CE 326 HYDRAULICS

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

DISCHARGE, Q
The discharge, Q, often called the volume flow rate, is the volume of fluid that passes through an area per unit
time. Typical units for discharge are ft3/s (cfs), ft3/min (cfm) , gpm, m3/s and L/s.

Flow Rate in terms of mass and weight:

Where: Q = discharge
A = cross-sectional area
V = velocity or mean velocity of flow
ρ = mass density
Ƴ = weight density/unit weight

 Streamlines/Path Lines
A fluid in motion can be considered to consist of a great number of individual particles, all of which move in
the general direction of flow but usually not in parallel lines or even with continuous motion. Streamlines are
imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to indicate the direction of motion in various sections of the flow of the
fluid system.
 Stream Tubes
A stream tube is a small bundle of path lines. These represent elementary portions of a flowing fluid
bounded by a group of streamlines which confine the flow.
 Flow Nets
These are drawn to indicate flow patterns in case of two-dimensional flow, or even three-dimensional flow.

Two Kinds of Fluid Flow according to Path Lines

a. Laminar Flow
Flow is said to be laminar when the paths of the individual particles do not cross or intersect. With this type of
flow in conduits having parallel sides the path lines are parallel. The flow is always laminar when the Reynolds
Number, Re, is less than 2000.
b. Turbulent Flow
Flow is said to be turbulent when its path lines are irregular curves which continually cross each other and form
a complicated network which in the aggregate represents the forward motion of the entire stream. Turbulent
flow normally occurs when the Reynolds Number exceeds 2000.

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Kinds of Flow according to Discharge

a. Steady Flow
If the discharge, Q, passing a given cross section of a stream is constant with time, the flow is steady at that
cross section. Steady flow involves permanency of conditions at any particular cross section.
b. Unsteady Flow
If Q at the cross section varies with time, the flow is unsteady.

Kinds of Flow according to Mean Velocity

a. Uniform Flow
If, with steady flow in any length, or “reach” of a stream, the average velocity at every cross section is the
same, the flow is said to be uniform in that reach. For fluids considered incompressible, this condition requires a
stream of uniform cross section. Uniform flow implies simultaneous uniformity of conditions at successive cross
sections.
b. Non-uniform Flow
In streams where changes of cross section and velocity occur, the flow is said to be non-uniform.

CONTINUOUS FLOW
When, at any instant, the number of particles passing every cross section of the stream is the same, the flow
is said to be continuous, or there is continuity of flow. Letting Q, A and V represent, respectively, discharge, area
and mean velocity, with similar applying to the same cross section, continuity of flow with non-compressible fluids
exist when

With gas flow, the number of particles passing the given point depends not only on their mean velocity and
the area of cross section but also on the density of the gas. The equation of continuity for compressible fluids
becomes

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One-Dimensional Flow
This occurs when in an incompressible fluid, the direction and magnitude of the velocity at all points are
identical.

Two-Dimensional Flow

This occurs when the fluid particles move in planes or parallel planes and the streamline patterns are
identical in each plane.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS:
1. Compute the discharge of water through a 3-in pipe if the mean velocity is 8.5 ft per sec.
2. Air that has a mass density of 1.24 kg/m3 (0.00241 slugs/ft3) flows in a pipe with a diameter of 30 cm (0.984 ft) at
a mass rate of flow of 3 kg/s (0.206 slugs/s). What are the mean velocity and discharge inthis pipe for both
systems of units?
3. A pipe line consists of successive lengths of 15-in, 12-in, and 10-in diameter pipe. With a continuous flow through
the line of 9 cfs of water, compute the mean velocity in each size of pipe.
4. Water flows through a 75 mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 3 m/s. Find (a) the volume flow rate in cu.m/sec and
lit/sec, (b) the mass flow rate in kg/sec, (c) weight flow rate in N/sec.
5. The hypodermic needle in the figure below contains liquid serum (SG=1.5). If the serum is to be injected steadily
at 6 cm3/s, how fast in in/s should the plunger be advanced (a) if leakage in the plunger clearance is neglected
and (b) if leakage is 10% of the needle flow?
2 cm diameter

0.08 cm diameter

6. Water flows steadily through a closed tank, as in the figure. At section 1, D1 = 6 cm and the volume flow is 100
m3/h. At section 2, D2 = 5 cm and the average velocity is 8 m/s. If D3 = 4 cm, what is (a) Q3 in m3/h and (b)
average V3 in m/s?

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ENERGY AND HEAD
Since the principles of energy are applied in the derivation of the fundamental hydraulic formulas, an
explanation of such principle as will be used is here introduced.
ENERGY is defined as ability to do work. The three forms of energy which must be considered in connection with
the flow of fluids are therefore usually stated as (1) Kinetic Energy, (2) Elevation Energy and (3) Pressure Energy.
other forms of energy such as heat energy and electrical energy have little bearing on the laws governing flowing
liquids, although thermodynamic effects are important in the flow of gasses.

1. Kinetic Energy is the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of its velocity. If in any mass, m, every individual
particle has the same velocity, v, the kinetic energy of the mass is ½ mv2, and since m = W/g

It therefore represents a linear quantity expressed in units of length. It is the height through which a body must
fall in a vacuum to acquire the velocity v. When applied to a moving mass it is called the velocity head.

2. Elevation Energy (Potential Energy) is manifested in a fluid by virtue of its position or elevation with respect
to some arbitrarily selected horizontal datum plane, considered in connection with the action of gravity.
Elevation energy may be explained by considering a mass having a weight of W, the elevation of which above
any horizontal datum plane is z. With respect to this plane, the mass has Wz of energy. Here again the
expression, in this case z, represents a linear quantity called the elevation head of the mass.

3. Pressure Energy (Potential Energy) differs fundamentally from kinetic and elevation energy, to the extent
that no mass per se can have such energy. any mass having pressure energy acquires that energy only by virtue
of contact with other masses having some form of energy. Consider a closed tank filled with a fluid which has a
small opening at the top. Without pressure at the top, the fluid practically will not flow. In the previous subject
(fluid mechanics), the equivalent head (pressure head) for a pressure of ρ is ρ/Ƴ. Hence pressure energy is equal
to

TOTAL FLOW ENERGY, E

The total energy or head in a fluid flow is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies.

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POWER AND EFFICIENCY
Power is the rate at which work is done. For a fluid of unit weight Ƴ (N/cu.m.) and moving at a rate of Q
(cu.m/s) with a total energy of E (m), the power in N-m/s (joule/s) or watt is

Note:
1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watt
1 horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/s
1 watt = 1 N-m/s = 1 joule/s

BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli, an eminent European mathematician and philosopher, demonstrated that in any
stream flowing steadily without friction, the total energy contained in a given mass is the same at every point and its
path of flow. In other words, kinetic energy, pressure energy and energy of position may each be converted into
either of the two forms, theoretically without loss. The Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem results from the application of
the principles of conservation of energy. Thus if there is a reduction in the amount of energy contained in any one
form there must be an equal gain in the sum of the other two.

Where = total energy (head) at section 1

= head added (by the pump)
= head extracted (by turbine or any other device)
= total head lost
= total energy (head) at section 2
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Energy Equation without Head Loss

Energy Equation with Head Loss

Energy Equation with Pump

Energy Equation with Turbine or Motor

HYDRAULIC AND ENERGY GRADE LINES

Loss of head in pipe flow is illustrated graphically in the figure, in which are shown two lines designated
respectively the hydraulic gradient and the energy gradient.

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Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

Also known as pressure gradient, the hydraulic grade line is the graphical representation of the total
potential energy of flow. It is the line that connects the water levels in successive piezometers tubes placed at
intervals along the pipe. Its distance from the datum plane is .
Characteristics of HGL:
 HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but it may rise or fall due to changes in velocity or pressure.
 For uniform pipe cross-section, HGL is parallel to the EGL.
 For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the drop in pressure heads between any two points is also equal
to the head lost between these points.

Energy Grade Line (EGL)

Energy grade line is a graphical representation of the total energy of flow (the sum of kinetic and potential
energies). Its distance from the datum plane is .
Characteristics of EGL:
 EGL always slope downward in the direction of flow, and it will only rise with the presence of the pump.
 The drop of the EGL between any two points is the head lost between those points.
 For uniform pipe cross-section, EGL is parallel to the HGL.
 EGL is always above the HGL, by the amount equal to the velocity head, .
 Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS:

1. A fluid is flowing in a horizontal pipe 8 in. in diameter with a mean velocity of 10 ft/s. The pressure at
the center of the pipe is 5 psi, and the elevation of the pipe above the assumed datum is 15 ft.
Compute the total head in feet if the fluid is (a) water, (b) oil (SG = 0.8), and (c) molasses (SG=1.5).
2. The jet of water from a nozzle discharging into air has a diameter of 6 in. and a mean velocity of 120
ft/s. Compute the velocity head and the horsepower in the jet.
3. The pump-turbine system in the figure below draws water from the upper reservoir in the daytime
to produce power for a city. At night, it pumps water from lower to upper reservoirs to restore the
situation. For a design flow rate of 15,000 gal/min in either direction, the friction head loss is 17 ft.
Estimate the power in kW (a) extracted by the turbine and (b) delivered by the pump.

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3
4. The horizontal pump in the figure below discharges water at 57 m /h. Neglecting losses, what
power in kW is delivered to the water by the pump?

5. A fireboat draws seawater (SG=1.025) from submerged pipe and discharges it through a nozzle. The
total head loss is 6.5 ft. if the pump efficiency is 75 percent, what horsepower motor is required to
drive it?

6. Kerosene (SG=0.804) flows through the pump at 2.3 ft3/s. head losses between 1 and 2 are 8 ft, and
the pump delivers 8 hp to the flow. What should the mercury manometer reading h ft be?

7. The liquid in the figure is kerosene. Estimate the flow rate from the tank for (a) no losses and (b)
pipe losses hf = 4.5V2/2g.

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