International Englishes, New Englishes,
World Englishes.
There are several theories of English spread:
Tom McArthur’s Circle of World English (1987)
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English
Manfred GЁorlach’s Circle model of English (GЁorlach 1990)
Braj Kachru’s Circles model of World Englishes
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English
The “Three Circles of English” :
1. the “Inner,” - the societies where English is the “primary language,” i.e., the USA, the
UK,Canada, Australia, and New Zealand
2. “Outer,” postcolonial Anglophonic contexts, a numerically large and diverse speech
community, including such African and Asian societies as Nigeria, Zambia, India, and
Singapore.
3. “Expanding” Circles.
The Expanding Circle is defined as comprising those areas where English is an

“international language” and traditionally regarded as societies learning English as a
Foreign Language (EFL) - China, Greece, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Korea, Saudi Arabia,
Taiwan, and the USSR
The Circles model was intended to represent
(1) the types of spread of English worldwide,
(2) the patterns of acquisition, and
(3) the functional domains in which English is used internationally.
Multiple Mixing and World Englishes resulted into

mixing of world Englishes,
mixing of world English accents,
mixing of English with other languages,
mixing of English with non-Roman scripts.
English as a GLOCAL language
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English
 English is beyond Britain and Europe. This fact brought a number of new notions and
oppositions: Englishness, Anglocentrism, Britocentrism, Britishness, VS Europeanness
of English.
 Initially British Lingaphone company offered courses of language. The term British
English was non-existent. English was viewed as real stuff and something fundamental.
Divergence became visible and audible when the first British colony in North America
was set up in 1607. It was the first step towards globalization. First Webster Dictionary
in the 19th century brought spelling division between AmE and BrE
Lots of new terms like Franglaise = Frenglish, Germish = Denglish, Swedlish, Spanglish,
Janglish = Japlish, Konglish , Portuguish are arguments in favour of English spread and
language interference.
Modern concept of International English is a result of evolution. but the division between
the members of the binary oppositions and tertiary oppositions become disputable:
 Standardisation & diversification
 Intellibility & practicality
The tripartite model of the English language variability and usage presuppose
ENL – English as a native language (anglophone speakers)- L1

ESL - English a the second language L2
EFL - English a a foreign language L3.
Among other terms are
EIL - English as International language
EILTS- English as International language Testing System – standard for Commonwealth
countries
New concepts relevant to English spread are:

 Neutrality VS cultural/ linguistic imperialism, new form of impact and expansion
mitigate influence of the USA and Great Britain
 Appropriation, for example, International English in computer industries
New Englishes. Diversification of English provoked Standardization problem.

Metropolitan standards: The term would have once been applicable only to standard English of
England.
Colonial standards: The colonial history of English has made it an important language in
Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa and Northern and Southern Rhodesia (now
Zambia and Zimbabwe)./ The varieties spoken there are referred to in historical dialectology as
‘extraterritorial’ Englishes.
Regional dialects: These are the varieties that may be distinguished on the basis of regional
variation within metropolis and colony.
Social dialects: identifiable varieties within a region along the lines of class and ethnicity may
occur.
In London there is the difference between Cockney of the working classes, Received
pronunciation (RP) / ‘Estuary English’ (Rosewarne 1994).
Pidgin Englishes: Pidgins are defined prototypically as rudimentary languages that have no
native speakers, though they may subsequently gain in complexity.
Creole Englishes: These languages are ‘mixed’ in the sense that typically their grammars and
lexicons come from different sources
The agenda of research in World Englishes includes

Content analysis of WE
Cultural-conceptual analysis of WE
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English
Politics of code-switching
Core and periphery of WE
Corpus –based exploration
Education, language and the rights of the child
American English as a medium of intercultural communication
WE – response to globalization
English in Japanese pop-music
British attitude towards variability of English
English is lingua franca in Scandinavian countries and the Netherlands
Most popular terms to name the role and diversification of English are dialect, lingualect,
variant, variation, variety of English
Against the standardization attempts there have been lots of projects to simplify English and
make it more available to millions of people:
Simplification of English
 Basic English – constructed language,
 1930 Charles Kay Ogden claimed one could master English within 7 weeks
 Words selected via tests -850 words
 Simplified grammar which keeps it correct
 Idioms not included
 Words are pluralized with the help of S
 Each of 300 verbs can be turned into nouns by adding ER, ING; into adj by adding
ING , ED
 Adjectives turn into adverbs by LY
 Adjectives can be inverted with UN
Operations – 100 words:
 Come, give, get, go, keep, let, put, seem, take, be, do, have, say, see, send, may, will
 About, across, after, at, among, between, by, down, from, in
 A, any, every, no, other, such, some
 North, south, east, west, please, yes
Things – 400 words:
Things – 200 picturable words:
Qualities - descriptive words
 Able, acid, angry, automatic
 Waiting, warm, wet, wide, wise, yellow, young
Qualities -50 opposites:
 Awake, bad, bent, bitter, certain, cold, complete, cruel,
 Thin, white, wrong
 EASY English – simplified at Level A, Level B
 A – 1200 words as a foreign language

 B - 2800 words, Cambridge First Certificate
 Commonwealth English – standard English spoken within Commonwealth
 Plain English (simple writing style)
 Globish - simplified, most common English words, made as a result common practice
Common Features of World Englishes

 Many New Englishes show a greater preference for forming yes/no questions by a
rising intonation pattern, rather than by auxiliary inversion.
She’s coming tomorrow? (=‘Is she coming tomorrow?’ – IndSAf Eng)
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English
She promised you? (Sgp Eng;
Anthony learned this from you or you learned this from Anthony? (Sgp Eng;
To my sister sometime I speak English. (Sgp Eng;
Q: Zulu? (i.e. Do you speak Zulu as well?)
A: Yah, and Zulu I speak.
 Bokamba (1992:138--40) notes a common tendency in sub-Saharan African Eng to
reduplicate adjectives to form adverbs:
Quickquick ‘quickly’;
small-small ‘in small doses’;
slow-slow ‘slowly’.
Kachru notes examples like different-different things and one-one piece.

The semantics here is distributive, with a stylistic nuance of emphasis.
In IndSAf Eng wh-words can be reduplicated with the semantics ‘plural/distributive’ based
on details of the syntax of the Indic substrates.
Who-who came? (= ‘Who (of several people) came?)
What-what they said? (= ‘What (different) things did they say?’)
 The use of -s plural markers is overgeneralized. luggages, furnitures, firewoods, or
grasses/ discontents, informations
Singlish
English in Singapore = English –based creole spoken colloquially in Singapore
Numerous cases of code-switching (Chinese, Malay, Tamil)
Broken English/ bad English → Speak Good English Movement
Schools discourage students from taking Singlish, but Singlish is often used for humorous effect,
when the audience is local., in the Army, in coffee-shops & restaurants
Singlish as a sociolect phenomenon. Sometimes, analysts prefer to use the terms basilang,
mesolang and acrolang, rather than basilect, mesolect and acrolect, to emphasise that they are
dealing with developing competence in an L2
Acrolectal - high-class form, well-educated people in informal situations, close to

BrE
This guy’s Singlish is very good
Mesolectal – middle class, semi-formal situations

Dis guy Singlish very powerful one
Basilectal – colloquial, unique lexical, phonological & grammatical features

Dis guy Singlish is bey powerful one
Singlish Phonology
/p/ t/ k/ become unaspirated esp among Malay Singaporeans →
Pat, tin, come → bat, din, gum
/t/ /d/ → three → tree, then → den
14
English
The distinction between /l/ & /r/ not found at basilectal level - “Use your blain!”
Plural – s is often omitted which might be the result of Chinese influence which does not
distinguish between single and plural forms
Singlish is syllable-timed compared with other varierties of English which are stress-timed
Pitch tones are well-defined, tones resemble Chinese
Singlish tends to preserve tone of loan words from Mandarin and other languages
Singlish Grammar
Nouns are optionally marked for plurality. Articles are optional too.: He can play piano. I like to
read novel. Your computer got virus one, izzit?
As a copular and auxiliary verb be is often omitted: Dis house very nice/ Dat car not worth the
money / You looking for trouble, izzit?
Past Tense markers are optional : He talk for so long, never stop, not even when I ask him. I eat
liao ( I ate or I have eaten) How come he never pay just now? (Negation+ past tense marker)
Interrogative This book you want or not? Can or not? They never study, is it? You don’t like
that, is it?
Reduplication My boy-boy is going to primary school. We two friend-friend one. Want to go

Orher walk walk see see or not? (Orchard Road) You got take the small-small one.
1. Kena is an auxiliary to mark the passive voice: He was scolded – He kena scold
(negative evauation) VS * he kena praised.
Singlish Discouse Particles

Lah - Drink, lah! – Come on, drink! ( in the end of the sentence to assert solidarity)
What / wat/ - But he very good at sports what!
Mah – This one can also work mah!
Leh – command, complaint, claim:
Give me leh!
Daughter: Mum, it’s private. How can I let you read it?
Mother: Can la. I’m your own mother.
Wife: You bought cheese, Farouk? (= ‘Did you buy cheese, Farouk?’)
Husband: No’, but lot butter I bought. (= ‘No, though I did buy a lot of butter’) (No’
= [noυ])
Why didn’t you come in?
B: You told me to wait here, what
Manglish / Malgish
Variant of colloquial English spoken in Malaysia. The language shares a substantial pool with
Singlish, some experts claim they are the same languages with a few slang words found in one
and non-existent in another.
Malay is the country’s official language since 1968. As English is widely spoken, many Malay
words penetrated into informal English or Mangled English. The impact of other languages
( Mandarin, Cantonese, Tamil, Hokkien) spoken in Malaysia is also taken into account.
15
English
Many speakers of Manglish belonging to various ethnic groups tend to pepper their speech with
the words from their mother tongue which is the example of code-switching
Manglish particles
Lah – used in the end of the sentence to affirm a statement which often ends with an exclamation
mark Don’t be an idiot lah! Mah – less intensive than lah
She’s like that mah
Liao - means ‘ already’ No more liao!
Meh – used in questions , often skeptical Really meh
Lor - used when explaining smth Like that lor!
One - used as an emphasis in the end of the sentence Why is she so naughty one?
What - unlike AE & BrE is used with an exclamation mark
What! How could you do that?
Manglish Vocabulary
Kapster – a talkative person
Blur – confused
Jalan – to walk
Kena – to get caught
Makan – to eat
Minum – to drink
On/ off - to activate/ deactivate
Pon – to skip school
Saman – to issue a traffic ticket
HP ( handphone) - mobile/ cell phone

KIV – keep in view - keep for further consideration
Outstation - out of town/ overseas
MC – He is on MC today ( medical certificate) - sick note
Can - yes/ alright

Cannot - no
Photostat - photocopy, Xerox
Different meanings
Driver - a personal chauffeur/ odd job man, often sent on errand
Alphabet – a letter of alphabet ( The word ‘vase’ has four alphabets.
Exclamations in Manglish
Best/ syok – indicates that the object is superlatively good , Die/ finish/ gone – to indicate
trouble like English ‘damn it’
Many things were borrowed from Chinese dialects: Why are you so like that one? =
Why are you behaving in that way? (BrE)
Philippine English
English functions in Manila since 1762 when the British invaded the country, but got rooted in
1898 when the USA took the government. Americans set up education system with English as
the language of education.
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English
After independence the Philippines government followed the same line with parallel usage of
Filipino. In private schools arranged by Catholic Church dual system is valid and English
prevails.
American spelling prevails.
Educated people prefer American pronunciation.
Mispronunciation
lead /i/ as in leader
salmon / l/ is pronounced
climber / b/ is pronounced
Wrong syllables are stressed:
Comfortable - /komFORtabl/
Preferable /preFERabl/
Admirable /adMYrabl/
Category /kaTEGori/
Ceremony /seREmoni/
Short /u/ turns into long /u/:

Frustration / froostr../
Suspend /soospend/
T, k, p are pronounced without aspiration
Vocabulary and usage
C.R. – Comfort Room = toilet, bathroom
Get/ go down the bus – get off the bus
Open/ close the light – Switch on/off the
Every now and then - often
Japlish/ Janglish/ Engrish

Japlish/ Janglish are typically considered more derogatory and referred to any East Asian
language.
Engrish is a pejorative term used to describe attempts of Japanese writers to create English
words and phrases, or mistranslation of an original Japanese text, exotic embellishment of the
text in ads.
Engrish is applied to East Asian languages as they do not separate L and R sounds.
Engrish refers to Japanese pronunciation of English loan words.
Engrish occurs commonly in electronics produce manuals.
Engrish is used in Japanese pop culture as English is considered to be extremely fashionable.
Humorous English mistakes which appear in Japanese advertising and product design
Engrish can be found in other countries but the funniest examples come from Japan
Some of the English-based Japanese coinages can be used as Japanese originated English.
Actually, walkman, karaoke, play station, case-by-case, or forward-looking have already
been received internationally, while nighter (bargain), washlet, hot carpet, or paper driver
may have a good chance of adoption if appropriately introduced.
Nihonglish
Badly pronounced and ungrammatical Japanese produced by a native English speaker. Usage is
intentional either with sarcastic or humorous intent.NB! Japanese bites back!
 The impact of English on New Greek & its prospect of becoming Greenglish
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/31/the-greeks-had-a-word-for-it-until-
now-as-language-is-deluged-by-english-terms?fbclid=IwAR1-jRMkN-
EYtbhZyNN5tAUmnFkwVEOCOXg5OK8txltdCkbSDstoMuT2-qE
17
English
Varieties of English in English-speaking countries
Australian English
 Divergence of Australian English from BrE can be dated back to 1788 when the first
penal colony for British convicts was set up. They spoke mostly Cockney. In 1827 when
the speech of Australian residents was described, strong Cockney impact was noticed.
 During Australian gold rushes in the 1850s Australian English borrowed increasingly
from external sources.
 Americanization of Australian English occurred during massive influx of American
troops during WWII and increased later in the 1950s due to television, movies and mass
media.
Australian English has a lot in common with New Zealand English, however the difference
is obvious to a speaker from either country.
 There is Australian Corpus of English
 British spelling prevails, correlation of British and American spelling in 3:1 ( -ise VS
ize)
 There is some influence of Hiberno- English as many people are of Irish descent. Irish
impact is seen in the use of me instead of my: What’s me hat?
 Some words in Australian English are unique like bush – remote, sparsely-populated
areas.
 Some elements from Aboriginal languages ( places, flora, fauna) were incorporated like
kangaroo.
Pork products are known
in South Australia as fritz
In Victoria as stras
In New South Wales as devon,
In Western Australia as polony
In Queensland as windsor
In Tasmania as belgium
Stereotypically Australians have a rising tone/ questioning intonation known as high rising
terminal. There are lots of regional patterns
Sociolinguistic approach in Australian English studies:

 Broad Australian English
 General Australian English
 Cultivated Australian English
Cultivated Australian English (CAE) is similar to RP. 3 -10 % population speak CAE. Common
among public figures.People speaking CAE are ridiculed as aloof, snobby, affected. General
Australian English - stereotype of Australian English, the language of movies & TV. Broad
Australian English is a recognizable variety due to accent, known for long diphthongs and nasal
drawl.
Distinctive characteristics of Australian English

Diminutives which end in –ie or – o:
Abo – aborigine
Arvo – afternoon
Doco – documentary
Servo - service station/ petrol station
Bottle- o - liquor store
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English
Rego /dz/ - vehicle registration
Compo – compenasation
Leso/ lesbo - lesbian
Ambo – ambulance
Filo – Filipino Americans
Barbie – barbecue
Bikkie – biscuit
Bikie - bycycle
Brekkie - breakfast
Brickie – brick layer
Mozzie – mosquito
New Zealand English (NewZild)

 NewZild = New Zealand English/ NZ= New Zealand
 Influence of Australian English, of Maori speech.
 Some traits of old dialects of low-class English of the 19th c. survived in NewZild
 Wellington Corpus of New Zealand English
 Major difference with Australian English is flattened /i/: pan →pen, pen → pin, pin
→pun.
 Bull /buwd/ , milk /muwk/
 British spelling is found universally in New Zealand
 -ise is used exclusively
 But American spelling creeps : through →thru
Maori impact
in flora & fauna ( kiwi a bird, a NZ-er )
Community consultation
Health, education
government
Kia ora = be healthy/ hello, greeting
Haere ra = goodbye
Kia kaha - be strong/ moral support
Makariri nē? = cold isn’t it?/ greeting in the morning
Nē – isn’t it?
Half-pai (pai – means good) = half standard
Super – old age pension scheme
Sweet as - fine with me
Choice! = excellent idea
Cuzzie bro – close friend
Flatting = sharing a flat
Flash – stylish, expensive
Fulla – guy, taken from fella, fellow
Hard case- a person with a good sense of humour
Scarfie – a university student
Bring a plate = ads of self catering
Box of Birds, Box of Bees – fell very good
Having you on = pull sb’s leg
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English
Indian English
British English and Scottish English are taught, the latter influenced Indian English
with rhoticity and thrilled -r-.
RP is encouraged and promoted
Indian English has established itself as an audible distinct dialect with specific
phrases
Obsolete forms of English, antiquated phrases which were fashionable 50 years ago
Indian English is an object of jokes due to ruined Grammar
BrE is popular with older generations, AmE – with younger, there are debates about
variant to be adopted:
70% BBC English, 10% General American English, 17% Indian English
AmE grows popular due to TV, pop-culture, visits to the USA
AmE gradually dominates within academic, technical publications, mass media
/v/ < > /W/
Impact of Bengali, Hindi, Tamil → Benglish, Hindish, Tanglish
Progressive tense in stative verbs : I’m understanding, He is knowing the answer
Variation in number: he likes to pull your legs
Prepositions – to pay your attention on, discuss about
Tag questions: isn’t it ? / no? in general questions ; He’s here, no?
Word order: They’re late always. My all friends are waiting. Yes, I didn’t.
Past tense form: I had gone = I went
But & only as intensifiers: I was just joking but.
Open/ close = turn on/off
Overuse of words actually, basically, obviously in the beginning of the sentence
Overuse of the word different – different : We had gone to different different places.
Omission of the article: Let’s to ______city
Your good name please? = what’s your name?
Deadly = intensive ( That movie is deadly)
Hi-fi = stylish ( Your shoes are hi-fi)
Sexy = excellent & extremely cool (That’s a sexy car)
Hello! What do you want? = in telephone conversations
Back = ago : I met him 5 years back
Mr/ Mrs as common nouns: My Mrs is not feeling well
Uncle/ aunt to refer to someone significantly older
Repair = of a broken object: The TV became repair
Healthy = to refer to fat people
Dress - to refer to any clothes for men/ women/ children
Bath and bathe are interchangeable
Interjections
High-end-= of very high quality (sarcastically of work and people)
Oof! = distress& frustration
arey! Acchha! = to express range of emotions
Words from India in English
Jungle, bungalow, banana, pajamas, guru, shampoo
Canadian English
Close to AmE
Commonwealth spelling
20
English
Pronunciation is closer to AmE
Many words known as americanisms are also found in Canada
Major dialects are Newfounland, Eastern Canadian, Quebec, Central / Western, Ottawa Valley
Twang
Dialects within Canadian English
 Canadian English/ Newfounland

Elements from European Languages of 15-17th centuries non-existent in Europe.
Spanish, French, Irish, English
Spoken very quickly, not intelligible
 Canadian English/ Eastern
Close to Am E, considered as Canadian English in the USA
 Quebec
Strong French accent, Throaty sounds
 Canadian English/ western
60% population , close to northern US accents
 Canadian English/ Ottawa
million people , Impact of Scottish and French, Irish
American English
Northern is not to be confused with political North during the Civil war, historically it is
New England
Southern – coastal areas of Waryland, Virginia, Georgia, Gulf States
Midland – area extending through all the country
Sing/ Plural coordination
BrE The team is …/AmE The team are
2. Past Simple in AmE with words already, just, yet
3. Get –passive is more common in AmE

Subjunctive mood is more common in AmE
BrE He suggested they should apply…
AmE He suggested they_____ apply..
5. Irregular verbs in AmE form past tense forms as regular verbs ( learned, leaped, spelled)
Usage of prepositions: AmE to meet with someone
Monday to Friday , AmE Moday thru Friday
In Churchill Street, AmE on Churchill Street
BrE towards, backwards AmE toward__
AmE divided highway
BrE dual carriageway
Among the countless American coinages are these:

radio, disc jockey, waterfront, right away, get along with, fall for, make the grade, get around
to, babysitter, boyfriend and girlfriend, knowhow, in the red, hitchhike, show business,
merger, publicity, executive, hindsight, commuter etc.
21
English
 Many americanisms have become comprehensive thanks to Hollywood
biscuit cookie
queue line
flat apartment
fancy-dress party costume party
Pensioner retiree
lorry truck
football soccer
trousers pants
crisps potato chips
British and American automobile vocabulary

British American
windscreen windshield
bonnet hood
wing fender
quarterlight wing
boot trunk
indicator turn signal
hazard lights flashers
running lights parking lights
Tyre tire
British VS American English / Corpus Linguistics contribution.

Cambridge International Corpus (CIC)
1. Shall is infrequent in AmE, they prefer However, AmE allows shall in first
will or be going to. person interrogatives, especially
I shall be in the office at 9.30. functioning as suggestions or in semi-
Frequency of Shall per 1 million fixed expressions:
words
BrE AmE Let’s try to find other words, shall we?
118 16 How shall we say it?
1. Must is much more frequent in BrE Had better is 6 times more frequent in
than in AmE which prefers have to to spoken BrE than AmE.
express obligation.
Frequency of Must per 1 million

words
BrE AmE
450 151
Be going to ( and the contracted form 1. I guess is 30 times more frequent in

gonna) are not a characteristic use in BrE, spoken AmE than in BrE where
which prefers imperatives in direction- I suppose, I reckon are more frequent.
giving:
You’re gonna to go two blocks and then I reckon we should have more coffee after
you’re gonna to see a big modern white this .
building… (AmE)
Come to T-junction, turn left. Go down…,
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English
you come …. (BrE)
The present tense form of have with got is Ir(regular) verbs

more than twice frequent in spoken BrE than In AmE, the past tense of fit is most
AmE: often fit, while in BrE fitted:
I’ve got one sister and one brother (BrE) Jennifer says she never really fit in…
I found a pair of boots that fitted
me
Interrogative tags are around 4 times more In informal contexts, AmE speakers often
frequent in BrE than in AmE: use an interrogative copy tag with rising
intonation in responses involving surprise
or emotional involvement:
He’s brilliant, isn’t he? I changed schools three times
You did?
In one year.
Wow. Wow.
In BrE Did you?
Affirmative copy tags occur in both variants The universal tag,right? is 4 times more
but are much rarer in AmE than in BrE: frequent in AmE than in BrE:
I think it’s really funny that they live You lived in Canada, right? (AmE)
together, I do. (BrE) I was hoping we could change this one,
right? (BrE)
Tails are considerably less common in Good is often used in informal spoken AmE
AmE than in BrE, but they do occur in where BrE requires well:
informal spoken AmE:
Hi, how are you doing?
That was a nightmare, that one. (BrE) I’m good.
He’s a scary guy, that Dan Boland (AmE)
Present Perfect is less frequent in AmE where AmE uses some exclamative and intensifying
the tendency is to use Past Simple. expressions which are not common in BrE:
geez, goddam, oh my gosh:
It was the best tasting goddam stuff I’ve
ever eaten in my life.
It’s been eighty degrees here.- Oh my
gosh!
African American English

 A reference to varieties of English used in the United States (referred to in Canada as
African Canadian English) by people who are wholly or partially of African descent. This
accounts for over 10 per cent of the population, the figures depend on the definitions of
African American: the United States Census Bureau gave the total population ‘Black or
African American alone or in combination’ in 2010 as 13.5 per cent or some 42million;
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English
 ‘Black or African American alone’ was given as 12.6 per cent or 39 million. The majority
of African Americans are the descendants of slaves taken by the British from West Africa
to America to work on the plantations of the South. Initially, the transportation was via
the Caribbean, then directly to the south-east coast of the later United States. Although
there was a concentration of African Americans in the rural South, the migration to the
large cities of the inland north in the early twentieth century (Anderson 2008 [5.1.10])
meant that Urban African American varieties developed outside the South . Because
these were severed from the historical core area they have frequently undergone
developments not shared with the original varieties in the South. Varieties of African
American English embody a large number of non-standard features on all levels of
language. Some of these are almost conventional stereotypes and their frequency varies
greatly – some are indeed quite rare.
 There is also a range of sub-varieties, for example with young/urban/hip hop contrasting
with rural/traditional, and they have characteristics of their own. Furthermore, most of
these features are not distinctive and are shared with many other non-standard varieties.
Pronunciation
 (1) Consonant clusters in non-initial position are reduced to a single segment: test [tes],
desk [des] looked [luk], talked [tɔːk].
 (2) Non-prevocalic /r/ is absent: car [kaː], party [paːti].
 (3) Frequent deletion of final /l/, particularly before labials or wordfinally with
auxiliaries: help [håp], he’ll be home [hi bi hoːm].
 (4) Stopping of initial /р/ to either [d̪] (dental stop) or [d] (alveolar stop): this [d̪ɪs], there
[d̪åː].
 (5) In word-final position /θ/ is frequently shifted to [f] (also found in cockney English);
this shift is also found for /р/ (→ [v]) in word-internal position: bath [baːf], teeth [tiːf]
brother [brʌvə].
 (6) Velar nasals are realized as alveolars: She’s comin’ tomorrow.
 (7) The distinction between short /å/ and /ɪ/ is frequently lost before nasals (also in
southern white American English). The neutralization is to the raised vowel [ɪ]: pen, pin
[pɪn]; ten, tin [tɪn].
 (8) Glide reduction with /ai/, a feature typical of the Upper South, is also found in
African American English before voiced segments: five [faːv], time [taːm].
 (9) Initial stress is often found with words with non-initial stress in other varieties, e.g.
ˈpolice, ˈdefine.
Grammar, general
 1) Negative concord (the agreement of all polarity items with each
 other within a clause) serves the purpose of intensifying a negation, for example I ain’t
givin’ nothin’ to nobody.
 (2) Existential there is replaced by it: It ain’t no football pitch at school.
 (3) Plurals are not marked if preceded by numerals. He here for three year now.
 (4) The genitive is not necessarily marked with /s/ (as position is sufficient to indicate
this category) I drove my brother car.
 (5) A formal distinction is frequently made between second person singular and plural:
you [juː] (singular) and y’all [jɒːl], derived from you + all (plural); this is also a general
southern feature.
Grammar, syntax
(1) Third person singular -s is variably omitted. She like my brother.
(2) The copula is deleted in equative sentences, that is those of the form X = Y. She a
teacher. They workers in the factory.
(5) Bare subject relative clauses occur, for example He the man (who) got all the cars.
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English
(6) Double modals are found occasionally within the same verb phrase (as elsewhere in the
South, e.g. in Appalachian English): He might could do the work. She may can do the work.
This is probably an inherited feature from Scots-derived dialects originally brought to the
United States in the eighteenth century which then diffused into the language of the African-
American population.
Vocabulary
 Some items are clearly of West African origin, such as buckra ‘white man’, tote ‘to
carry’, goober ‘peanut’, yam ‘sweet potato’ (note: the origin of jazz is unknown).
 Semantic extensions of existing English words are:
homies ‘close friends; prisoner inmates’, bloods ‘other blacks’,
whities ‘white people’, bad ‘good, admirable’,
cool ‘good, neat’,
hip ‘knowledgeable’,
dude ‘male’ (often disparaging).
Chicano English
A reference to vernacular varieties of English spoken by Spanish immigrants in the south-
west of the United States. Most of these are from Mexico (‘Chicano’ apparently derives from
this name). There is a long association of the south-west of the present-day United States
with Mexico. People from Central American countries have also been among these
immigrants so that, at around 40 million, Spanish-speaking or Spanish-descent Americans
constitute the major ethnic population of today’s United States. Chicano English covers a
range of varieties and applies to both L1 and L2 speakers of English. In its most basilectal
form it shows considerable influence from (Central American) Spanish
 Vocabulary Apart from actual Spanish words used in English because of code-switching
Chicano English speakers may use words related in sound but different in meaning, so-
called ‘false friends’, for example molest to mean ‘disturb’ based on Spanish molestar
with this meaning. Other instances are extensions of English meanings, for example
barely to mean ‘just recently’ as in She barely rang her mother.
English in Eastern Africa. Riddles

 A lake surrounded by reeds. (The eye)
 There is a bare place where no one ever settles, and if one did so, there would be crying.
(The eye)
 Who are the two brothers who live on opposite sides of the road yet never see each
other? (The eyes)
 My daughter who works without resting (The heart)
 If you break me I do not stop working,
If you touch me I may be snared.
If you lose me
Nothing will matter (Your heart)
 A pot whose inside is never washed (The stomach)
 An old woman with a never-ending task: morning and evening. (A broom)
 An elephant with one ear. (A cup)
 My white-mouthed cow that is shared by all (The toothbrush)
 The beautiful girl with long strands of beads (The fire)
 Feed me and I live, give me drink and I die (Fire)
 Men with long legs are chasing me around (Rain)
 I am asked to come
I am waited for
But I make them hide
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English
When I come. (Rain)
 It’s red, blue, purple and green, no one can reach it, not even the queen
(British riddle- Rainbow)
 I have gone round the forest with a red motorcycle (African riddle - rainbow)
 When I sleep he is awake, but when I am awake he is asleep. (The hare)
 Why is your sister so very short yet there is no fruit that is beyond her reach?
(A bird)
 Your mother’s sister is very small but knows how to store milk. (The bee)
 The old man who cannot climb a hill. (The hippo).
The old man who never leaves behind the overcoat. (The tortoise)
 As I walk through the gate they gaze at me (The doors of the house)
 The Arabs are fighting with swords (Roasting popcorns)
English in Eastern Africa. Sheng

 Samper 2002
 Sheng originated in Kenya as a mixture of English & Swahili → Swahili + English →
sheng
 Sheng is used as young generation identification mark
Sheng – No kamu, English – I am coming
Sheng – Tutago kisho , English - We will go tomorrow
 Sheng – Nina dish, Swahili – Nina kula, English – I am eating
 Sheng - buluu, English – blue, Swahili – zamatwati
Regional & Social Varieties of English in Great Britain
TRADITIONAL DIALECTS evident in Britain
Grammar Pronouns
Shone –shoes In the North & Midlands:
Een - eyes tha – you (sing)
Kine - cows hissen –himself
I washed me – I washed myself
her – she (South-West)
Verbs Vocabulary
gang (go ) - Scotland luin - boy ( Scotland)
fa - fall quine – girl
I is – (Northwest) Greet – cry
I are (Midlands) beck – stream (Yorkshire)
I be (Southwest) bairn - child
I am (North & East)
Peter Trudgill Dialects of English (1998)

Martyn Wakelin Discovering English Dialects (1978)
What features are the “survivors” of dialect levelling? Modern

Dialects
Grammar
26
English
Present tense (South & South West)
I like
You likes
She likes
We likes
They likes
Multiple negation We don’t want none
Ain’t as a negative auxiliary for ins’t, aren’t, hasn’t, haven’t
Past Tense of irregular verbs I done, I writ, I see
Them as demonstrative adjective: Look at them big spiders
Absence of plural marking on measures of distance and quantity:
Two pound _, ten mile_

Absence of adverb marking He came really quick___(ly)
Modern Dialects: changes happening right now

Chesshire ( 1989) Williams & Kerswill (1999)
Grammar
I was I weren’t
You was you weren’t
She was she weren’t
We was we weren’t
They was they weren’t
Phonology
Use of glottal stop for /t/ at the end & in the middle of words
Let / / me
Get / / over
Lett / /er
The feature emerged in London & Glasgow at least 150 years ago and now
approaches RP
Phonology
Use of glottal stop for /t/ at the end & in the middle of words
Let / / me
Get / / over
Lett / /er
The feature emerged in London & Glasgow at least 150 years ago and now
approaches RP
Phonology
Replacement of ‘th’ by /f/ or /v/:
Thin → /fin/
Brother → rhymes with lover
Dialect levelling in Britain 1990-2000
BrE in the 20th century is characterized by dialect leveling & standardization. The first
stage affected traditional rural dialects once spoken by the majority of population. There are
fewer differences between ways of speaking in different parts of the country. New dialects
emerged different from standard English in pronunciation. Families have abandoned rural
dialects in favor of a type of speech which was more urban of the local city. More urban ways of
27
English
speaking were labelled modern dialects or mainstream dialects by Peter Trudgill (1998).
They are more like standard English in phonology, grammar & vocabulary. Modern dialect
studies moved from the country to the city → urban dialectology (city talk, urban
observations). The second stage affected urbanised varieties of English themselves. The dialects
are subjected to further levelling. The differences between dialects have become are subtle,
purely phonetic ones.
The mechanism of standardization lies in a network of social contacts. People accommodate
to the speech of those who they communicate at work, usually people of higher social status –
upward convergence. Rarely one can come across downward convergence.
Social & regional variation of English
Daniel Jones S .accents

S .dialects
.standard language I
C A
I L
A _____._____._____._____.______.___
L Regional variation
_____._____._____._____.______.___
Regional variation
Regional variation decreases & minimizes at the top of the triangle where we have Standard
English. The triangle model is accurate as it involves continua – both high status & low
status accents, & a geographical accent from one end of the country to another.
Redefining RP is another important directions of research – what are the characteristics of

contemporary standard English pronunciation in England?
Major conclusion is RP has become a minority accent, moreover RP is changing
rapidly. Therefore numerous terminological clusters emerged to show the scope of change,
namely:
 Mainstream RP
 Adoptive RP
 Near RP
 Conservative RP –older generation
 General RP – most commonly used
 Advanced RP –mainly young people
 U-RP –upper-crust RP
Linguistic class codes. Watching the English

As RP is not a domineering accent, regional accents have become more acceptable
nowadays. In 1955 Nancy Mitford coined the phrase ’U’ and ‘Non-U’ to upper middle-class
and non-upper-middle class words. People of different social status demonstrate different
pronunciation.
Low ranks drop consonants (‘alf past ten’, ankercheef’)
Upper classes drop vowels (‘hpstn’, ‘hnkrchf’)
Upper classes at least articulate consonants correctly
28
English
Low classes pronounce ‘th’ as ‘f’ (teeth→teef, that →vat, Worthing →Worving, something
→ somefink, nothing →nuffink.
Mispronunciation of words is a signal of low class, of a low-educated speaker. Some decades
later nearly all these observations were fixed as characteristics of Estuary English.
Social Phonetics is one of the most promising directions of research.

Social factors to be taken into account within Social Phonetics research are as follows
 Context and communities
 Models of social and class variation
 Formal & non-formal speech
 Prepared & spontaneous speech + participation of a linguist
 Area of permanent residence,
 Age, sex, education, family, psychological characteristics,
 mass media impact
 Regional connections (stability of dialects)
 Social regime/ system in the country, range of social roles/ situational roles, social
status
William Labov, founder of Social Phonetics, seminal figure, offered principles of analysis
of sociolects:
5-6 persons in a target group (minimum) with
1 female
1 person of advanced or old age
1 teenager (aged 16-18)
These principles are used in many projects, for instance,
Phonetics and phonology of Swedish dialects around the year 2000:
a research plan
By Otto Engstrand, Robert Bannert, Gösta Bruce, Claes – Christiana
Elert and Andreas Eriksson
The spontaneous material consists of conversations between two

informants at a time. The elicited material consists of words, phrases, and
sentences created with the purpose of documenting dialectal variation in
segmental and prosodic features. Speech samples are collected from two
age groups, young and elderly. The group of elderly informants consists of
female and male speakers in an open age interval from about 60 years and
upwards.
For each dialect area, 3 male and 3 female speakers are documented in the
interval.
The younger group consists of female and male speakers in the age
interval from 16 to 20 years (the high school ages). For this category, 2
female and 2 male speakers are documented.
Estuary English (EE)
29
English
Estuary English was first described by Edward Roswarne in 1984. RP speakers make
only 3-10% of the population, though in the 1970s it seemed that RP speakers made the
majority. Quite unexpectedly, EE is becoming the most popular pronunciation model
squeezing RP.
EE is a variety of modified regional speech, a mixture of non-regional & local south-
eastern English pronunciation and intonation.
Within a continuum with RP and London speech at both ends EE is in the middle :
London speech → → →EE→ → →RP. Very often EE is described as cockneyfied, esturian
English, localized English. The heartland of EE lies by the banks of the Thames & its
estuary, but it is influential in the south-east of England. Now it is heard in the House of
Commons and sometimes used by members of the Lords, in the City, business circles,
bohemian world. EE can easily influence English pronunciation in future. Grammar &
vocabulary are as in Standard English, the difference is in pronunciation.
In EE phoneticians observe
 Vocalization of preconsonantal final /l/ /miwk bottoo/ – milk-bottle
 H-dropping (‘and on ‘eart)
 TH –fronting ( I fink)
 Realization of / r/
 Tone & pitch features – prominence given to prepositions and auxiliary verbs which
are not normally stressed in RP
 Rise-fall intonation
 More frequent use of tag-questions
References
1. English Language in Europe. Ed. By Reinhard Hartman, 1996
2. Intercultural Communication. Adrian Halliday, Martin Hyde, John Kullman.- Routledge, 2004
3. An Encyclopaedia of Language. Ed. by N.E.Collinge. Routledge, 1990
4. World Englishes. The Study of New Linguistic Varieties.-Cambridge Univ.2008
30
English
5. In and Out of English: For Better, For Worse?- Mutilingual Matters, 2005
6. The Handbook of World Englishes.- Blackwell Publishing, 2006
7. World English. A Study of Its Development.- Janina Brutt-Griffler, Multilingual Matters, 2002
8. History of English // YouTube/ Parts 1-8
9. Моїсеєнко О.Ю. Концептуальна інтеграція англійської мови в лінгвокулттурний контекст Східної
Африки. Дис....д.філол.н. К. 2015
EF EPI 2019 https://www.ef.com/__/~/media/centralefcom/epi/downloads/full-reports/v9/ef-epi-2019-english.pdf?
fbclid=IwAR2vi0cc6-a5WW-5pwccP8EkEpdums2s4C9CoWd97QJxcoJDM1Z05PVdRlM
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/dec/27/brexit-end-english-official-eu-language-uk-brussels?
CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other&fbclid=IwAR2Ncwp4g_9LtCEUmWaaWI1XV22L8oVLhw_vVRTvzRzfKXSEe6X0
7WzxpU4
Estuary English
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LY8FjXN14ew
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlK_Q7Torlg Estuary English- Jamie Oliver.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nDdRHWHzwR4
Issues to focus on
1. Spread and expansion of English. Standardization of English, codification of English.
2. Simplified of English
3. Theories of expansion of English
4. English as a global language
5. English as a GLOCAL language
6. What terms are used to describe variation of English in the world?
7. NS & NNS
8. Language and Identity. Chomsky’s theory of Language Faculty / Performance / Creativity
9. English loans in different languages
10. False friends of interpreters
11. Linguistic characteristics of English in English-speaking countries
12. BE VS AE : vocabulary, grammar, corpora data
13. English in Australia as a sociolinguistic phenomenon.
14. English in Canada.
15. Dialects in Great Britain: vocabulary, grammar, phonology. Traditional and New dialects
16. Accents of BE
17. RP, its variation
18. Estuary English (EE). Estuary English VS RP
19. Social Phonetics: founders, principles of research.
20. World Englishes. Common grammatical features of World Englishes
21. Singlish. Singlish. Manglish. English in Asia. English in Africa.
22. English in Social Linguistics: principles, approaches, methods of research
23. Creolistics. Contact Linguistics. Creole languages. Pidgin languages.
31

English As A GLOBAL& GLOCAL Language. World English

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English As A GLOBAL& GLOCAL Language. World English

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Alla D.

Belova , Doctor of Sciences (Linguistics), Full Professor - Lectures on Theory of

English as a GLOBAL language

English speakers in line with NationMaster

Germany 56%, 272,504- L1 China – 0.83% - 10,000,000

2/3 world scientists write in English

Semiotic revolution has changed the nature of communication making it

 In comparison with other languages English is presented as

 American English also contributed to English invasion: in 1986 the Economist

English and other languages: defeat or interaction?

Singapore Shims ( she-hims) transvestites

Dutch equivalents are no longer used: Leidinggevende → manager, Ontspannen → relax,

Philips - ’ Let’s make things better’,

IT loans in the Netherlands

Recent borrowings from English into European languages (2010 -

 das Multiplex, das Multiplex-Kino - das Großkino - multiplex (cinema);

English words borrowed by Spanish

 Smartphone (esmartfone) – mostly used as an international term, two ways of spelling

English and other languages: false friends of interpreters

Brussels to refer collectively to EU institutions,

Among the varieties of English, there is a division into

Tom McArthur’s Circle of World English (1987)

Manfred GЁorlach’s Circle model of English (GЁorlach 1990)

Braj Kachru’s Circles model of World Englishes

The “Three Circles of English” :

The Expanding Circle is defined as comprising those areas where English is an

Multiple Mixing and World Englishes resulted into

English as a GLOCAL language

ENL – English as a native language (anglophone speakers)- L1

New concepts relevant to English spread are:

New Englishes. Diversification of English provoked Standardization problem.

The agenda of research in World Englishes includes

 A – 1200 words as a foreign language

Common Features of World Englishes

Kachru notes examples like different-different things and one-one piece.

Acrolectal - high-class form, well-educated people in informal situations, close to

Mesolectal – middle class, semi-formal situations

Basilectal – colloquial, unique lexical, phonological & grammatical features

Reduplication My boy-boy is going to primary school. We two friend-friend one. Want to go

Singlish Discouse Particles

HP ( handphone) - mobile/ cell phone

Can - yes/ alright

Short /u/ turns into long /u/:

Japlish/ Janglish/ Engrish

Sociolinguistic approach in Australian English studies:

Distinctive characteristics of Australian English

New Zealand English (NewZild)

Dialects within Canadian English

 Canadian English/ Newfounland

2. Past Simple in AmE with words already, just, yet

3. Get –passive is more common in AmE

Among the countless American coinages are these:

British and American automobile vocabulary

British VS American English / Corpus Linguistics contribution.

Frequency of Must per 1 million

Be going to ( and the contracted form 1. I guess is 30 times more frequent in

The present tense form of have with got is Ir(regular) verbs

African American English

English in Eastern Africa. Riddles

English in Eastern Africa. Sheng

Regional & Social Varieties of English in Great Britain

TRADITIONAL DIALECTS evident in Britain

Peter Trudgill Dialects of English (1998)