Chapter II: atomic chemistry

At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

 differentiate among atoms, molecules, ions and give examples
 describe the quantum mechanical model of the atom
 describe the electronic structure of atoms in terms of main energy
levels, sublevels, and orbitals, and relate this to energy
 use quantum numbers to describe an electron in an atom

⧉ Big Question

Based on our current knowledge, how do atoms look like electronically?

Atom is the basic building block of matter. It consists of three parts which are technically known
as sub-atomic particles. These are the protons, neutrons and electrons.

Protons are positively charged sub-atomic particles with an absolute mass of 1.67 x 10 -27 kg and
an absolute charge of +1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs (C). Protons give identity to an element. Each element has
their own proton number. The proton number of an element corresponds to the atomic number of that
element. For example, the atomic number of Lithium is three (3) which means that Lithium has 3
protons. If an element has 4 protons, then it is not anymore Lithium, but it is now Beryllium (atomic
number= 4)

Neutrons are neutrally charged sub-atomic particles (i.e., its total charge is zero) with an absolute
mass similar to that of proton. Together, the sum of proton and neutron gives the mass number or
atomic mass of an element. Unlike the absolute mass (true mass), the mass number or atomic mass of
an element is relative (i.e., it is considered in relation to or in proportion to something else). As an
analogy, take one deck of cards. One deck of cards does not mean one piece of card. The absolute pieces of
cards in one deck are 52 cards while its relative piece is one deck. If a person has two decks of cards
(relative piece), the absolute pieces are 104 cards. Now, the absolute mass of neutron and the absolute
mass of proton are just the same (i.e., both are 1.67 x 10 -27 kg). Hence, the ratio of absolute mass of proton
and neutron is 1 : 1 (or 1 proton mass is equivalent to 1 neutron mass). Based on this ratio, if an atom has
2 protons and 1 neutron, then its atomic mass (relative) is 3 amu (atomic mass unit) or 3 Da (Daltons).

Atomic mass= number of proton + number of neutron

Atomic mass = 2 + 1

Atomic mass = 3 Da
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But, its absolute mass (true mass) is the sum of the true masses of 2 protons and 1 neutron which is
5.01x10-27 kg.

Absolute mass= true masses of all protons + true masses of all neutrons

Absolute mass = 2 (1.67 x 10-27 kg) + 1 (1.67 x 10-27 kg)

Absolute mass= 5.01 x 10-27 kg

Notice that atomic mass has different unit from absolute mass. Absolute mass is usually expressed
in terms of kilograms while the atomic mass is usually expressed in terms of atomic mass unit (amu) or
Dalton (Da), where 1 amu is equal to 1 Da. Both protons and neutron are found at the center of every
atom and together, they make up the atomic nucleus.

Electrons are negatively charged sub-atomic particles with an absolute mass of 9.11 x 10-31 kg and
an absolute charge of -1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs (C). Electrons let the elements to interact and bond with each
other to form compounds. As long as the number of electrons and protons are equal, the atom or element
will remain neutral (no charge). But, as they become unequal, the atom or element will gain some charges
and will now be known as ion. Ions are charged atoms/ elements. If there are more protons than
electrons, then, the atom/element is positively charged and is known as cation (i.e., positively charged
ion). On the other hand, if there are more electrons than protons, then, the atom/element is negatively
charged and is known as anion (i.e., negatively charged ion). For example, if a Sulfur atom (atomic
number = 16) has 16 electrons, then it has no charge at all. If it has 18 electrons, then its charge is -2
since there are two more electrons than protons (atomic number); while, if it has 10 electrons, then its
charge is +6 since there are 6 more protons than electrons. Now take note that the charges
aforementioned (+6 and -2) are just relative charges since in reality, the charge of one proton and one
electron are +1.6 x 10-19 C and -1.6 x 10-19 C respectively.

In the incoming discussions, the masses and charges that will be used are the relative atomic
masses and relative charges.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________

In early 1800’s an English chemist named John Dalton proposed the idea that matter is made of
tiny, indivisible particle known as atom. From the early works that he did, he postulated some
assumptions regarding the atom. These assumptions are now recognized as parts of Dalton’s Atomic
Theory.

The Four Assumptions in Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1) Matter and elements are made of atoms – Elements are made up of minute, discrete, indivisible,
and indestructible particles called atoms. Atoms cannot be divided anymore. It is the smallest possible
size a matter can have.

2) The atoms of an element are identical in their masses and atoms of different elements have
different masses – Atoms of the same element have the same properties, such as mass. Atoms of
different elements have different properties, including a different mass. Same elements must have same
mass; therefore, if two elements have different mass, they are NOT the same elements.

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3.) Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms – When two
or more atoms of different elements interact with each other, they form a pure substance known as
compounds. Chemical combination between two or more atoms occur in simple, numerical ratios (i.e., 1 to
1, 1 to 2; 2 to 3; etc.). No element combines only half or quarter of itself to another element to form a
compound or molecule. When two elements combine, their ratios are in whole numbers as in CO2 where
the ratio is for every 1 Carbon, there are 2 Oxygen atoms. There is no such thing as CO1/2.

4.) A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms – An element's atoms do not change into other
element's atoms by CHEMICAL REACTIONS. For example, nitrogen and oxygen atoms stay as
themselves even when combined. No detectable gain or loss in mass occurs in chemical reactions. A
simple chemical reaction would not change the atom of an element to become a new atom of a new
element.

However, later studies and discoveries revealed some flaws in this theory. For example, because of
the discovery of sub-atomic particles (proton, neutron and electron), postulate number 1 was falsified.
Today, almost all people know that atoms are further divisible into the aforementioned sub-atomic
particles. In fact, current studies revealed that protons and neutrons are further divisible into even tinier
particles known as quarks. Quark is just one of the elementary particles that a matter has. These
elementary particles are, so far, the most indivisible component of a matter and not the atom. Moreover,
the initial discovery of isotopes in 1913 had falsified the postulate number 2 in Dalton’s atomic theory.
Isotopes are elements with the same atomic number (proton number) but have different atomic masses
(mass numbers). For example, 92Uranium-238 and 92Uranium-235 are isotopes of each other since they
have the same atomic number (i.e., 92), but they differ in atomic masses (i.e.,238 and 235). Therefore,
atoms of the same element can have different atomic masses and properties.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

For a very long time, scientists had known that matter is made of tiny, indivisible particle known
as atom. It took over a century for people to realize that atom is still divisible and it has three major sub-
atomic particles. Early attempts to improve this concept seemed arduous for the scientists since there
were no advanced equipments to verify their assumptions back then. Below are the four major old model
of atoms and their proponents.

1. Atomos model- The first model of the atom was proposed by John Dalton. According to him, atom just
looks like a sphere which cannot be divided or torn anymore into smaller pieces. Later on, the
indivisibility of the atom was falsified as the sub-atomic particles were discovered.

Figure 1: Atom according to John Dalton

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2. Plum Pudding model- On April 30, 1897, Joseph John (J.J.) Thomson (1856-1940) announced that
the cathode rays from his experiment were negatively charged particles which he called 'corpuscles'- the
first name of electron. He also announced that they had a mass about 1000 times smaller than a hydrogen
atom, and he claimed that these corpuscles were the things from which atoms were built up. Because of
this, he proposed that electrons are just like plums embedded and scattered in a positively charged sphere
like a pudding. Thomson's corpuscle hypothesis was not generally accepted, even by British scientists,
until he spoke of it again in 1899. By this time, George Francis FitzGerald (1851-1901), an Irish physicist,
had suggested that Thomson's 'corpuscles' making up the cathode ray were actually free electrons. In fact,
this suggestion was published as a commentary to the publication of Thomson's April 30, 1897 lecture in
which he first announced his results. Thomson himself continued to use the term corpuscle until 1913.
Later on, the plum pudding model was falsified as the existence of positively charged proton in atomic
nucleus was discovered by Ernest Rutherford.

corpuscles (electrons)

positively charged sphere

Figure 2: Atom according to Thomson

3. Nuclear model- In 1911, Ernest Rutherford published the result from his study- the Gold Foil
Experiment. In his experiment, he bombarded a Gold foil with radioactive Helium known as the alpha
particle (which is naturally positive). Surrounding the set-up was a fluorescent screen which can detect
the alpha particles that have passed and deflected after hitting the Gold foil. If the plum pudding model
was right, then after hitting the Gold foil, the alpha particles should deflect from it since the plum
pudding model suggested that the body of the atom is chiefly a “positively charged sphere” (review the
Law of Electrostatics: unlike charges attract, like charges repel or deflect from each other). However, this
was not the result from the Gold foil experiment. Instead of deflecting, most alpha particles had passed
the Gold foil at larger angles. This only suggested that the atom’s body was not really positively charged,
but is made of large spaces where alpha particles can pass. Also, there were some alpha particles that had
deflected at very small angles and there were alpha particles that had just reflected back from the source
of alpha particle. These suggested that there is a positively charged part in an atom which is concentrated
at the center. He called this central part as the nucleus which was concluded to have a positively charged
proton while electrons surround the nucleus and these electrons are moving in a large space. Later on,
this model was modified as James Chadwick discovered the existence of uncharged particle in nucleus
known as neutron. Chadwick announced his discovery in May 1932.

Most alpha rays just

passed the gold foil Scattered
electrons
Gold foil Only few alpha rays
Screen reflected back and did
detector not pass the foil
Alpha ray
Nucleus (where
protons sit)

Alpha particle
emitter

Figure 3: Gold foil experiment Figure 4: Atom according to Rutherford

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4. Planetary model- On the prior Nuclear model, the nucleus was already discovered and the electrons
were explained as “moving in a large space”. However, in nuclear model, it was not explained how these
electrons move without colliding each other. Because of this, in 1913, Niels Bohr proposed a new model of
the atom which looked like a solar system- the planetary model of the atom. His model was just a
modification of the nuclear model where he suggested that electrons move only at a specific circular path
just like planets. He called these paths as orbits. The bigger the orbit, the higher the electron’s energy
level. The maximum number of electrons in each orbit can be determined by using the formula 2n2 where
n corresponds to the energy level/ orbit number. For example, on the first orbit (n=1), the maximum
number of electrons that it can hold is 2 since 2 (1)2 is equal to 2. The second orbit (n=2) can hold up to 8
electrons since 2(2)2 is 8. The third orbit (n=3) can hold up to 18 electrons since 2(3)2 is 18. Also according
to him, when an electron on higher energy level/ orbit jumps to the lower level/ orbit, it emits energy in
the form of light. The same way, light can elevate an electron from lower level/ orbit to higher one.

electron
1st orbit with 2 electrons
proton
neutron nucleus
2nd orbit with 8 electrons

3rd orbit with 16 electrons

Figure 5: Atom according to Bohr

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The current model that is scientifically accepted is known as the quantum mechanical model.
In particle physics, quantum is a pack or bundle of any particle or energy (Greek “quanta” which means
pack). The last model before the quantum mechanical model was Bohr’s planetary model, where according
to him, electrons can be found in a path known as orbits and each orbit has a maximum number of
electron which can be computed by the formula, 2n2 where n is the orbit number. For example, for the
first orbit (n=1), there are 2 maximum electrons since 2 (1) 2 is equal to 2; for the second orbit (n=2), there
are 8 maximum electrons since 2 (2) 2 is equal to 8 and so on. However, there are two main problems in
Bohr’s planetary model of atom.

Problems with Planetary Model of Atom

1.The electrons in one orbit can only have two types of spin: clockwise (+½) and counterclockwise (- ½) .
In relation to this, there is no problem with the first orbit which has a maximum of 2 electrons since one
electron can turn clockwise and the other one should turn counterclockwise. However, on second and
further orbits, there are more than two electrons. If in one orbit, there are just two possible spins, then
how can we compensate for the spin of other electrons in an orbit? For example, in second orbit, the
maximum number of electrons is 8. If two electrons out of that 8 already did the clockwise and
counterclockwise spin, what spin will the remaining 6 do? NOTHING. There are no more possible choices.
The only way to compensate for this is to bundle or “pack” each electron in an orbit by two. For example, if
the second orbit has 8 electrons, then these electrons can be packed by twos; so, there will be 4 “packs”
and each pack contains 2 electrons. Third orbit has a maximum of 18 electrons and if these electrons are
packed by twos, there will be 9 “packs” and again, each pack contains 2 electrons.

2. In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger developed an equation which treated the electron as a wave, not just a
particle. In 1927, Werner Heisenberg developed the Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle which states that,
it is impossible to tell exactly both the position and momentum of an electron at the same time. The more
we know about the momentum of the electron, the less we know about its position and vice versa. If an

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object is exactly at a position, then that object is not moving and thus, momentum is equal to 0. Likewise,
if the object is moving (has a momentum), then you cannot exactly tell where the object is at a given
moment because it is constantly moving. Since, according to Schrödinger, electron is a wave and as a
wave, it has a momentum (which means it is moving), then we are really uncertain about its exact
position, and since we are uncertain with its position, then we cannot say that an electron is exactly on a
specific orbit as opposed to what was claimed by Bohr’s planetary model of atom.

With the two problems given, the birth of quantum mechanical model of atom became possible. In
this model, there are some terminologies that are related but NOT interchangeable with each other. If
Bohr’s planetary model, electrons were moving in a two-dimensional, flat orbit, in quantum mechanical
model, electrons are assumed to move in a three-dimensional, space-filled orbital or electron cloud. Bear
in mind that orbit is different from orbital. Orbital or electron cloud is a three-dimensional region
surrounding the nucleus where MOST OF THE TIME the electrons are located. This is the most probable
electron location in an atom. Orbitals within the same energy level are known as shell. Remember the
“packing” of electrons mentioned earlier? Each pack represents the orbitals. For example, in third orbit of
Bohr’s planetary model, there are 18 electrons. These electrons can be packed by twos; hence, there will
be 9 packs (atomic orbitals) and each pack contains 2 electrons. Now, notice that these 9 atomic orbitals
are just found on the same orbit or energy level (i.e., 3rd orbit/ energy level). Hence, these 9 atomic orbitals
are found in the 3rd shell of the given atom. How about the 4th orbit of the atom? Can you tell how many
maximum electrons are there in that orbit, according to Bohr’s planetary model? How many orbitals can
be created out of the maximum number of electrons in the 4th orbit? On which shell number can these
orbitals be found? Try to find it!

There are four shapes of orbital according to the three-dimensional model of different axes. The z-
axis corresponds to the height of the orbital, the x-axis corresponds to the width of the orbital and the y-
axis corresponds to the length of the orbital. The four shapes of orbitals are the s, p, d, and f. The
simplest shape is s which is just a spherical probable electron location. The most complicated is f orbital.

z z z z

y y y y

x x x x

s orbital p orbital d orbital f orbital

(sharp) (principal) (diffuse) (fundamental)
Figure 7: Different Shapes of Orbitals

Each shape above has its own maximum number of magnetic orientation. For example, the s
orbital (sharp) which is spherical has only one (1) possible magnetic orientation. If we rotate this
spherical s orbital in any direction, we will still see the same sphere at the center of the axes (0); thus, the
orientation of s orbital is denoted as zero (0). On the other hand, p orbital (principal) has three (3)
possible magnetic orientation-- one p orbital can be oriented towards z-axis (as shown in the picture
above), the other p orbital can be oriented towards y-axis while the last one can be oriented towards x-
axis. These 3 orientations of p orbitals are numerically denoted as -1, 0 and +1. More complex
orientations are available for d orbital (diffuse) as it has five (5) maximum magnetic orientations which
are numerically denoted as -2, -1, 0, +1 and +2; while f orbital (fundamental) has a maximum of seven (7)

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magnetic orientations and these are -3, -2, -1, 0 +1, +2, and +3. Figure 8 on the next page shows how these
magnetic orientations look like for every shape of orbital.

Now recall that for every orbital, there should only be a maximum of 2 electrons. Since s orbital
has only one magnetic orientation, then s orbital can carry a maximum of 2 electrons (i.e., 2 electrons
multiplied to 1 orientation). On the other hand, p orbital which has 3 possible magnetic orientations can
carry a maximum of 6 electrons (i.e., 2 electrons multiplied to 3 orientations). Moreover, d orbital which
has 5 possible magnetic orientations can carry a maximum of 10 electrons (i.e., 2 electrons multiplied to 5
orientations), while f orbital which has 7 possible magnetic orientations can carry a maximum of 14
electrons (i.e., 2 electrons multiplied to 7 orientations)

Figure 8: The Orientations of Each Orbital

(Source: UCDavis Chemwiki, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 US)

Below is a table which summarizes the aforementioned characteristics of each orbital.

Table 1: Shapes, Magnetic Orientations and Maximum number of Electrons

Shape of Orbital Magnetic Orientations Maximum number of
electrons
s orbital 0 2 electrons
p orbital -1 0 +1 6 electrons
d orbital -2 -1 0 +1 +2 10 electrons
f orbital -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 14 electrons
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In language, to exactly describe an object, certain adjectives are used before the noun that they
modify. Similarly, in chemistry, to describe the characteristics of an electron, certain criteria are
determined. These criteria are the (a) energy level of the orbital, (b) shape of the orbital, (c) magnetic
orientation of electron and (d) spin orientation of electron. These four criteria are enough descriptors to
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uniquely describe an electron. Bear in mind that there are no two electrons with absolutely the same
energy level, shape of orbital, magnetic orientation and spin orientation all at the same time as asserted
by an Austrian physicist named Wolfgang Pauli in his Pauli’s exclusion principle. Two or more
electrons may have 3 identical descriptors but there will never be electrons with 4 identical descriptors.
Somewhere, there will be difference/s between two electrons which are almost the same. The difference/s
may exist in their energy level, shape of orbital, magnetic orientation or spin orientation.

In quantum chemistry, the 4 descriptors aforementioned are represented by the quantum

numbers. Quantum numbers are descriptors of an electron which are translated into numerical form.
There are four types of quantum numbers.

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)- this describes the energy level of the orbital where the valence
electron can be found. The allowed numbers here are positive whole numbers only such as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
The higher the principal quantum number, the higher the energy level. Currently, the largest principal
quantum number reflected on periodic table of elements is 7. In fact, these principal quantum numbers
correspond also to the period (row) in periodic table of elements. For example, Hydrogen (H) and Helium
(He) are on the first period (row) of periodic table and therefore, we know that their outermost electrons
(valence electrons) have the principal quantum number of 1. On the other hand, Sodium (Na), Magnesium
(Mg), Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), Phosphorus (P), Sulfur (S), Chlorine (Cl) and Argon (Ar) are on the
third period and therefore, their valence electrons have principal quantum number of 3. However, bear in
mind that the period numbers in periodic table represent the energy levels of the valence electrons or
outermost electrons only and not the whole electrons of a specific element.

Legends:
s block ∎ valence electrons are in 1st energy level p block (except He)
∎ valence electrons are in 2nd energy level
∎ valence electrons are in 3 rd enery level
1 H ∎ valence electrons are in 4th energy level He
∎ valence electrons are in 5th energy level
∎ valence electrons are in 6th energy level
2 Li Be ∎ valence electrons are in 7th energy level B C N O F Ne
Period/ Principal Quantum Number

3 Na Mg d block Al Si P S Cl Ar

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

f block (except La and Ac)

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Figure 9: The Blocks in Periodic Table of Elements

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 Above is the periodic table of elements. There are many ways on how elements can be grouped in
periodic table of elements. One of the ways to group these elements are based on their outermost orbital.
Elements from s block have partially of fully filled s orbital as their outermost or valence orbital; elements
from p block have partially or fully filled p orbitals as their outermost orbital (except for Helium which
belongs to s block); elements from d block have partially or fully filled d orbital as their outermost orbital,
while elements from f block have partially or fully filled f orbital as their outermost orbital. Also, the
energy level of the valence electrons in d orbital of d block elements have principal quantum number of
n-1 where n is the period (row) where they are lined. For example, Niobium (Nb) is located on 6th period
and it belongs to d block. Hence, the energy level of its valence electrons in d orbital is 5 (i.e., n – 1 or
6 – 1= 5). On the other hand, the energy level of the valence electrons in f orbital of f block elements have
principal quantum number of n-2. For example, Dysprosium (Dy) is located on 6 th period and it belongs to
f block. Hence, the energy level of its valence electrons in f orbital is 4 (i.e., n –2 or 6 – 2= 4). Lastly, the
valence electrons in s orbital of s block elements and p orbital of p block elements have principal quantum
number of n only. For example, since Rubidium (Rb) is located on the 5 th period of s block, then its
principal quantum number is 5, while Nitrogen (N) which is located on the 2 nd period of p block has a
principal quantum number of 2.

Also, the principal quantum number may change depending on the charge (q) of the element. If the
charge of an element is positive, then it should step backward in periodic table of elements and follow
the principal quantum number of the element to where it landed. On the other hand, if the charge of an
element is negative, then it should step forward in periodic table of elements and follow the principal
quantum number of the element to where it landed. The magnitude or value of the charge determines the
number of step/s that will be taken by the elemental ion. For example, if Manganese has a charge of
negative 6 (i.e., Mn-6), then its principal quantum number is not anymore 3 although Manganese is on the
third energy level of d block (recall that despite it is on the 4th period, since it is a d block element, then
its original energy level is n-1 or 4-1 = 3). Instead, it should take six (6) steps forward from its original
position in periodic table and it will land on Gallium (Ga). Hence, the principal quantum number of Mn-6
follows the principal quantum number of Gallium (Ga) which is 4 (recall that the principal quantum
number of p block elements only follow their period number). Other examples are shown below.

Table 2: Examples of Principal Quantum Numbers for Elemental Ions

Elemental Supposed Principal Process Element where Correct Principal

Ion Quantum Number it will land Quantum Number
Sn+2 5 2 steps backwards Cadmium (Cd) 4
Cl-2 3 2 steps forward Potassium (Cl) 4
Ba+2 6 2 steps backward Xenon (Xe) 5

2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)- this describes the shape of the orbital where the valence electrons
can be found. The allowed numbers here are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. Currently, there are 4 shapes of orbitals
where electrons can be located- the s orbital, p orbital, d orbital and f orbital (see Figure 7: Different
Shapes of Orbitals, p.6). The azimuthal quantum number of s orbital is denoted by zero (0). On the other
hand, the azimuthal quantum numbers of p, d and f orbitals are denoted by one (1), two (2) and three (3),
respectively. In periodic table of elements, one can determine the azimuthal quantum number of an
element by identifying the block location of that specific element. Elements in s block have azimuthal
quantum number of 0. Elements in p block have azimuthal quantum number of 1. Elements in d block

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have azimuthal quantum number of 2. Lastly, elements in f block have azimuthal quantum number of 3.
For example, Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca) and Strontium (Sr) have azimuthal quantum number of 0 since
they are on the s block while Antimony (Sb), Bromine (Br) and Selenium (Se) have azimuthal quantum
number of 1 since they are on the p block. Bear in mind that Lanthanum (La) and Actinium (Ac)
belong to d block; therefore, their azimuthal quantum number is 2.

Also, the azimuthal quantum number may change depending on the charge (q) of the element. If
the charge of an element is positive, then it should step backward in periodic table of elements and
follow the azimuthal quantum number of the element to where it landed. On the other hand, if the charge
of an element is negative, then it should step forward in periodic table of elements and follow the
azimuthal quantum number of the element to where it landed. The magnitude or value of the charge
determines the number of step/s that will be taken by the elemental ion. For example, if Manganese has a
charge of positive 7 (i.e., Mn+7), then its azimuthal quantum number is not anymore 2 although
Manganese is on the d block. Instead, it should take seven (7) steps backward from its original position in
periodic table and it will land on Argon (Ar). Hence, the azimuthal quantum number of Mn+7 follows the
azimuthal quantum number of Argon (Ar) which is 1. Other examples are seen below.

Table 3: Examples of Azimuthal Quantum Numbers for Elemental Ions

Elemental Supposed Azimuthal Process Element where Correct Azimuthal

Ion Quantum Number it will land Quantum Number
S+4 1 4 steps backwards Magnesium (Mg) 0
S-2 1 2 steps forward Argon (Ar) 1
Ba+2 0 2 steps backward Xenon (Xe) 1
Cd-2 2 2 steps forward Tin (Sn) 1
Gd-3 3 3 steps forward Holmium (Ho) 3

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)- this describes the magnetic orientation of the orbital where the
valence electrons can be found. Magnetic orientation refers to the direction of an orbital along the three-
dimensional space as it is affected by external magnetic force. The three-dimensional space is composed of
x, y and z axes. The allowed numbers here are the negative azimuthal quantum number (-l) to the positive
azimuthal quantum number (+l) of each orbital, passing midway the zero (0). Hence, the s orbital with
azimuthal quantum number of 0 has a magnetic quantum number of zero (0) only. The p orbital with
azimuthal quantum number of 1 has magnetic quantum numbers of -1, 0 and +1. The d orbital with
azimuthal quantum number of 2 has magnetic quantum numbers of -2, -1, 0, +1 and +2. The f orbital with
azimuthal quantum number of 3 has magnetic quantum numbers of -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 and +3. Each
integer represents the orientation of an orbital in three-dimensional space. This was already discussed in
Lesson 4: The Current Model of Atom: Quantum Mechanical Model. In periodic table of elements, the two
groups (columns) of elements in s block have magnetic quantum numbers of 0 and 0, respectively. On the
other hand, the six groups of elements in p block are divided into 2 three groups. The first three groups
have magnetic quantum numbers of -1, 0 and +1 respectively, while the second three groups also have
magnetic quantum numbers of -1, 0 and +1 respectively. Meanwhile, the ten groups of elements in d block
are divided into 2 five groups. The first five groups have magnetic quantum numbers of -2, -1, 0, +1 and
+2 respectively, while the second five groups also have magnetic quantum numbers of -2, -1, 0, +1 and +2
respectively. Lastly, the 14 groups of elements in f block are divided into 2 seven groups. The first seven
groups have magnetic quantum numbers of -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 and +3 respectively, while the second seven
groups also have magnetic quantum numbers of -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 and +3 respectively.
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 p block (except He)
s block Legends:
∎ elements with 0 magnetic quantum number +1
∎ elements with -1 magnetic quantum number (except
0 ∎ elements with -2 magnetic quantum number He)
1 H ∎ elements with -3 magnetic quantum number He
0 ∎ elements with +1 magnetic quantum number
-1 0 +1 -1 0
∎ elements with +2 magnetic quantum number
2 Li Be ∎ elements with +3 magnetic quantum number B C N O F Ne
Period/ Principal Quantum Number

d block
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
-2 -1 0 +1 +2 -2 -1 0 +1 +2
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

f block (except La & Ac)

-2 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Figure 10: The Magnetic Quantum Numbers in Periodic Table of Elements

Above is the periodic table of elements and the magnetic quantum numbers of the elements which
are highlighted with black above each group (column). For example, Iron (Fe), Dysprosium (Dy) and
Osmium (Os) have magnetic quantum number of -2. On the other hand, Sulfur (S), Cobalt (Co) and
Uranium (U) have magnetic quantum number of -1. Bear in mind that although Helium (He) is lined in
that group with +1 magnetic quantum number, Helium’s magnetic quantum number is 0, not +1.

Also, the magnetic quantum number may change depending on the charge (q) of the element. If the
charge of an element is positive, then it should step backward in periodic table of elements and follow
the magnetic quantum number of the element to where it landed. On the other hand, if the charge of an
element is negative, then it should step forward in periodic table of elements and follow the magnetic
quantum number of the element to where it landed. The magnitude or value of the charge determines the
number of step/s that will be taken by the elemental ion. For example, if Vanadium (V) has a charge of
positive 2 (i.e., V+2), then its magnetic quantum number is not anymore 0 although originally, its magnetic
quantum number is 0. Instead, it should take two (2) steps backward from its original position in periodic
table and it will land on Scandium(Sc). Hence, the magnetic quantum number of V+2 follows the magnetic
quantum number of Scandium(Sc) which is -2. Other examples are seen on the next page.

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 Table 4: Examples of Magnetic Quantum Numbers for Elemental Ions

Elemental Supposed Magnetic Process Element where Correct Magnetic

Ion Quantum Number it will land Quantum Number
S-2 -1 2 steps forward Argon (Ar) +1
Pt+3 0 3 steps backward Rhenium (Re) +2
Eu-2 2 2 steps forward Terbium (Tb) -3

4. Spin Quantum Number (ms)- this describes the spin orientation of the valence electrons. There are
only two allowed numbers that can be used here. Positive one-half (+ ½) denotes that the valence
electron’s spin is clockwise while negative one-half (- ½) denotes that the valence electron’s spin
counterclockwise. In periodic table of elements, the two groups (columns) of elements in s block have spin
quantum numbers of + ½ and – ½ , respectively. On the other hand, the six groups of elements in p block
are divided into 2 three groups. The first three groups have spin quantum number of + ½, while the
second three groups have spin quantum number of – ½. Meanwhile, the ten groups of elements in d block
are divided into 2 five groups. The first five groups have spin quantum number of + ½, while the second
five groups have spin quantum number of – ½. Lastly, the 14 groups of elements in f block are divided
into 2 seven groups. The first seven groups have spin quantum number of + ½, while the second seven
groups have spin quantum number of – ½.

Legends: p block (except He)

s block
∎ elements with +½ spin quantum number
∎ elements with - ½ spin quantum number
+½ -½
1 H He
-½ +½ +½ +½ -½ -½
2 Li Be d block B C N O F Ne
Period/ Principal Quantum Number

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
+½ +½ +½ +½ +½ -½ -½ -½ -½ -½
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

f block (except La & Ac)

+½ +½ +½ +½ +½ +½ +½ +½ -½ -½ -½ -½ -½ -½ -½
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Figure 11: The Spin Quantum Numbers in Periodic Table of Elements

Above is the periodic table of elements and the spin quantum numbers of the elements which are
highlighted with black above each group (column). For example, Lithium (Li), Vanadium (V) and Silicon

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(Si) have spin quantum number of + ½ (clockwise spin of valence electron). On the other hand,
Einsteinium (Es), Gold (Au) and Iodine (I) have spin quantum number of – ½ (counterclockwise spin of
valence electron).

Also, the spin quantum number may change depending on the charge (q) of the element. If the
charge of an element is positive, then it should step backward in periodic table of elements and follow
the spin quantum number of the element to where it landed. On the other hand, if the charge of an
element is negative, then it should step forward in periodic table of elements and follow the spin
quantum number of the element to where it landed. The magnitude or value of the charge determines the
number of step/s that will be taken by the elemental ion. For example, if Molybdenum (Mo) has a charge
of negative 2 (i.e., Mo-2), then its spin quantum number is not anymore +½ although originally, its spin
quantum number is +½. Instead, it should take two (2) steps forward from its original position in periodic
table and it will land on Ruthenium (Ru). Hence, the magnetic quantum number of Mo -2 follows the
magnetic quantum number of Ruthenium (Ru) which is – ½. Other examples are seen below.

Table 5: Examples of Spin Quantum Numbers for Elemental Ions

Elemental Supposed Magnetic Process Element where it Correct Magnetic

Ion Quantum Number will land Quantum Number
S-2 -½ 2 steps forward Argon (Ar) -½
Na+1 +½ 1 step backward Neon (Ne) -½
Pt+3 -½ 3 steps backward Rhenium (Re) +½
Eu+4 +½ 4 steps backward Praseodymium(Pr) +½

Sometimes, some quantum numbers do not change even if the element gained charge/s. For
example, in the table above, the original spin quantum number of Europium (Eu) with no charge (i.e., +½)
is still the spin quantum number of Eu+4 (i.e., still +½).

Quantum number is an essential concept in understanding the basic characteristics of electrons

and its orbitals. With quantum numbers, scientists are able to differentiate one electron or orbital to
another electron or orbital and they able to extract the basic “identity” of a specific electron surrounding
an atom.

•••● ●•••

Antero, E.S., Alumaga, M.J.B., Padolina, M.C.D.(2010).Conceptual and Functional Chemistry. Quezon
City, Philippines: Vibal Publishing House, Inc.

Tabujara, G.D.(2016).General Chemistry. Pasay City, Philippines: JFS Publishing Service

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