J. Cent. South Univ. Technol.

(2008) 15: 230−236

DOI: 10.1007/s11771−008−0044−5

The Discussion on Rheology in Petroleum and Nature Gas Reservoir

Stimulation

Lu Yongjun (卢拥军), Liang Chong (梁 冲), Xu Yun (胥 云), Chen Yandong (陈彦东)，Shu yuhua(舒玉华)

(The Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development-LangFang, LangFang 065007, China)

Abstract: Petroleum and nature gas are not only a kind of important resource, but also they are important strategic materials of our
country. All that enhancing the producing degree of petroleum and natural gas reservoir, increasing single well production and
extending the stimulation period of validity are important stratagem for petroleum and natural gas exploitation. Fracturing and
acidizing are the main methods for stimulation as well as one of representative examples of rheology theory application in
engineering. In this paper, basing on analysis of low permeability reservoir characteristics, fracturing and acidizing stimulation
principles and main controlling factors were discussed. And the mechanical characteristics, chemical reaction and rheological
behavior in the stimulation process were reviewed. Furthermore research trends afterwards including the material and fluid rheology
in oil and natural gas production process, the deep rock fracture initiation and extension rheology, and fracturing and acidizing
application rheology were also proposed in this paper.

Key words: fracturing; fracturing fluids; acid fracturing; acid fluids; low permeability; petroleum; rheology

necessary for us to understand this technology more

1 Introduction
Low permeability reservoirs which should be
stimulated to exploit economically, are of large
proportion of these hard producing reserves in China.
Fracturing and acidizing technology originated from the
1947, has been applied over 60 years, which now
becomes a mature, developmental, and effective
engineering technology, and has been applied worldwide.
Fracturing and acidizing technology is to use
characteristics of fluid that can transmit pressure to inject
non-Newtonian fluid into porous medium by high
pressure, so that the physical or chemical properties of
internal structure of porous medium change, cracks are
formed, and rock permeability changes, as a result that
oil and gas wells production increase and water wells
injection rate increase. The technology is one of
representative examples of rheology theory application
in engineering, including polymer rheology of new acid
fracturing fluid system and acid liquid system, rock
rheology, application rheology, rheological reaction
dynamics. As for different exploitation methods of
different oil and gas reservoir and different development
phases, selection of liquid system, selection of
processing parameters, determination of reconstructing
scale are all strictly required. Therefore, it is very
deeply from rheology aspect, meanwhile fracturing and
acidizing technology applications for a variety of
complex reservoirs, the study on reservoir characteristics
has furthered from a single layer with low porosity and
permeability to the complex lithology and nature
fractures as well as igneous rock formation that becomes
a hot spot in recent years. From the rheology aspect,
modern rheology research of production stimulation has
been changed gradually from the traditional theory on
the uniform continuous medium to the exploratory study
on non-uniform, non-isothermal, multiphase medium.
2 The basic characteristics of low
permeability oil and gas reservoirs
Low permeability oil and gas reservoirs are of low
porosity, low permeability, low abundance, and low
production. Their features include following items:
⑴ Low porosity and permeability, resulting in low
natural production of oil and gas wells;
⑵ Very complex pore structure, resulting in oil and
gas migration process more difficult, the control area of a
single well small;
⑶ Reservoir heterogeneity and anisotropy are
obvious, which is hard to predict and describe formations
rich in hydrocarbon;
 J. Cent. South Univ. Technol. (2008) 15: 230−236
2

Foundation item: Projects(10472134, 50490274) supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China

Received date: 2007−10−21; Accepted date: 2007−12−27

Corresponding author: Lu Yongjun, Doctor candidate; Tel: +86−010−69213437; E-mail: lyj3437@163.com

J.
3 Cent. South Univ. Technol. (2008) 15: 230−236
⑷ High clay content and strong water sensitivity,
making particles easier to form pore throat migrate and
clay inflate;
⑸ These reservoirs are of high starting
pressure ,making water injection and gas injection
difficult, formation pressure drops rapidly;
⑹ Formation damage may occur during fracturing
and acidizing process, including water sensitive damage
of external fluid, residues damage and severe gas or
water breakthrough.
The comprehensive interaction among reservoir
lithology, physical properties, temperature and pressure
characteristics, pore throat structure, surface wettability
of the rocks and oil and gas fluid properties makes low-
permeability reservoir unique relative to the middle and
high permeability reservoirs. Stimulation technology
especially the application of fracturing and acidizing
technology is greatly important for exploiting the low
permeability reservoirs economically and effectively.
3 Stimulation principles and main factors
controlling production
Crude oil and natural gas are stored in the
formation, matrix rock acidizing and hydraulic fracturing
is to improve or even enhance the natural reservoir
connectivity between well bores and reservoirs. During
the production process, an equation that expresses
productivity of a single well is shown as follow:
＝ （1）
Where is oil or gas flow rate; is absolute
permeability; is the formation thickenss; is
boundary pressure of reservoir; is bottom hole
flowing pressure; is reservoir radius; is
effective well bore radius; is comprehensive skin
coefficient.
3.1 The stimulation method of acidizing
Acidizing technology is that acid liquid injected into
reservoir solves formation minerals near wellbore to
relieve formation damage near wells, to vary skin factor
of close well bore, to recover and enhance formation
permeability near wells, and to enhance oil and gas
productivity or water injectivity, under the condition that
the bottom operating pressure is smaller than reservoir
rock breakdown pressure. Acidizing method can reduce
the majority of the skin factors, but the skin factor is a
combination of a series of factors, most of which is that
conventional matrix rock stimulation technology can not
change, thus, deep sand fracturing and acid fracturing
technology are required.
3.2 Acid fracturing technology
Acid fracturing technology is that acid liquid is
squeezed into formation, opening the formation, acid
liquid react with rock wall forming gaw so that channels
and fractures are formed after the squeezing stopped,
finally, formation is stimulated and oil and gas
production and water injectivity are enhanced, under the
condition that pressure is higher than formation
breakdown pressure.
In addition that breakdown of the reservoir rock
mechanics is involved in this process in the research,
complex acid rock interaction mechanism is also
covered. Understanding degree of acidized fracture
conductivity is far behind that of Sand fracturing
proppant fractures. By the effect of rock heterogeneity
and fingering phenomenon that hydrochloric acid
behaving as non-Newtonian flow through the formed
channels, non-uniform etching in acidizing forms
artificial fracture profile, meanwhile, earthworm holes
occurring on fracture profile make acid etched rock
surface uneven, which causes forming a number of
"pillars" supporting the channels on horizontal direction
Therefore, fractures conductivity depends on acid
etching patterns, rock strength and closure stress.
Fig.1 Acid liquid etched gaw
 J. Cent. South Univ. Technol. (2008) 15: 230−236
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Fig.2 Acid liquid etched wormhole mold 3.3.2 Increasing oil drainage area
Long and high conductive artificial fractures are
3.3 Sand fracturing technology formed after fracturing and acidizing, Prats et al
3.3.1 Changing the liquid flow regime under proposed the relation between proppant fracture and
effective well bore radius considering pore pressure
formation
field around fractures as follow:
During producing process, pressure gradient （2）
force fluid to flow through pore medium, for many Cinco-Ley(1978) et al set up the function
reasons, there is an additional pressure drop near well between dimensionless conductivity equivalent well
bores, which changes radial (horizontal) direction bore radius for pseudo-radial flow. It is apparent that
flow and makes fluids flow toward well bores. high conductive artificial cracks extend oil drainage
Mechanism of radial direction flow is that pressure area which can supply higher single well production.
difference increase of reservoir is directly proportional
to the logarithm of distance. If permeability near well
bores decreases greatly, majority of total pressure
gradient is depleted near well bores. Artificial cracks
formed after sand fracturing stimulation alters single
radial direction flow, thus fluids flow into artificial
cracks first, then flow toward well bottom
monodirectionally, greatly reducing energy depletion.

Fig.3 Flow regime diagram plot before and after stimulation

Fig.4 Oil drainage area before stimulation Fig.5 Oil drainage area after stimulation

3.3.3 Multi-fracture stimulating mechanism on fracture length or its conductivity. If there are
For hypothetical double-wing shaped fracture branches, the area that fracture control will
symmetrical fractures in current hydraulic fracturing extend correspondently, making natural fracture
simulation, its stimulating mechanism mainly depends evolved and interconnected, thus quite complex
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5 Cent. South Univ. Technol. (2008) 15: 230−236
fracture network systems are formed, which extremely
improve fluid flow channels in reservoirs and enhance
oil well productivity in a great extent. Therefore, oil
wells will remain everlasting high productivity after
fracturing, making ultralow permeability reservoirs
development more economical.
4 Rheology in reservoir stimulation
4.1 Fracture creation by water horsepower
Deep stimulation processes by fracturing and
acidizing include rock initiation, fracture extension
and proppant transport and placing or acid react with
rock form heterogenic etched fractures. However, the
processes of formation rock initiation and fracture
extension is the typical rheology behavior that injected
liquid creates fractures by high liquid horsepower.
Rock and fluid mechanics and fluid loss theory is the
basis what to control created fracture size and
geometric shape. That liquid pumping velocity is
faster than its diffusion in formation forces formation
pressure to elevate unavoidably, thus, the formation
starts to break when formation pressure reaches at the
value of breakdown, and a definite ‘net pressure’
sustain fractures to extend.
Fracturing rock mechanism includes fracture
mechanics and fracture tip effects, mechanic
properties of fracture tip is proposed to explain the
effect of rock resistance on fracturing pressure.
Tensile strength and shear-resistant rheology of rock
influences the horsepower magnitude for creating
fractures. Fluid mechanics research includes liquid
viscosity, pumping rate and the loss properties of
porous medium. During the fracturing extending
process, inner facture pressure gradient is determined
by rheology of fracturing fluid, liquid flow velocity
and fracture width. Theories about controlling fluid
flow in fractures are “conservation of momentum” and
“lubrication theory”, where the increase of flow
resistance will be more serious when the fracture
extends to high stress barrier bed. Therefore, keeping
up a definite ‘net pressure’ is necessary for fracture
extension. In 1970, Nolte used coefficient to
characterize the effect of pressure gradient and
established an equation (3) considering the fluid flow
in fracture and rheology which influence pressure to
characterize the relationship among well bottom
pressure, rock closure pressure and net pressure that
caused by water horsepower.
（3）
4.2 Dispersing, soluting, viscosity increasing and
cross-linking properties of polymer in water or
acid solution
When estimating liquid performance, we should
consider substantially about the compatibility and low
damage of pumping liquid, meanwhile we should also
consider about the rheology of fracturing fluid and
acid liquid. Pipeline friction resistance, liquid leakoff
and retarding performance of acidizing system are all
related with the rheology of fracturing fluid and acid
liquid, polymer concentration and its relative
molecular weight can directly effect the rheology of
final fracturing fluid and acid liquid system,
furthermore, dispersing and soluting properties of
polymer solution and acid liquid are effected by
temperature, pH value and stirring rate. When
polymer disperses in solution, non-sequence structures
formed by single molecules gradually grow into
random plate entangled shapes whose entangling
degree is strengthened as polymer concentration
increases. Therefore solution viscosity can be seen as
a function of polymer concentration. Chemical cross-
link will occur when the concentration reaches at
critical overlapped value while inter-crosslink of
polymer will not occur but the inner crosslink of
polymer by adding crosslink agent when concentration
is lower than critical overlapped value. Crosslinking
of polymer solution modifies the fluid viscoelasticity,
which is of great engineering application values for
further reducing the leakoff amount of porous medium
and flow frictional resistance, increase the fracture
fluid efficiency and sand control capacity.
4.3 The flow and friction properties of complex fluid
in pipeline and fractures
When fracturing fluid and acid liquid flow
through pipeline, perforating holes and artificial
fractures, their rheology play important roles, which is
the same as frictional resistance plays an important
role on wellhead pressure, liquid viscosity plays an
important role on fracture width and value of
natural fracture formation plays an important role on
eliminating multi-fractures.
4.3.1 Studies on liquid friction properties
Friction values of well bore can be approximately
obtained by analyzing liquid rheology and numerical
solution of power law fluid flow equation from their
theory, however, its discrepancy is large. Foreign and
domestic researchers usually use indoor experiment
data and in-situ test data to quantitively analyze the
liquid friction including indoor multi-function loop

test, in-situ pump instant shutoff and step down
minifrac test for analyzing perforation holes and near
well bores friction.
The value of perforation fraction is affected by
the number, diameter of holes and perforating phase.
The effect of actual fraction of perforating holes on
fracturing pressure is usually neglected, and sand
crush, acid erosion can further reduce pore hole
fraction. Following equation (4) is used to calculate
pore hole fractional resistance.
（4）
Where q is the total flow rate; is fluid density;
is the number of perforating holes; is perforating
coefficient; is coefficient of pore holes.
Near-wellbore effect includes well bore
connection (perforation), tortuousity (fracture turning
and twisting), phasing misalignment, and rock tight
and multi-fracture caused by the above factors, whose
uncertainty makes it difficult to forecast near-wellbore
effect. And fracture turning and multi-fracture are the
principal factors that affect the near-wellbore effect.
Before turning, fractures first open along the
orientation that deviate a big angle from or is vertical
to the maximum of principal stress, Fracture width
and prevent the opening of the stress difference is
inversely proportional, but the pressure within
fractures is directly proportional to the stress
difference. In addition, frictional resistance increases
when sanding liquid flow through fractures with
smaller width, all of which can result in that actual
observed pressure calculated or during working
process is higher than that predict. Mechanism that
multi-fractures cause the increase of near-wellbore
effect is similar to the above one.
4.3.2 Effect of flow in fractures on the fracture width
Liquid viscosity and injecting discharge
capacity are the central parameters for fluid flow
in fractures, which is the key to proppant
transportation and affects net pressure as well fracture
height and width. Net pressure is expressed by the
equation (5) as follows:
（5）
Basing on rock linear-elasticity theory and
rheology of Newtonian fluid, the relationship between
opened fracture width and fluid flow parameters is
given in the following expression (6):
J. Cent. South Univ. Technol. (2008) 15: 230−236
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（6）
Where is the maximum of fracture width;
is net pressure; is fracture height; is
plane strain modulus, which is expressed as
.
According to the study on viscous force only, net
pressure in fractures is a function of modulus, height
and . Obviously, flow parameters of liquid
in fractures affect the net pressure, i.e. fracture width.
Discharge capacity can be proximately elevated by
twice as before calculated by equation (6), fracture
width increases by 20%, and power law value of non-
Newtonian fluid is about one third.
4.3.3 Effect of liquid rheology on multi-fracture and
‘fracture network’ formation
As for the formation that natural fractures are
abundant, it is needed to stimulate to form long
propped fractures. The effect of main fractures and
natural fractures on further extended orientation was
studied in Warpinski and Teufel (1981~1987) work.
And Beugelsdijk and Pater et al (2000) carried on
indoor studies what pointed out how to reasonably
select initial fracturing fluid and the value of
in stimulation to avoid multi-fracture according to
rheological parameters of injecting liquid.
As for low permeability reservoir and particular
low permeability reservoir, ability that formation
matrix supplies oil and gas to fractures is so poor that
it is difficult for a single fracture to obtain expected
stimulation effectiveness. Researchers in Langfang
developed the ‘fracture network’ technology that
analyzes mechanics mechanism of fracture network
generation for a definite formation and achieves
‘fracture network’ through which controls fluid flow
parameters to modify stimulating net pressure.
Equally it is required to keep on balance between
fracturing fluid viscosity and loss when using ‘tip
screen-out’ fracturing technology builds up ‘fracture
network’ system.
4.3.4 Analysis of friction pressure properties of fluids
containing proppant
Solid-liquid mixed sand carrier and its rheology
are the key elements that affect the transport and
placing of hydraulic fracturing proppant in fractures.
Friction pressure of fluids containing proppant
increases as proppant concentration increases. For
both laminar flow state and turbulent flow state, Shah
and Lee (1986) studied the alteration of incremental
magnitude of frictional pressure with flow velocity,
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7 Cent. South Univ. Technol. (2008) 15: 230−236
and established the equation of incremental magnitude
of friction pressure caused by proppant for turbulent
flow state:
（7）
Where is fraction pressure ratio between
sand carrier and non-sand carrier; is apparent
viscosity ratio between sand carrier and non-sand
carrier; is density ratio between sand carrier and
non-sand carrier; is slope of logarithmic plot
between fractional resistance and Renault Number
(Hannah et al took it as 2).
4.4 Fracturing fluid loss and gel breaking properties
at different temperature and pressure
Fracturing fluid loss influence the created
fracture length and fracture shut off time, therefore,
controlling fracturing fluid loss can further curtail
formation damage. Although waste damage can be
eliminated by decreasing guar gum concentration,
rheology modification caused by it may lead to more
liquid loss. Under in-situ condition, there are three
types of fracturing fluid loss: (1) translocation and
compression of reservoir fluid; (2) loss liquid or
fracturing fluid invasion into formation; the formation
of external filter cake. That temperature can change
fluid rheology and overlay with pressure increase
liquid loss and accelerate the formation of filter cake.
The formation of filter cake is proportional to loss
volume, but it should be guaranteed that fracturing
fluid flow back clean after stimulation, a common way
is to add proper scaled gel breaker into fracturing fluid
during pumping process. Gel breaker has obvious
effect on fracturing fluid viscoelasticity, and
increasing temperature accelerate fracturing fluid gel
breaking.
4.5 Proppant carrying flow and placing behavior of
solid-liquid mixed fracturing fluid
In fracturing process, slurry proppant transport is
mainly affected by gravity, buoyancy and viscous
force, and its sand carrying behavior is directly
affected by fracturing fluid rheology. Since fracturing
fluid is non-Newtonian fluid, their apparent viscosity
and viscoelasticity not only depend on the shear stress
and forced stress, but also are they affected by
temperature, fluid loss and chemical gel breaking
greatly. The viscosity of fracturing fluid will greatly
reduce when flowing through pipeline, tubing and
perforation holes, the shear rate slow down after
arrival fracture but the temperature increased, both the
two situations are caused fracturing fluid Rheological
characteristics changed. There is little research about
the sand control slurry, it depends on the flow of
fracture geometry, temperature, time, proppant size,
density and concentration. More recently, proppant
transport has been evaluated in large slot-flow devices
at commercial testing labotatories, established the
relationship of apparent viscosity-shear rate. Gardner
and Eikerts’s (1982) studies shows that viscosity
changes of the liquid for the concentration and
shearing affect just the opposite. Meyer et al (1986)
carried out a series research by an alternative
rheological measurement to calculated settlement rate
of proppant, respectively establish laminar and
turbulent flow state’s relationship between proppant
settling rates and liquid properties, the function of the
behavior index.
Proppant has a great effect on rheology of
fracturing fluid, which viscosity of slurry is higher
than that of pure fracturing fluid. Gardner in the year
1982 found that the viscosity of a crosslinked
fracturing fluid increased up to 230% with the
addition of 6ppa proppant concentration. Nolte in
1988 found that the equation of power law fluid is
similar to the equation of Newtonian fluid, but only
power index increases to n:
（8）
Rheology of fracturing fluid influences the
proppant migration. Under shear gradient conditions
in a pipe or fracture slot, proppant particles can
moveto the center of the fluid for viscoelastic fluids or
toward the wall for non-Newtonian fluids that are not
viscoelastic. Tehrani reported the control of particle
migration by the elastic properties of the suspending
fluid and the shear rate gradient which characterized
by liquid rheology, including shear viscosity and
normal stress as functions of the shear rate and
and as functions of the frequency.
Particle concentration has the effect of increasing
the frequency of interparticle interactions. The bulk
viscous stresses that drive particles together are a
strong function of the suspension viscosity, which is a
function of the particle volume fraction. The main
effect is that the resistance encountered by a particle
to movement in the suspension increases with the
particle volume fraction. Phenomenon that particles
migrate away from high concentration zones to low-
concentration zones was observed by Gadala et al in
the year 1980 and its mechanism that is referred to as
shear-induced self-diffusion was explained by

Leighton et al in the year 1987.
4.6 Reaction between non-Newtonian acid liquid and
rock and feature of acidized fractures
Gelled acid, viscoelastic acid and crosslink acid
whose viscosity and viscoelasticity is high are all non-
Newtonian fluid. Acid liquid rheology is of great
significance in engineering application, can reduce
friction pressure and acid filtration and reaction rate,
forming long etched fractures. Effective distance of
acid liquid and etched conformation on fracture
surface is determined by acid-rock reacting velocity.
Mechanism that determine acid-rock reacting velocity
include: (1) ions in the liquid move orientally by
concentration difference which force ions to move
from high concentration area to low concentration
area, and ion transfer is much faster at greater
concentration difference; (2) the greater the flow rate
of acid liquid, the faster the convection and ion
transfer. H+ ion’s movement style includes diffusing
90℃ Gelled acid
Fig.6 Rotating disk shape after the dissolution reaction
4.7 Fluid surface/interface chemical characteristics
and flow-back behavior
Fluid injected into porous medium and artificial
fractures should be firstly flown back to ground after
fracturing and acidizing stimulation to reduce residual
waste in propped fractures, thereby, reservoir
permeability is enhanced, as a result that compressed
oil and gas is produced subsequently. This flow-back
behavior is not only affected by fluid viscosity after
fracturing fluid and acid liquid breaking or acid-rock
interaction, but also is it affected by surface/interface
chemical characteristics of fluid injected into
formation. Fluid characteristics such as surface
tension, interfacial tension, dynamic angle and
viscosity directly determine the fluid wettability,
adsorption and retention on porous medium surface
and influence final flow-back efficiency. As for
J. Cent. South Univ. Technol. (2008) 15: 230−236
8
transfer and convecting transfer which is the key part.
The parameters that influence diffusion and
convection include temperature, acid liquid
concentration, flow rate of acid liquid in fractures,
acid liquid viscosity and type, and rock type.
Mechanism that rheology affects acid-rock reaction is
that acid liquid viscosity relays the transfer of H+ ion
toward fracture surface and that gelled agent adsorb at
fracture surface to retard the connecting degree
between acid and rock surface.
Rheology of acid liquid equally affects fracture
etched conformation much. We use rheology of acid
liquid to control acid-rock reaction to form different
fractures and earthworm pores, meanwhile, to make
effective acid liquid transport much more distantly, we
inject liquids with different viscosity forming
fingering phenomenon.
90℃ ordinary acid
common vegetable gel polymer fracturing fluid, there
is waste and residue gel, a kind of visco-elastic
micelle fracturing fluid (no polymer) is developed
abroad and inland. Efficient discharge aiding agent
decrease the surface tension between fracturing fluid
and acid liquid filtrate, which reduce water lock effect
greatly, meanwhile that surfactant coalesce dispersing
agent can curtail the block of propped fracture/pore
throat caused by the coalescence among broken
fragments in gel broken liquid.
5. The development direction of rheology in
low permeability reservoir stimulation
Low permeability oil reservoir stimulation is
considered as the main technology and method to
increase reserves and enhance production in oilfield
J.
9 Cent. South Univ. Technol. (2008) 15: 230−236

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(Edited by YANG Hua)