III rd Semester B.Sc. (Hons.

) Agriculture
Course No. : Hort. 3.3 Course Title: Production Technology for Vegetables and Spices
Credit: 1+1

Theory Syllabus:
Importance of vegetables & spices in human nutrition and national economy, brief about
origin, area, production, improved varieties and cultivation practices such as time of sowing,
sowing method, transplanting techniques, planting distance, fertilizer requirements,
irrigation, weed management, harvesting, storage, physiological disorders, disease and pest
control and seed production of important vegetables and spices
Major crops:
Fruit vegetables: Brinjal, Tomato, Chilli, Okra
Cucurbits: Bottle gourd, Watermelon
Cole crops: Cabbage and cauliflower
Tuber: Potato
Spices: Turmeric, Ginger, Cardamom, Black paper
Minor crops:
Cucurbits: Cucumber, ridge gourd, bitter gourd, Pointed gourd, Musk melon
Legumes: Pea, Clusterbean, Cow pea
Root vegetables: Radish, Carrot, Beet root
Tuber: Sweet potato, Leafy vegetables: Palak and amaranthus
Bulb crops: Onion, Garlic
Spices: Fennel, Cumin, Fenugreek, Coriander

Practical:
 Identification of vegetables & spices and their seeds.
 Types of vegetable garden,kitchen garden.
 Direct seed sowing and transplanting.
 Fertilizer applications.
 Raising of nursery of vegetables & Spices.
 Vegetables & spices seed extraction.
 Harvesting and preparation for markets
Reference books:

1. Choudhary, B. R.(2015). Vegetables, Kalyani Publishers.

2. Dhaliwal, M. S.(2008). Handbook of vegetables crops, First edition, Kalyani
Publishers.
3. Singh,S. P. and Somani, L. L. (2009). Principles of vegetable production, Third
Edition, Agrotech Publishing Academy,Udaipur.
4. Hazra, P.and Som, M.G.(2015).Vegetable Science, Kalyani Publishers.
5. Kumar, N.(2014) Introduction to spices, plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic
plants, Second Edition,Oxford & IBH publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
6. Nybe, E. V., Mini Raj, N. and Peter, K.V. (2007).Spices: Horticulture Science
Series-5, First edition, New India Publishing Agency. New Delhi.
7. Rana, M. K. (2011). Fundamental of vegetable production, First edition,New India
Publishing Agency. New Delhi.

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 8. Thamburaj, S. and Singh, Narendra (2015.) Text book o of vegetables, tuber crops
and spices, First Edition, ICAR, New Delhi.
9. Jitendra Singh(2011). Basic Horticulture, Kalyani Publication

CHAPTER I
Importance of vegetables & spices in human nutrition and national economy
 What is vegetable?
It may be defined as those edible herbaceous annual plants, biennial or perennial plants or
parts of plants are commonly used for culinary purpose or consumed as a raw.
 What is Olericulture?
Olericulture is a branch of Horticulture that deals with production, storage, processing
and marketing of vegetables crops.
The term Olericulture comes from Latin words holus-holeris = any kind of culinary
vegetable, pot herb, and cultura = to cultivate.
 About Vegetables:
 Vegetables form the most nutritive menu of man and tone up his energy and vigour.
 Regular use of vegetables, supply most essential health building and protecting substance
such as vitamins and minerals.
 The nutrients from vegetables overcome the common disorders like anemia, deficiency
disorders and other ailments in human being.
 Vegetable is vital part of human diet. It is rich in protein, carbohydrates, minerals and
vitamins which indispensable for maintaining good health.
 For balanced diet, an adult needs about 300 gms. of vegetables per day, out of this 90 gms
should root vegetables, 120 gms leafy vegetables and 90 gms other vegetables. But our
national consumption is less than 175 gms.
 Healthy men require 2700-3000 calories per day, but our consumption per day is only 700
calories. This deficiency can be made supplemented by eating vegetables in sufficient
quantity.
 Vegetables are more vigorating, if taken as fresh than cooked.
 The nutritional value of vegetables varies widely and depends upon the edible parts of the
plants that are utilized.
 The edible portion of vegetable may be root, stem, petiole, leaf, flower and flower bud,
fruit and seed.
 Vegetables not only supply nutritious food, but also supply bulk food.
 India is second largest in area and producer of vegetables in the world followed by
china.Uttar pradesh leads in vegetable area (13.61 %) and production (15.1 %) in India.
 In India, the vegetables is cultivated in an area of about 102.90 lakh hector and its
production about 1750 lakh MT and its productivity 17.01 MT/ha(2016-17). Its production
share is about 10.8 % in world Production (NHB, 2016-17).
 Potato rank first in production followed by brinjal and tomato. Among all the vegetables,
tapioca has the highest productivity. India ranks first in Production of okra, second in
brinjal, peas, cabbage, cauliflower and onion, third in potato and tomato.
 In Gujarat, the vegetables is cultivated in an area of about 6.44 lakh ha and its production
131.61 lakh MT and its productivity 20.44 MT/ha. Its Production share is about 8.0 % in
India.

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IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES PRODUCTION:
(1) Importance of vegetables in human nutrition
(i) Vegetable is a good source of roughages: which promote digestion and helps to prevent
constipation.
(ii) Vegetables are rich sources of mineral: Human being needs at least ten mineral
elements for proper growth and development of body. Out of these, calcium, phosphorus and
iron are required in large quantities, which are lacking in cereals and are available in
abundant quantities in vegetables like peas, beans, spinach, cabbage, cauliflower, tomato,
lettuce etc.
(iii) Vegetable foods are the base former: Calcium, Magnesium and Potassium are the most
important base needed for neutralizing the acid produced in the body during the digestion of
meat, cheese and other fatty acids and they are available from vegetables foods.
(iv) Vegetables are good sources of Carbohydrates and Protein: Dried seeds of beans,
peas and lentil are rich in protein and potatoes, sweet potatoes and carrots are important
sources of carbohydrates.
(v) Vegetables are rich sources of vitamins: Vitamins has key role in the development of
the body and requires in small quantity. All vitamins are found in small or large quantities in
most of green vegetables except Vit. D.

(2) Importance of vegetables in farmer's economy

(i) Vegetables are important source of farm income:
(a) Vegetable gives higher income than other crops. It provide regular as well as good
source of income.

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 (b) It provides regular work throughout the year to the farmers and farm labour.
(c) It supplies food stuff to his family and fodder in the form of refuse to his cattle.
(d) It provides better utilization of land, labour and capital.
(ii) Vegetables give high yield per acre/hector: They give very high production per
acre/hector than other crops. They grow quickly. It helps to follow crop rotation and mixed
cropping system in his land.
Sr. No. Crops Average total yield per hectare in quintals
1. Wheat 20 to 25
2. Paddy 25 to 30
3. Potato 150 to 200
4. Cauliflower 125 to 175
5. Watermelon 200 to 225

(iii) More vegetables can raise in one year: Most vegetables are short duration crop as
compared to other crops. It can be raised throughout the year. Some of vegetables (i.e. potato,
brinjal, spinach, pumpkin, lady's finger etc.) can be grown twice and even thrice a year.
Some green vegetables become ready for harvesting within 15-60 days of sowing.
(3) Importance of vegetables production for medicinal properties: Many vegetables crops
posses high medical value for curing certain disease. For example, onion and garlic are found
to possess antibacterial property. Brinjal is found to be useful against diabetes.
(4) Aesthetic value of vegetables:
(5) Vegetable crops are highly suitable for intercrop and intensive cropping.
(6) Suitable for smaller as well as bigger fields.
(7) High export potential which earns more foreign exchange to the nation.
(8) Growing of vegetables provides row materials for processing industries.
(9) Vegetables are important part of kitchen garden also.
(10) Some vegetables are also used for animal feed.
(11) Majority of Indian population is vegetarian,
So it is more important to cultivate vegetable on large scale.
Importance of vitamins and their availability in the vegetables:
Name of Daily Sources Functions Deficiency
vitamins requirement
Vitamin - Adults: 4000- Cabbage, Lettuce,  Essential for normal  Xerothalmia
–A 500 I.U. Spinach, Peas, growth  Night blindness
- Child and Carrot, Tomato,  Reproduction  Sore eyes
Pregnant & Sweet potato,  Maintenance of health  Retarded
lactating Green onion etc.  Vigour & proper growth &
mothers: 6000- functioning of eyes. disease
8000 I.U.  Protect against cold & prevention
influenza. ability
Vitamin Adults: 1.2 -1.8 Cabbage, lettuce,  Essential for growth and  Beri- Beri
B mg carrot, green reproduction  Loss of
Childs : 0.2 -0.5 pepper, onion  Promotes nerve condition appetite
mg etc.,  Proper functioning of  Loss of
digestive tract weight
 Fall body
temperature

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Vitamins Adults: 150 mg Cabbage, carrot,  Essential for keeping the  Unhealthy
C Childs: 50-75 tomato, potato, blood vessels in good gums, tooth
mg spinach, green condition decay
beans, peas, chilli  Prevent scurvy  Rheumatism
(green) etc.,  Strengthens teeth &  Scurvy
bones disease in
child & adult
 Loss energy
 Delay in
wound healing &
increased
susceptibility of
diseases
Vitamin Adult: 200- All green  Essential for proper bone  Rickets in
D 5000 I.U. vegetables formation child
Child: 200-5000  Healthy teeth  Bone and
I.U.  Prevent rickets & teeth teeth formation
diseases is retarded
Vitamin- Adults: 25-30 Cabbage, pea,  It is a anti-sterility  Sterility
E mg onion, lettuce vitamin  Normal
 Essential for growth of
reproduction reproductive
 Prevents abortion organ &
embryo is
retarded

SPICES

Spices: Spices are those plants, the products of which are made use of as food adjuncts to
add aroma and flavour (ex. Pepper, Cardamom, Clove, Nutmeg etc).
Condiments: condiments are those plants, the products of which are used as food adjuncts to
add taste only.
According to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) report, there
are about 109 spices grown in different parts of the world. India grows more than 60 spices.
The term 'Spices and Condiments' are natural plant products or mixtures used in whole or
ground form as food adjuncts, mainly for imparting flavour, aroma and pungency to foods. It
is also used for seasoning of foods and flavouring of beverages.
Spices are natural plant products used to improve the flavour, aroma, taste and colour
of food products; they are also used in beverages, liquors, and pharmaceutical, cosmetic and
perfumery products. From time immemorial, India has been known as the 'Land of Spices'.

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No other country in the world has such a diverse variety of spice crops as India. Indian spices
are renowned for their excellent aroma, flavour and pungency, not easily matched by any
other country. Even in minute quantities, spices are a real delight to the senses, making food
more palatable, tasty and easily digestible. While, their usage is common in one form or the
other in every household, their demand in the food processing industry is increasing at a
rapid pace across the world. Thus, the demand for spices in recent years has been
continuously growing.

Uses of spices:
1. The principal use of spices is to season the insipid foods to impart flavour, aroma
and taste.
2. They are also used as preservatives and fumigants.
3. Spices also find use in pharmacy and indigenous medicines.
4. Spices are also used in perfumery, soaps, cosmetics, tooth paste, confectionery,
incenses, dyes, etc

Properties of spices:
1. Spices are well known as appetizers.
2. They add a tang (taste) and flavour to otherwise insipid foods.
3. Some of them also possess anti-oxidant properties.
4. Some of them have preservative qualities (clove and mustard)
5. Some have strong anti-microbial and antibiotic activities.
6. Several of them possess medicinal properties.

Importance of spices Industry in India.

1. 35.35 lakh ha, having an annual production about 70.77 lakh M.T., with productivity
of 2.00 t/ha. India having 35% share in the global trade of spices. In Gujarat total
estimated area under spices is about 5.26 lakh ha having annual production is about
9.23 lakh MT, with productivity of 1.75 t/ha.
2. Nearly 90 to 95 % of total production is consumed locally and the rest are exported.

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 3. India is the biggest exporter of spices , During 2017-18, a total of 10,28,060 tonnes of spices and spice
products valued Rs.17929.55 crores (US$ 2781.46 Million) has been exported from the country .

4. It is a main part of our culinary preparations for flavoring and seasoning of food.
5. Most of the spices have potential medicinal values.
6. Spices have been used in cosmetic and perfumery industries, soaps, tooth pastes,
mouth fresheners etc.
7. Most of the spices are native of our country and hence India is aptly known as the
“land of spices”.
In Gujarat: Cumin, Coriander, Fennel, Suwa, Isabgol, Fenugreek, Chilli, Garlic, Ahwain,
Ginger and Turmeric.

Largest area under spices in India: Rajasthan

Highest production under spices: Andhra Pradesh
Largest area under spices in Gujarat: Surendranagar
Highest production under spices in Gujarat: Sabarkantha
Research center for spices:
 Indian Institute of Spice Research (IISR), Calicut (Kerala).
 Indian Spices Board, Kochi (Kerala)
 National Research Centre for Seed Spices: Rajasthan

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 Major Crops :
Fruit vegetables:

This group includes four very important vegetable. Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli and Okra.
First three belong to family Solanaceae and their cultural operations have many things in
common, while okra belongs to malvaceae family.

Brinjal (Egg Plant)

B.N. : Solenum melongena L
Famili: Soloanaceae
Origin : India
Chromosome no: 2n = 24
Common name: egg plant or aubergine
Brinjal or Egg plant or aubergine is one of the most common, popular and principal crop grown
in India. It can be grown in almost all parts of India round the year except on higher elevations. It is
highly productive and also called as poor's man crop. It is main vegetable in plains areas of India and
almost available throughout the year. 8% of total area under vegetables in the country is occupied by
brinjal.
India is rank second for producing brinjal in the world and its share is 27.55% in total world
production. In India, brinjal is cultivated in area of 6.8 lakh hector, while it's production is 118 lakh
MT and its productivity 17.5 MT/hector. The major producing state of India for brinjal are West
Bangal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar, Maharastra, Chhatishgadh, Karnataka, M.P. and
Haryana. Among this, West Bangal is rank first for brinjal production. Its share is about 23%.(Indian
Horticulture Database, NHB 2010-11)
In Gujarat, brinjal is occupy about 72000 hector area and its production 12.36 lakh MT and
productivity 17.2 MT/ha. The major producing district of Gujarat for brinjal is Junagadh,
Banaskantha, Vadodra, Surat, Surendrnagar, Bhavnagar, Kheda, Tapi, and Amreli. Gujarat rank
fourth position for brinjal production and its share 11% in Total Indian brinjal production.
Importance and Nutritive value :
Brinjal is a stable vegetable high in nutritive value. It is rich in minerals like Ca, Mg, P, K and Fe. It is
also a good source of Vitamin A and C. Bitterness in Brinjal is due to presence of glycoalkaloids
(Solasodine).Glycoalkaloids content vary from 0.4 to 0.5 mg per 100 g of fresh weight. Purple variety
has higher copper content and polyphenol oxidase activity where as iron and catalase activity is the
highest in the green cultivars. Discoloration is due to high polyphenol oxidase activity.
Uses:Used as cooked vegetables. Used in pickle making, dehydration industry. Frut is employed as a
cure for toothache. White brinjal is good for diabetic. It is excellent remedythose suffering from liver
complaints. Green leaves of brinjal plant are good appetizers, aphrodisiac and cardiotonic. It also
beneficial in vaata and kapha. In unani system roots are used to alleviate pain.
Botany:Brinjal is day neutral plant. It is self pollinated crop but sometime cross pollination also occur.
Flowers are hermaphrodite; crop is monoecious. It is annual herb and dicot. Fruit is berry and berries
are variable in shape and colour. Brinjal is a growing up to 1.5 m high. Entire plant surface is covered
by ‘hairy layer called ‘tomentum’.
Flower type according to length of style:
1. Long styled - with big size ovary.
2. Medium styled - with medium size ovary
3. Pseudo short styled - with rudimentary ovary.
4. True short style - With very rudimentary ovary, do not bear fruits.

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Only long style and medium style flowers will set fruits.
Varieties
Released by IARI: Pusa purple long, Pusa purple cluster, Pusa bindu, Pusa upkar, Pusa kranti, Pusa
anmol, Pusa purple round, Pusa Bhairav, Pusa hybrid-5, 6, 9
Realsed by IIHR: Arka sheel, Arka Shirish, Arka kusumkar, Arka Nvaneet, Arka anand, Arka
Keshav, Arka Nidhi, Arka Neelkanth
Realeased by PAU, Punjab: Punjab bahar, Punjab barsati, Punjab Neelum, Punjab sadabahar
Recommended for Gujarat: Dolly-5, Gujarat Hybrid Brinjal-1, ABH-1, Gujarat Oblong Brinjal-1,
Junagadh Raviya, PLR-1, Gujarat Long Brinjal-1, Surati raviya
Latest released by JAU: Gujarat Brinjal Hy.–2, Junagadh Brinjal Green Round -1, Junagadh Brinjal-2,
Junagadh Brinjal-2

Climate: Brinjal requires long warm growing season for commercial production. Mean temperature
of 22-330 C is most favorable for its successful production. Plants are killed by severe frost. The
seeds germinate satisfactorily at 25 to 28oC. In cool season, growth is slow and fruit quality is also
poor in size and colour.
Soil - A well drain and fertile soil is desirable for this crop. Brinjal is a hardy crop and can be grown
on variety of soil, but does best on silt loam or clay loam soil. Soil pH should in the range of 5.5 to
6.8.
Raising of seedlings:
 Approximately 100-125 square meter area will be sufficient for raising the seedlings to plant one
hectare.
 Soil should be prepared well by repeated harrowing and planking.
 Raised bed or flat bed should be prepared according to soil type followed by rabing or soil
solarization.
 Well rotted farm yard manure should be mixed thoroughly.
 Seeds should be treated with Thirum or Cerasan (2%).
 The seeds are sown in raised well prepared beds. The surface should be well pulverized.
 Seeds are sown to adepth of 0.5 cm & covered with fine soil.
 The beds are covered with dry grass to maintain temperature and to reduce evaporation.
 Beds should be kept moist till the germination is completed.
 As soon as germination is complete, the layer of grass should be removed carefully without
damaging the seedlings.
 Hand watering should be continued everyday.
 Weeding, hoeing, irrigation should be done as per requirement.
 The seedlings should be sprayed with fungicides such as Dithane M-45@2.5 gm and insecticide
such as carbaryl@4 gm per litre of water to save the seedlings from pest and disease.
Seedlings will be ready for transplanting after 4 to 6 weeks of seed sowing and 10-15 cm in plant
height and has a good hardy stem.
Sowing time ( Season ) :
Sowing season Nursery sowing Transplanting
Kharif June-July July -Aug
Rabi Sept- Oct. Oct.- Nov.
Summer Jau-Feb. Feb.-March
Seed rate : 250-300 grams/hectare
Spacing: 90 x 60, 90 x 75, 90 x 90, 75 x 60
Manures and Fertilizer.

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F.Y.M 15-20 t/ha Should be thoroughly mixed at the time of soil preparation
N P2O5 K2O (kg/ ha)
50 50 50 As a basal dose
50 0 0 As a top dressing (flowering time)
Total 100 50 50
Interculturing and weeding: Brinjal is a slow growing crop is unable to compete with fast-growing
weeds. Shallow inter cultivation is given to remove weeds from the early growth. About 3-4 hoeing
and hand weeding are normally needed for an effective control of weeds as well as proper aeration
and good growth of the plants. Mulching in brinjal with black polythene film reduces weed growth,
increase growth, early bearing and yield.
Chemical weed control in brinjal is also recommended. Application of Fluchloralin@1-1.5kg a.i./ha
or Pendimethalin@0.5 kg ai/ha as a pre emergence and one hand weeding at 30 days after
transplanting give a good crop.
Irrigation: Light and frequent irrigation should be given through the growing seasons of the crop. 12
to 15 days interval should be kept during winter and 6 to 8 days during the summer. In monsoon there
is no need of irrigation but if there is long spell of dry period then irrigation should be given.Timely
irrigation is essential for good fruit -set and its development. Drip irrigation is beneficial for reducing
water use and weed control.
Harvesting - The fruits are harvested when they are tender and attractive in appearance. The fruit are
harvested before it fully ripe and when it attains a good size and colour. The surface of the fruit
should not lose its bright and glossy appearance. Harvesting should be done every third day by cutting
the stalk from the stem with knife or other sharp instrument.
Yield - the Average yield varies from 30 to 40 t/ha.
Grading - according to I.S.I. three grades 1. Super 2. Fancy 3. Commercial.
Seed production in Brinjal:
All the cultural operations are same as per commercial crop. Some important points are as under:
1. Isolation distance
A. 100 m for certified seeds
B. 200 m for foundation seed
C. 400 m for nucleolus seeds.
2. Adjust the season during high temp, there may be a chance of parthenocarpic fruits or no crop
during rainy season.
3. Do proper rouging three times i.e. 1. Before flowering 2. At flowering 3. At fruit maturity stage.
4. Harvest fruits when they are fully ripe ( yellow colour )
5. Extracts the seeds by removing the outer skin and by making the slice. Then allow for soaking the
material in water for over right.
6. The seeds are separated by washing in running water, shade dry sieve & stored in clean dry
container. ( No moisture content more than 8%) in the seeds) The Av. seeds yield is 100 to 120 kg/ha.
Plant protection:
Insect and pest:
1) Brinjal Fruit and Shoot Borer:
Control Measures:
i) Remove and destroyed the affected plant with pest.
ii) The affected crops should be sprayed with phosphamidon (demicron-100 EC) @.0.5 ml or
diochlorovos (Sumthion-50 Ecfolilhion-50 ECc) @1 ml per litter of water at fortnightly interval or
spraying with carbaryl 0.20%.
2) Brinjal Stem Borer:
Control measures: Same as for brinjal fruit and shoot borer.

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3) Leaf Eating Beetle:
Control Measures:
i. Hand picking of egg and larval is the best method of controlling this pest if infestation is only in
few plants.
ii. This insect can effectively be controlled by spraying crop with Endosulphan
(Thioden -35 EC) or Phentrothion (Sumithion-50 EC)@ 2 ml or Fenthion (Lebacid-IOOO EC).
4) Mite, Jassids, Aphids and Mealy
These insects except mites can effectively be controlled by spraying the crops with Methyl parathion
(Metacid 50 EC) or Oxidemiton methyl (Metassystox 25 EV) @ 1 ml or Malathion-50 EC @ 2ml per
litter of water at fortnightly. Interval, The mites can be controlled by spraying the crop with Dicophol
(KeIthane-18.5EC ) @ 2 ml or Morocite-40 EV @ 1 rnl per litter of water.
Diseases:
1) Damping Off:
It is a serious disease of brinjal seedlings and mainly occurs in nursery bed. The disease infected
seedlings rot at ground level and then the plants fall over ground. The seedlings die in patches.
Control Measures:
1. The seed bed should be treated with Formalin before sowing of seeds.
2. The seeds should be treated with Cerasan or Agrosan before sowing of seed.
3. The seedlings in the nursery should be sprayed with any fungicides at regular interval.
2) Phomopsis Blight and Fruit Rot:
Dark brown lesions appear on the stem and round to oval spots are formed on the leaves. Disease
fruits show short and watery lesions which become black and mummified.
Control Measures:
i. Use of disease free seeds, seeds treatment with some fungicide and long crop rotation are the most
common remedial measures of this disease.
ii. Disease resistant variety (Such as Pusa Bhairab, Pusa Cluster etc.) should be Cultivated,
iii. The disease can effectively be controlled by weekly spraying of nursery and field with Mancozeb
(Dithane M-45) @ 2.5 gm per litter of water.
3) Little Leaf of Brinjal:
The affected plant produces numerous tinny yellow leaves and does not bear fruits. The disease is
transmitted by leaf hopper.
Control Measures:
i. The disease affected plants should be destroyed.
ii. The insect vector should be controlled by spraying the crop with Dimethoate (Rogor-30 EC or
Oxydemiton methyl (Metasystox-25 EG)
iii. Disease resistant variety such as Pusa purple Cluster should be cultivated.

Tomato
B. N. : Lycopersicon esculentum Mill
Family : Solanaceae Origin: Peru & Maxican region
It is the world largest vegetable crops after potato and sweet potato but it is top in the list of
canned vegetables. So, it is no.1 processing vegetable among the vegetables crops. India is the second
largest producer of tomato in the world after china. Andra Pradesh rank first (36 %) in production of
tomato in India. The leading producting states are A.P., Karnataka, Orissa, Maharastra, W.B., Bihar
and Gujarat. About 33 % of total area (tomato growing) is covered by F1hybrids which is highest
among vegetbels.
Gujarat rank six (6 %) position in tomato prodcution. The leading producing distrcits in
Gujarat are B. K., Vadodara, Junagadh, Mehsana and Anand.

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Importance and Nutrition value:The tomato is one of the most important "protective foods" both
because of its special nutritive value and also because of its widespread production. Tomatos are used
for soup, salad, pickles, ketchup, puree, sauces and in many other ways. The processed product of
tomato like tomato puree and tomato paste have great demand for export.
Tomato is a major source of vitamins and minerals. In England, it referred as “love of apple’
or ‘love apple’. In India it is commonly referred as ‘poor mans orange’ (Ascorbic acid 15 mg to 20
mg /100g edible portion). Glutamic acid is an amino acid mostly present in tomato. Tomato contains
many important minerals like Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, K, Fe, Zn, Boron. The alkaloid present in tomato is
called tomatin and the red coloured pigment is called Lycopene. Lycopene content is high at 700 F or
210 C. The acidity of tomato is due to citric acid and mallic acid which was found in the breaker and
pink stage.
Nutritive value (100 g. fresh wt.):
Water-92.1g Vit A-320 I.4.
Protein 1:9 g Thiamin 0.07 mg
Fat-0.1 g Riboflavin 0.01 mg
Minerals 0.6 g Nicotinic acid 0.4 mg.
CH0-3.6 g Vit-C -31 mg
Tomato contains Lycopene which act as antioxidant.
Botany: Tomato is tru diploid with 2n=24. Tomato is self pollinated crop due to hermaphrodite
flowers. Cluster of flower is known as Truss. Tomato fruit is botanically a berry.
Tomato plant is an annual herb 0.7 to 2 M long, hairy, strong odor, strong taproot with dense
system of fibrous and adventitious roots.
Medicinal value:
 Pulp and juice is digestible,
 Mild promoter of gastric secretion and blood purifier.
 It is also known as intestinal antiseptic.
 It is useful in stimulating Liver.
 It keeps our stomach and intestine in good condition.
 It is very appetizing, removes constipation and has a pleasing taste.
Climate: Tomato is a warm season vegetable require a long season optimum temperature is 21 to 24 0
C.Temperature and light intensity effect the fruit set,pigmentation and nutritive value. Optimum
temperature for seed germination is 300 C. Maximum fruit set occurs at a night temperature of 15 to
200 C. High temperature (380 C) accompanied by low humidity and dry winds adversely affect the
fruit set. Tomato has a yellow pigment Carotene and red pigment (at ripened stage) called Lycopene
and at very high temperature formation of Lycopene is inhibited.

Soil: Tomato can be grown in a wide range of soils from sandy to heavy soils. A well drained, fairly
fertile loam with fair moisture holding capacity is ideal for growing a good crop of tomato. Tomato is
highly susceptible to water logging. Well drained soils are highly necessary. The preferable pH range
is 6 to 7. If the soil is acidic i.e pH 5.0 or lower liming is advocated.
The surface should be smooth and free from clods. The soil should be well prepared and level
by ploughing 4 to 5 times before T.P. Before transplanting 15-20 t/ha FYM should be added. For
micro nutrient deficiency 5 kg/ha FeSo4 and15 kg/ha ZnSo4 should be apply. Apply Carbofuran 30
kg/ha for nematode control at the time of soil preparation.
Varieties: Mainly tomato has two types of varieties. 1. Determinate and 2. Indeterminate
Sr. Determinate tomato Indeterminate tomato
No
1 Plants are capable to continue their Plants are capable to growth more

12
 growth for definite time. or less indefinite time.
2. Terminal bud ends in a floral bud Terminal bud is a leafy bud and
and further growth is arrested terminal and lateral buds continue
to grow
3. Dwarf and bushy tomato plant Vine type tomato plant
4. Short duration crop and early Long duration crop and late
5. Errect plant habit Spreading plant habit
6. Junagadh Ruby, Gujarat Tomato- Gujarat Tomato-1, Pusa Ruby
2, Pusa Uphar, Pusa Hybrid -1
IARI recommended hybrid varieties: Pusa early dwarf, Pusa sheetal (cold set), Pusa Gaurav, Pusa
Ruby, Pusa -120, , Pusa Red plum, Pusa Uphar, Pusa sadabahar, Pusa Hybrid-1 (Hot set).
IIHR recommended varieties:
Arka Vikas : Arka Saurabh, Araka Ahuti (Sel. 11), Arka Ashish (IHR 674 SBSB), Arka Abha
(BWR-1), Arka Alok (BWR-5), Arka Vardhan
Other varieties: Pubjab Chhuhara, Swarna lalima, Sel-120 (Nemetode resistant), Punjab Kesari
GAU recommended varities: GT-1, GT-2, Anand Tomoto - 3, Junagadh Ruby
- The varities like Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Ruby, Arka Vikas, Arka Saurabh, Punjab Kesari and Pant
Bahar are suitable for fresh market.
-The varities like Pusa Gaurag, Roma, Punjab Chhahara, Pusa Uphar and Arka Saurabh are suitabl for
processing.
- While Pusa Sheetal is suiatble for low temperature regions and Pusa Hybrid-1 is suitable for high
temperature regions.
- Pusa Sadabahar is suitable for both low as well as high temperature.
Raising of seedlings:
As per brinjal
Time of sowing: Under mild climatic condition, where there is no danger of frost, three crops can be
raised in a year. In plain area, it is grown during June to November. The ideal time for nursery in
Gujarat condition is August month.
Seed rate: 200-300 gm/ha, for hybrid 150 to 200 gram/ha.
Spacing : For winter crop it is 90 x 75-90 cm or 70 x 60 cm, 75 x 45 cm. Spacing depends on variety,
soil type, nature of irrigation, climatic conditions.
Manures and Fertilizers: 20 to 25 t/h. F.Y.M should be incorporated during soil preparation.
Fertilizer : N P2O5 K2O ( kg/ha ) Time of application
1 37.5 37.5 37.5 Before planting
2 37.5 - - after 40-45 days after T.P.
Total 75.0 37.5 37.5
For hybrid variety:
1 75.0 75.0 75.0 as basal dose
2 75.0 - - 3rd week after T.P.
Total 150 75 75
Irrigation : Tomatoes need very carefully irrigation that is just sufficient water at the right time. It is
necessary to maintain even moisture supply. Over watering is harmful to the crop because flowers do
not set properly and crop is affected by fungal diseases. Plant should be watered only when they
apparently need it. Generally in winter at 20 days and in summer at 8 to 12 days interval should be
maintained. Drip irrigation is fairly recommended as it can save more water compared to furrow
irrigations.

13
Training and Pruning: All inderterminate varieties are trained with wires, strings or stacks to prevent
lodging and loss of fruits by coming in contact with soil. It is done by providing individual stack or by
erecting 2-2.5 m long poles on either side of ridges for stretching GI wires. Branches of plants are
supported on poles or strings with twine. Single stem training is most common.
Pruning is also generally followed in indeterminate varieties to improve size, shape and
quality of fruits. It is removal of unwanted shoots to enhance vigour of plants. For early market
tomato plants are pruned to a single stem and tied to a stake. All the shoots that grow from the axils of
the leaf are pinched off.
Interculturing:
Tomato plants required frequent shallow cultivation during first 4 to 6 weeks after T.P.
The surface soil is loosed by hand hoeing. All weeds should be removed in this process. Mulching
with straw, Black polythene or any other material has been found beneficial in 1. Moisture
conservation. 2. In controlling the weeds 3. Some diseases and in bettering the quality and yield.
Pigmentation of the fruits:
There are three flesh colour observed in tomato
1. Red - ( due to lycopin pigment)
2. Yellow ( Due to carotenoid pigment )
3. Tengerine ( Due to pro-lycopine pigment)
The intensity of colour development depends as balance between yellow and red pigment.
Environment also regulates the colour development. At temp. below 10o C tomato will not develop
yellow or red colour. At temperature between 10 to 25oC red and yellow pigment develops and red
colour is suppressed, above 30oC. If temp. is lower than 30oC the restored red colour will again
develop. At temp. Above 40o lycopin is destroyed and no red colour development takes place again.
Harvesting: According to the use of fruits:
1. Mature green stage: When tomato fruits are to be sent for distance market.
2. Pink stage or turning pink stage - When fruits are sent to be local market.
3. Ripe stage - When fruits are used for home or table use (purpose)
4. Full ripe stage - when fruits are used within 24 hours or use for canning purpose (Processing)
Tomao is climacteric fruit in which ripening is associated with increase in both respiration and
ethylene prodcution.
Grading: Fruits are graded based on size as Super A, Super, Fancy and Commercial according to
IIHR.
Yield: 20 to 30 t/ha.
Physiological disorders in Tomato:
1. Blossom end rot: Brown dis-colorations at blossom end while it is green. It enlarges rapidly to 1 cm
or more in diameter. The affected area of the fruit becomes sunken leathery and dark brown coloured.
Causes: 1. This occurs due to sudden change in transpiration especially in reduced moisture.
2. Increasing the amount of N is conducive to occurrence of this dis-order.
3. Ca deficiency leads to this disorder.
Control: 1. Adopt staking. 2. Provide good drainage. 3. A single foliar spray of 0.5 % calcium
chloride solution at the time of fruit development. 4. Use resistant cultivars.
2. Puffiness: As the fruit reaches about 2/3 of normal growth the outer wall continuously develop
normally but remaining internal tissue growth is retarded. So Fruit are light in weight, angular in
shape, lack in firmness, locullar cavity partially filled.
Causes: Non fertilization of ovule embryo, abortion after normal fertilization and necrosis of vascular
and placental tissue after the fruit is well developed. High or low temperature, varietals character and
low soil moisture.
3. Sun scalding - Expose fruits either green or nearing ripening are more susceptible to scaldy rapidly

14
during extreme heat. The tissue has blistered water soaked appearance. Rapid desiccation leads to
sunken area which usually has white or grey colour in green fruit or yellowing in red fruit.
 The cultivars in which heavy foliage is characteristics and in which the greater protection from
sunrays usually have least damage.

4. Fruit cracking- Fruit cracking (at stem end) is very common & cause large loses.
Causes: 1. Baron deficiency 2. Un even moisture content 3. Varietals character. 4. Expose to sun.
Control: 1. Spray 0.3 to 0.4% Borex. 2. Prefer the variety with more foliage 3. Maintain even
moisture. The spray of borex in nursery, then second 3 to 4 weeks after T.P. & third after 3 weeks
after second. 4. Use Resistant variety like siox, Pusa ruby, roma, Punjab chuhara etc.
5. Low temp injury : Tomato is may sensitive to frost as the maturing fruits are expose to near
frezzing temp. Fruits become soft, water soaked and with dull coloured.
6. - Flower drop and fruit set. - Imbalance supply and incorrect supply of nutrient, abnormal weather
conditions (low & high temp.) It has been reported that night temp. Below 13o C and day temp.
above 38oC cause flower drop and poor fruit set in tomato. Hot dry winds and high light intensity are
also responsible for fruit set & flower drop in summer. Also due to failure of pollination or
fertilization which can be over come by spraying 2-4- D 1 to 2 ppm along with urea 1% as a foliar
spray of flowering stage. Moisture supply should be proper.
PEST: Fruit borer, mites, aphids, jassids etc.
Diseases:
Fusarium wilt: Lower leaves become yellow petioles drop affected plants will died.
Control :1. Use of seeds from healthy plants 2. Use resistant varieties. 3. Crop rotation with crops do
not affected by these diseases.
Late blight -. Disease affects leaf, stem fruits.
Control: 1 spraying of Bordeaux mixture. 2. Dusting with copper / lime is helpful
Bacterial wilt: - Pseudomonas, solanacearum wilting, stunting and yellowing of foliage
Control 1. Proper crop rotation cereals help in crop rotation. 2. Use of resistant varieties
Leaf curl: - Viral disease, Leaf curling, excessive branching.
Control - Immediately removed and destroyed the affected plants (Burning/ Buried in soil) 2. Apply -
phorate/ carbofuran 1.5 kg/hact 3. Adjustment - late sown crop suffer less than early sown 4. Dipping
of seedling in 500 ppm solution of CCC.

Chilli
B.N. : Capsicum annum or frutescens L. Origin: South America (Maxico/Peru)
Family : Solanaceae
Chromosome no.:2n=24

Importance:
It is specially likes for its pungency, spicy tastes, besides the appealing colour it adds to the
food. It has important role in our daily diet. They are use to increase the palatability and taste of cooked
vegetables. No Indian dishes neither vegetarian or non vegetarian is complete without chilli. It is yet
another important vegetable cum condiment. It is called Red pepper or hot pepper. The sweet pepper
commonly known as 'Capsicum' is another botanical variety of Capsicum annuum in which the fruits
are very big in size with less biting taste and pungency. This is mainly used as a vegetable. Dry chilli
generally contains about 6 % stalk + 40 % pericarp + 54 % seeds

15
 India, Maxioco, Japan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Nigeria, Thiland, Turkey, Indonecia, China, Pakistan
are the majore chilli producing countries. In India, chilly is cultivated in area of 7.92 lakh hector, while
its production is 12.24 lakh MT and productivity 1.5 MT/ha. A.P., Karnataka and Maharashtra
accounts for 75 % of total area and production of the country. India is the major producer, consumer
and exporter of chilli in the world and 2.5 to 3% of total production is exported. In Gujarat, It is
cultivated in area of 38670 hector, green chilly production 2.23 lakh MTand productivity 5.77 MT/ha.
Major producing district of Gujarat is Vadodra, Anand, B.K., Rajkot, Tapi and Junagadh.
Uses :
 Chilli powder is used in culinary preparation.
 The pickle of chillies is very famous.
 Extract of chilli is used in " ginger bear" and other beverages,
 It is also used in medicine as a carminative
 Poultry feed.
 It also used to flavour soup and sauces.
 Sweet chillies are directly use as vegetable.
Nutritive value: It is rich in vit. A and C. The pungency in chillies is due to an alkaloid 'Capsaicin'
(C18, H27, No3), which is mainly present in the central placenta of the fruit as well as seed and to
some extent in the ovary wall also. Generally the content of capsaicin varies from 0.2-0.4%. The red
colour in chilli at maturity is due to pigment Capsanthin. Green chillies are rich in Rutin which has
pharmaceutical use.

Difference between Sweet chilli and Hot chilli:

Sweet chilli Hot chilli
1. Less pungent 2. More pungent
2. Origin place is Maxico 3. Origin place is South America
3. It is also called as Bell pepper or sweet 4. It is also caleed red chilli or hot chilli
pepper or capsicum or simla mirch
4. Fruits borne singly 5. Fruits borne in cluster
5. Fruit size is large 6. Fruit size is large or small
6. Varieties: California wonder, Yolo Wonder 7. Varieties: G-4, Pusa Jwala, Arka Lohit
7. Mostly used for salad and vegetables 8. Mostly used for condiments and spicy taste
purposes
Botany: Chilli is a self pollinated crop but cross pollination to the extent of 62 % is reported and
insects were primarily responsible for natural crossing. So this can be treated as cross pollination and
often cross pollinated crop. Flowers are bisexual and protogynous. Fruit is berry and exhibits variation
for colour, shape, size and pungency.

Soil: Chilli can be grown in all type of soft but the sandy - loam, clay loam and loam soils are best
suited for it, the soil must be well drained and well aerated. Acidic soils are not suitable for chili
cultivation. Sweet pepper can be grown an varied types of soil, but well drained loam soil is
considered as ideal and sweet pepper produce best crop at soil pH 6 to 6.5
Climate: The chilli is a plant of tropical and sub -tropical region -It grows well in warm and humid
climate and a temperature of 200 C to 250C. Excessive rainfall is detrimental to the crops, because it
brings about defoliation and rotting of the plant. Temperature ranging from 20 to 25o C is ideal for
chillies. It is killed by frost. A warm humid climate favours plants growth while dry weather enhances
fruit maturity. In capsicum fruit development was found to be adversely affected at 37.5o C or more.

16
Varieties:
 Hot chilli: Pusa Jwala, Arka Basant, G-4 (Bagyalakshmi), G- 5 (Andhra Jyoti), NP-46A, S-49, ,
Arka Lohit, CO, 1,2,3, Pusa Sadabahar,, MDU-1, PKM-1, Pant-C, Pant-C 2.
 Sweet Chilli: California Wonder, Yolo Wonder, Arka Mohini, Arka Gaurav
 Recommended and released for Gujarat: G-4, S-49, Rasham Patta, GVC-101, GVC-111,
GVC-121, AVNPC-131.
 Paprika variety Arka Abir is suitable for colour extraction.
 Pusa Meghdoot is the first F1hybrid by public sector.
 Leaf curl resistant variety are Pusa Jwala, Pusa Sdabahar, Pant C-1
Sowing time :

Sowing season Nursery sowing Transplanting

Kharif June-July July -Aug
Rabi Sept- Oct. Oct.- Nov.
Summer Jan-Feb. Feb.-March
Seed rate : 750-1000 gram/hector
Spacing : 45 x 45 cm., 45 x 30, 60 x45 cm., 60 x 60 cm.
Nursery management ( Raising of seedlings) : As per other tomato crops
Transplanting : When seedlings are of 15-20 cm ht (4 to 6 weeks old ) should be transplanted
Manures and Fertilizer: 15 to 20 t/ha FYM should be incorporate during soil preparation.
1) N P2O5 K2O (kg/ ha)
50 50 50 as Basal
25 00 00 20-25 DAT (Days after transplanting)
25 00 00 at flowering
25 00 00 at each picking
Irrigation - Chilli is grown both as rain fed and irrigated crop. First irrigation is given after the
transplanting and subsequent irrigations are given 5-7 days interval depending on weather and
conditions of soil during summer and rainy season and after. Every 10 to 15 days in winter. The
maintenance of uniform soil moisture is essential to prevent blossom and fruit drops.
Interculturing and weed control - To make soil loose and to keep down the weed growth,
interculturing should be done 2 to 3 times. Earthing up should be done 30 days after T.P.
To keep the crop weed free growers should have do the hand weeding after 20, 45 & 75 days of
T.P. or for chemical weed control, they have to spray as a pre- emergence ( before T.P.) Pendi
methalin- 1.0kg/ ha. or fluchloralin 1.0 kg/ha.
Harvesting :
 Flowering starts from 1.5 to 2 months after T.P. and it takes another month for mature green chilli.
 The mature green chilli can be harvested every 20 days up to 6 to 8 pickings.
 The ripe red chilli harvested at full mature (colour break) stage. 2 to 3 pickings are done for red chilli.
 100 kg of ripe chilli gives 25 to 40 kg dry chill depending on variety.
Yield - 1. Green chilli - 10 to 15 t/ha
2. Dry chilli - 2.5 to 3 t/ha
Green to dry chilli ratio is 10:1.
Plant Protection:
Insect Pests of Chilli:
1) Chilli Thrips:
Thrips is the common pest which affects the crop throughout its life cycle. But they are more severe

17
when plants begin to flower. These small insects suck the sap from the foliage and lacerate the leaf
tissue, which result in curling of leaves and fall down of flowers prematurely.
Control Measures:
Thrips can effectively be controlled by spraying carbaryl 50 W @ 3 gm or Zolene @ 3 ml or
Dimethoate (Rogor 30 EC) at fortnightly interval
2) Fruit Borer:
The caterpillar oat leaves and later on bores the pod, which result in the deterioration of quality and
market price of the product.
Control Measures:
The control measures are timely spraying the crop with quinalphos (Exalux-25 EC) @ 4 ml or carbaryl
50 W, (Sevin 50 W) @ 3 gm per litre of water, starting from flower bud formation.
3) Aphids:
Aphid suck the dap from the plants; they generally attack the crop in winter months and at the later
stages of the crop. The quality of the produce is spoiled by imparting blackish colour to the Calyx and
pods. They also serve as a Vector to Virus,
Control Measures:
The aphids can effectively be controlled by spraying the crop with Dimethoate (Rogor-30 EC) or
Methyl Parathion (Metacid 50 EC) @ lm (or Phosphamidon (Demicron-100 EC) @ 0.5 ml per litre of
whiter.
Diseases of Chilli:
1) Damping Off:
It is a serious disease of brinjal seedlings and mainly occurs in nursery bed. The disease infected
seedlings rot at ground level and then the plants fall over ground. The seedlings die in patches.
Control Measures:
1. The seed bed should be treated with Formalin before sowing of seeds.
2. The seeds should be treated without water (30 minutes at 520 C) or Cerasan or Agrosan G.N. before
sowing of seed.
3. The seedlings in the nursery should be sprayed with any fungicides at a regular interval.
2) Bacterial Leaf Spot:
Small dark, greasy spots are formed on leaf, petiole and tender parts of the plant. Water soaked spots
appear on green fruits. In severe cases the leaf may drop off arid cause considerable loss to the crop.
Control Measures:
Spraying Agrimycin - 100 k at 200 ppm plus copper oxychloride 0.3 per cent controls the disease
effectively.
3) Anthracnose:
Dark sunken spots are formed of fruits and pink or dark coloured dots appear in the centre of the
sunken spots. Due to this spots, the fruits rot and fall. The fungus may cause "Die back" of the twigs
also. Die back disease attacks mainly the upper portion of the plants spreading gradually from the top
to downward; as a result the branches dry up.
Control Measures:
Seed treatment with Cerasan before sowing, removing and burning of attacked plants or branches and
spraying the disease affected crops with Mancozeb (Dithane M-45) @ 2.5 gm per litre of water.
4) Leaf Curl:
The disease affected leaves becomes small in size accompanied by downward curling. The disease
usually spreads through insect vectors such as thrips and aphids etc.
Control Measures: Control of insect vectors by spraying the crop with Dimethoate (Rogor -30 EC) @
1 ml per litre.

18
 Okra ( Bhindi , Lady's finger)
B.N. : Abelmoschus esculentus (L) Moench
Family : Malvaceae
Origin : Africa
Pollination : Potentially self pollinated crop (Because showly corolla)
Chromosome no. :2n=130
Introduction: Okra's is one of the popular vegetables in India. It is an annual vegetable crop grown in
tropical and subtropical regions. It is cultivated extensively all year round for its immature fruits. It is
rich in Vitamins A, B, and C and Protein and fibre.
India occupy about 4.98 lakh hector area and its production is about 57.84 lakh MT and
Prodcutivity 11.6 MT/ha. The main producing states are Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa,
Gujarat, Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh, Maharashtra, Assam and Haryana. Among this, Andra Pradesh rank
first and its share about 20 %. (Indian Horticulture Database 2010-11, NHB)
In Gujarat, Okra is cultivate in area of about 54458 hector and it producing about 5.92 lakh MT
and productivity 10.88 MT. Gujarat rank fifth position for okra production (10 % share). The major
producing district of Gujarat is Surat, Vadodra, Junagadh, Tapi, B. K., Kheda, Surendranagar, Navsari,
Gandhinagar and Bharuch. (Deptt of Horticulture)
Uses:
1. Tender, greens fruits are used as culinary purpose as well as cooked in curry and soup.
2. The root and stem are used for clearing cane juice in preparation of 'Gur'.
3. The dry seed contains 13-22% good edible oil and 20-24% protein. Oil is used in soap,
cosmetic industry and as"vanaspati ghee" and protein is used for fortified feed preparations.
4. The crushed seed is used for feed to cattle for more milk production.
5. The fiber is utilized in jute, textile and paper industry.
Medicinal uses:
1. High iodine content of fruits helps to control "goitre" while leaves are used in inflammation and
dysentery.
2. The fruits also help in cases of renal colic, leucorrhoea and general weakness.
Varieties :-
Pusa Sawani, Pusa Makhmali, Pusa A4:- IARI, New Delhi.
MDU 1,CO 1, CO 2, CO 3 (Hy8):- TNAU,
Punjab Padmini, Punjab-7, Punjab-8:- PAU
Parbhani Kranti:- Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, Maharashtra.
Arka Abhay, Arka Anamika:- IIHR
Varsha Uphar (HRB 9-2):- CCS Haryana Agricultural University,
Gujarat Okra-1, GHO-1, GHO-2:- GAU, Gujarat
Soil:- Sandy to clay soils which rich in organic matter, good drainage, loose friable. Optimum soil pH
should be 6 to 6.8.
Climate: - It requires a long, warm and humid growing period. It can be successfully grown in hot
humid areas. It is sensitive to frost and extremely low temperature. The temperature between 240 C to
280 C is best suited to okra. When day temperature exceeds 42oC, flowers and flower buds drop down.
For seed germination temperature ranges between 250 C-350 C.
Sowing season: - If the winter is mild the crop can be grown all the year round. Generally two crops
are taken, spring summer and rainy season.
1. Spring summer - February - March

19
 2. Rainy season - May - June - July
3. Off season - Cv. GOH-1 showing should be done on 1st October
Method of sowing:- The seeds should be sown on ridges or in flat bed in spring summer , while
during Kharif season must be sown on ridges.
Seed rate:- 1. Spring summer - 10 kg /ha
2. Rainy season -10 kg /ha
3. Hybrid - 2.8 to 3 kg /ha
Spacing :-
Spring summer:- 30 x15 cm
Rainy season:- 60 x 30 cm, 45 x 30, 45 x15 cm
Hybrid GOH:- 45 x 30, 60 x 30 cm
Seed soaking in water for 24 hours before sowing is enhances germination.
Manuring and fertilization:-
For south Gujarat and Hybrid variety-
1. 10 to 12 t/h F.Y.M.
2. N. P K kg/ha
75 50 50 as basal dose
75 0 0 After 45 days from sowing
Total 150 50 50
For others and improved variety-
20t/h mature press mud before 15th days of sowing
N. P K kg/ha
25 50 50 as basal dose
25 0 0 30 days DAS
25 0 0 60 DAS
Total : 75 50 50
Irrigation:- The crop should be irrigated at an interval of 4 to 5 days in summer and whenever
required in rainy season. Drip method is good by which the water can be save up to 40-50%. Furrow
system of irrigation is better than flood. Moisture stress during flowering and fruit/seed setting causes
around 70 % crop losses.
Weed control:- To keeps weed free 3 to 4 interculturing should be done. First after 15 days from
sowing , second after 45 to 50 days & third after 60 to 70 days.
Lasso @ 5 lit/ha as pre emergence spray a day after sowing may be applied or appli. of
Alachlor at 1.5 kg/ha immediately after sowing was cheapest and much effective. If the weed
population is more, Pendimethalin 0.600 kg/ha. Fluchloralin (Basalin- 1.0 gk/ha) gave good weed
control.
Harvesting and yield: -
 .Flowering begins from 35-40 days after sowing and fruits are ready for harvest four to five
days after flowering.
 The tender young fruits 7 to 10 cm long should be harvested every alternate day
 If delay harvest, it increase the fibre which give low market price.
 A cheap hand glove or cloth bag should be used to protect fingers.
 Harvesting should always do at morning.
 A total number of 20-25 picking can be made.
Yield: - Spring summer - 6.5 t/h to 7.5 t/h.
Rainy season - 4-12 t/ha .
Hybrid- 17-20 t/h.
Seed yield - 1.2-1.5 t./ha.

20
Plant protection:
Insect-Pest:
1. Fruit and shoot borer
Control measures: Carbaryl (Sevin-50W, Sevimol) 0.1 per cent.
2. Sucking pest: Aphid, Jassids, Thrips and White fly.
Control measures :
 Carbofuran 3 G. granules have to be applied @ 12 kg / ha 20 DAS.
 Dichlorovus (Nuvan)@ 76 EC or Malathion 50EC @ 20 ml/10 litre or Rogor 30Ec @10ml/l.
3. Spotted ball worm: They bore the growing shoots, flower buds, flowers and fruits of Okra.
Control: Affected parts removed and burned out, spray malathion 50E.C. 1.5 liter in 875 lits of water
at 15 days interval.
4. Okra leaf weevil: It eats leaf tissue and make holes in leaves.
Control: Rogor 30EC or Methyl parathion @ 110ml /10 liter of water.
Diseases:-
Fungal diseases
1. Damping off - mostly caused by pythium fuzarium, and Rhizoctonia species.
Control: Pre and post emergence seedling death. Can be control by seed treatment with captan/thirum
@ 3g kg of seeds before sowing.
2. Powdery mildew - White grey powdery mass is seen on the leaves. The leaves turn yellow and
finally dropped down.
Control: Application of 0.2 % wetable sulphur at 10 days interval will control it.
Viral Disease
Yellow vein mosaic
The veins of the leaves will be cleared by the intervenal area becomes completely yellow or white.
The affected plants produce fruits with yellow or white colour and they are not fit to be marketed. The
virus is spread by whitefly (Bemisia tabaci).
Control:
 Application of chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml + neem oil 2 ml / lit. of water.
 Use synthetic pyrethroids should be used because it will aggravate the situation.
 For sowing during the summer season, when the whitefly activity is high, the susceptible varieties
should be avoided.
 By selecting varieties resistant to yellow vein mosaic like Parbhani Kranti, Arka Abhay (IIHR
Sel.4), Arka Anamika (IIHR Sel.10), Co.3 and Varsha Uphar, the incidence of the disease can be
minimized.
 Even in these varieties, when a plant starts exhibiting symptom of the disease, it should be pulled out
immediately and burnt by which the spread of the disease can be prevented.
 Control the vector is only the way by spraying systemic insecticide, like rogar, Ekatox, Dimecron,
metasystox, destruction of host plant.
Seed production -
 No special Agronomical practices need to be followed for the crop raised for seed production.
 Offen cross pollinated crop, so 200 m isolation distance should be kept between two varieties.
 Roguing should be done before flowering.
 At beginning 2 to 3 picking should be done for getting seed so that full crop bears and good
quality.
 The seed crop should be sown before the on set of monsoon with a spacing of 60x30 cm.
 The mature fruits should be harvested periodically before the fruits burst from the top, then kept
for drying up to one week, then threshed, cleaned and store at dry cool place. The seeds remain
viable for two years under ordinary conditions.

21
Yield - An average seed yield is 1.2 to 1.5 t/ha (Maximum up to 2.7 t/h).

22
CUCURBITS:
Crops belonging to family Cucurbitaceae are generally known as “Cucurbits”.
Cucurbits are the largest group of summer vegetables crops belonging to the family
cucurbitaceous. Most of the cucurbits are monocious in nature except coccinia and pointed
gourd (Parval) which are diocious. A number of hermaphrodite and andromonocious
cultivars are also available in some crops (melons). Fruit is botanically Pepo. The cultural
requirements of all crops in this group are more or less similar.
Important features of cucurbitaceous vegetable crops:
1. Most of cucurbits are monoecious and annual in habit except pointed gourd, kakrol,
kartoli, little gourd etc. are dioecious and perennial in nature. Dioecious cucurbits require
female to male ratio of 10: 1 for proper pollination and fruit setting.
2. Almost all cucurbits require warm climate, well drained soil, they are sensitive to water
logging and freezing temperature.
3. Usually they are vine crop. However bush type is also available. Most of the cucurbits
grow vigorously on the ground and produce more yields. However few crops respond well
training on bowers; they are bottle gourd, bitter gourd, kartoli, sponge gourd.
4. Almost all cucurbits are mainly propagated by seeds except pointed gourd and little Gourd,
kartoli, kakrol which are propagated by vegetative means. Pointed gourd and little gourd
are propagated by stem cuttings where as kakrol, kartoli are propagated mainly by
tuberous roots.
5. Most of the member of Cucurbitaceae family contains Cucurbitacin, a bitter glucoside.
Which is not poisonous but even its slight presence effects the taste and quality. The
plants of such fruits should be uprooted. Its highest concentration is in fruits and roots and
is less in leaves. Pollen grain also carries fairly good amount of bitter principles. When a
non bitter ovule is fertilized with a bitter pollen grain, resultant fruit is bitter and the
phenomenon is known as Metaxenia.
6. All cucurbits belong to the Cucurbitaceae family, but they are different in genera.
7. The cucurbits are grown for their ripe and unripe fruits.
8. The fruits are used as desert (water melon, muskmelon), in pickles and green vegetables
(cucumber, pointed gourd, little gourd) and in sweets (ash gourd and pumpkin).
9. The cucurbits do not require highly fertile soils and can successfully be grown in marginal
soils. These crops are also cultivated on the river banks.
10. The question of sex expression and sex ratio is of great interest in most of the crops
which have monoecious plants. They bear male and female flower separately on the same
plants. Generally male flowers more and less female flowers.
11. In Gujarat, cucurbits are cultivated in area of 52809 hector, while its production is 7.66
lakh MT and its productivity 14.51 MT/ha. The major cucurbits producing districts of
Gujarat are Navsari, S.K., Valsad, Vadodra, Ahmedabad, B.K., Bharuch and Anand.
Sex expression in cucurbits:
 Being a monoecious crop, cucumber bears male and female flowers separately on the
same plant. Generally number of male flower is more than the number of female
flowers.
 It is desirable to have high female to male ratio.
 It has been observed that male flowers appear earlier and the female flowers later.
 The female to male ratio goes on increasing with the age of plant. Though the sex
expression and sex ratio are varietals characters, they are modified by environment.
 Low humidity accelerates the appearance of staminate flowers, while high humidity
hastens the formation of pistillate flowers.

23
  Lower fertility, higher temperature, longer light period all induce maleness.
 Gibberellic acid at higher concentrations induces maleness but at lower
concentration of 10 to 25 ppm increases the number of female flowers.
 Two spray one at two leaf stage and second at four leaf stage with 25 to 100 ppm
MH ( Maleic hydrazide), 100 ppm NAA or Etherel, 3 ppm boron can suppress the
number of male flowers and increase the number of female flowers, fruit set and
yield.
 The caffeic acid treatment 50 ppm followed by low temperature exposure was found
most in inducing femaleness in cucumber.

Bottle gourd - Lauki, Ghiya, Dhudhi

B.N : Lagenaria siceraria (Mol) Standl
Family : Cucurbitaceae
Origin : Africa and India
Local name Lauki, Doodhi, ghia
Pollination Cross pollinated crop
Chromosome no. :2n=22
Introduction: Very important crop in India available in the market from February to November.
The bottle like shape of the fruit and in the past, it's used as a container of wines and spirits gave
it the common name of "bottle gourd." It is also known as white flowered gourd. It is most
drought hardy crop.
Uses: Fruits are use as vegetable and in preparations of some sweets, rayata. The hard-shell of
fruit use as water jugs, utensils, making musical instruments, fishing nets etc.
Medicinal use: It has a cooling effect and prevents constipation. It is easily digestible. During
the hot season, the cut surface of small sized fruit is rubbed on the feet and hands to diminish the
effect of heat.
The bottle gourd contains vitamin B. It is very good source of fibre free carbohydrates.
Climates: Hot and moist climate is favourable for its cultivation. It is highly susceptible to frost.
High rainfall and cloudy weather promotes the infestation of diseases and pests. The average
temp for growth would be around 30-35oC.
Soil - It can be grown almost in any type of soil but sandy loam soils are best suited for its
cultivation. Water logged soils are not fit for this crop. It does well in pH range of 5.5 to 7.0
Alkaline soils with high salt is not suitable.
Varieties - Junagadh long tender, Anand Dudhi-1, Pattivali (Local), Pusa summer prolific long,
Pusa summer prolific round, Akra bahar ( IIHR- Bangalore), Varad (MHYCo),Pusa Naveen,
Pusa Meghdoot, Pusa Manjari (hybrid), Punjab long , Kalyanpur tender long, Punjab Komal.
ABG-1: released by AAU during 2005
Spacing – 2 m x 1m, 1.5 m x 0.90m
Sowing method - 1. Flat bed 2. Raise bed 3. Trenches 4. Ridge & Furrow 5. Pit method.
Sowing of seeds- First 3 to 4 seeds are sown per hill & then at two leaf stage & four leaf stage it
should be thin out & kept only one plant per hill.
Seed rate - 2.5 to 3.0 kg/ha
Manures and Fertilizer - 20 to 25 t/ha well rooted FYM should be incorporate during soil
preparation
Chemical fertilizers - N P2O5 K2 O {kg /ha}
50 50 50 As a basal
50 0 0 30 DAS
Total 100 50 50

24
Irrigation - In Kharif or rainy season crop need not any irrigation. In summer 5 to 7 days
interval should be kept.
Interculturing & weed control - In early stage the crop should be intercultural two to three
times to keep down weeds & growing conditions in good conditions.
Training: The vines of crop are trained to spread on bower made from wire and bamboo sticks.
It prevents the fruit from rotting and allows the vines and foliage better expose to air and light.
The marketable fruit yield increase about 30-35 % in this system of training.
Use of Growth Regulators for increasing the yield - Two spray - One at two leaf stage &
second at four leaf stages with malic hydrazide (MH)-150 ppm or and 2-3-5 triodo benzoic acid
(TIBA) at 50 ppm or Boron at 3 ppm & calcium at 20 ppm can increase the number of female
flowers, fruit set & ultimate the yield.
Harvesting: The maturity index for harvesting bottle gourd is less pubescence. The fruits are
use in tender form & the seeds are soft. It can be judge by pressing the skin. Smaller tender fruits
fetch good market price. It may be harvested 55-75 days after sowing. The fruit should be
harvested within 3 days of the shedding of the small hairs present on the skin. The fruit should
be harvested every alternate day by cutting the stalk with knife. After this stage, the colour of the
fruit skin starts becoming white, fruit rind hardens and seed coat also becomes hard and unfit for
eating.
Yield - 20 to 25 t/ha with good management. Hybrid -30t/ha.
Plant Protection:
Pest and disease
Pest - Red pumpkin beetle, Aphids, fruit fly, Nematodes.
Red pumpkin beetle - Control - spray - Sevin -0.1 to 0.2 % or Rogar -0.1 to 0.2%
Aphid - Control- Spray malathion -0.1% or Metasystox 0.1 to 0.2 % Rogor 0.1 to 0.2 %
Furit fly - Serious pests
Control - Use light trap for adult spray baits containing sex attractant -like Protein hydrolysate
0.5 kg + 1.25 kg Mahathion 50 +200g Molasses or Endosulphan -6 ml / 4.5 lit of water
Disease- Powdery mildew, Downy mildew, Anthracnose, Fusarium wilt, Virus disease.
1. Powdery mildew - Fungal disease.
Karathene, Bavistin , cosan, colixin etc. Use to control it karathne 6g/10 lit, Bavistin 1g/lit,
spray at begins the disease & repeated up to 2 to 3 times at weekly. Refi. sulpher 0.4% / or
Dynocap 0.025% spray at 15 days interval VRSC 1997 prof. pla. patho. Anand.
Water melon
B.N. : Citrullus lanatus
Family: Cucrbitaceae
Origin: South Africa
Chromosome no: 2n = 22
Introduction and Uses: Water melon contains 95% of water and is a richest iron containing
cucurbitaceous crop. Most of cultivars have deep pink or pale pink coloured flesh which largely
out lycopene and anthocyanin pigments. Very common summer crop. Fruit is delicious and
sweet when ripe, very seldom cooked as vegetable but mostly used as desert fruit. It is rich in
iron, seeds are rich in protein. Its fresh juice with salt and pepper is used as cool and refreshing
drink during summer season.
Soil : Can be grown on a wide variety of soil ranging from high sandy loam to clay loam.
Generally it is cultivated on riverbeds. It does not thrive in water logging condition. The
optimum pH range is 5.5 to 7.0. It can be grown in extremely sandy soil where other crops can
not be grown successfully.
Climate: Warm season crop so cannot with stand frost & needs long growing season with a

25
relatively high temperature. Seeds does not germinated below 21o C ( Temp below 4.5o C cause
damage to young plant. Foliage diseases are more destructive to humid regions. The optimum
temperature for satisfactory growth is 25 to 30o C. Dry weather with high temp & enough
sunshine & dry wind favours good development of flavour and sweetness at the time of
ripening. High sugar reduces the chances of foliage diseases.
Varities: - Ashai Yamato, Sugar baby, Pusa Bedana (seedless), Madhu, Arka Manik, Arka jyoti,
Durga pura keshar, Indra - Seedless, round, early.
Sowing time - Last week of January to first week of February.
Spacing - 2 m x 1m, 2.5m x 1m
Seed rate - 4 to 6 kg/ha
Sowing method: Sowing may be done on raised beds. Furrows or pits. Direct sowing is also
practiced. 2 seeds per hill on both sides of raised beds and 3 to 4 seed per hill in case of river
beds are sown. In case of pit method 60 cm3 pits are dug. 4 seeds per pit are sown.
Manure and Fertilizer - FYM 8-10 t/ha
N P2O5 K2 O (kg/ha)
75 50 50 Basal
75 0 0 30 DAS
Total: 150 50 50
Thinning - In beginning 3 to 5 seeds are sown then after only one plant per hill should be kept.
Irrigation - Crop needs plenty of moisture in early stage. The crop should be weekly irrigated
till the fruits set & beds are covered with vine. Then may be slight longer interval and when
fruits start ripening watering may be stopped.
Interculture and weed control - Two to three inter culturing, hand weeding is sufficient.
Sex modification:
 Application of 2-4-5 tri- iodobenzoic acid (TIBA) at 25 to 50 ppm once at two leaf stage
and second at four leaf stage induce a large number of female flowers, increase fruits set
and ultimately yield.
 Boron and molybdenum at 3 ppm and Ca at 20 ppm also very effective in increasing
number of female flowers, increase fruits set and ultimately yield.
Harvesting - It is very important that water melon should be harvested at proper maturity stage.
Maturity sings / Maturity indices for water melon.
1. Dull sound when fruit is thumb with finger
2. Withering of tendrils at fruit axils
3. Ground spot (Where the fruit touches to the ground) turning yellow from white.
4. Absence of hair on (stalk) stems which attaches melon to vine.
5. The rind of ripe melon yields less pressure for puncture.
Yield - 25 to 30 t/ha

CHAPTER V : Cole crops

This group includes cabbage, cauliflower, knolkhol, Broccoli, Brussels sprout and
Chinese cabbage. This is a very important winter season vegetables. All the crops are hardy
thrive best in cool weather except some acclimatized early cauliflower varieties. All the crops of
this group developed from the wild clift cabbage known as "cole worts" from which the 'word'
Cole is derived. They all belong to the same family cruciferae (Brasicaceae) and genus Brassica.
They have many things in common in their cultural practices. When raised under warm
conditions, the produce becomes markedly pungent due to development of glucoside called
sinigrin which contains sulphur.

26
 Except some forms of cauliflower, it require cool climate to flower and set seeds. India
is the leading producer of Cabbage & cauliflower in the world.
Medicinal uses - Cole crops are used against diarrhoea, stomach troubles, deafness and
headache.
Nutritive value: Cole crops are rich in vit. A and C and contains minerals P, K, Ca, S and Fe.
Cabbage
B.N : Brassica oleracea var. capitata
Family : Cruciferae (Brasicaceae)
Origin : Western Europe
Chromosome no.: 2n=18
Local name : Bandh gobhi, Karam Kalla, Kobee, Patagobhy
Pollination: Cross pollination
Introduction:
Cabbage is one of the most popular temperate vegetables and occupies fourth position among
vegetables in India as well as world. It is hardy, cool season crop. It is herbaceous annual for
vegetables, whereas for seed production it is biennial. The edible portion which is made up of
numerous thick overlapping smooth leaves covering a terminal bud is known as 'Head'. In
India, It was introduced by Portuguese & popularized by Britishers. It is rich in Vitamin A, B,
B2 and C. Young and tender leaves are rich in Vitamin A as compared to old leaves.
India rank second for producing cabbage in the world and its share is 13 % in total
world production. In India, cabbage is cultivated in area of 3.69 lakh hector, while its
production is 79.5 lakh MT and its productivity 21.5 MT/hector. The major producing state of
India for cabbage are West Bangal, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, Gujarat, Jharkhand, A.P.,
Maharastra Chattisgarh, Haryana and Karnataka. Among this, West Bangal is rank first for
cabbage production. Its share is about 27 %. (Indian Horticulture Database, NHB 2010-11)
In Gujarat, cabbage is occupy about 28204 hector area and its production 5.53 lakh MT and
productivity 19.63 MT/ha. The major producing district of Gujarat for cabbage is Banaskantha
and Sabarkantha. Gujarat rank fifth position for cabbage production and its share 7 % in Total
India cabbage production.
Uses: Cabbage is mostly used for culinary purposes. Commonly use as vegetable, nice pickle
can be prepared, used for making good salad with tomato, green chilli, Capsicum, beetroot,
carrot etc. & also dehydrated, juice soup. It is used for pickling. Cabbage pickle is called as
Sauerkraut. It is used to cure scurvy. In advanced countries, it is used for feeding livestock and
chicken as well. The flavour and taste in cabbage is due to "Sinigrin glucoside" which is
purgative.
Medicinal uses- Cabbage prevents constipation, increase digestion and appetite, It is said be
good for persons suffering from diabetes, cabbage juice is a good remedy for poisonous
mushrooms. Cabbage is useful in urine disorder.
Varieties: Most of the varieties recommended are introduced from abroad. Some of them are
most popular even today e.g. Golden Acre, Pride of India.
Cabbages varieties commonly grow are classified in to three groups (1) White cabbage (2) Red
cabbage (3) Savoy cabbage. Among these white grown on large scale. They are also divided on
the bases of shape e.g. Round shape, flat shape, conical & Savoy of this round shape grown on
large scale.
They are also divided in to three groups on the bases of maturity period.
1. Early mature within 60 to 70 days.

27
 Varieties: - Golden Acre, Early Drumhead, Copenhagen market, Pride of India, Pusa
Mukta, Pusa sumbandh (Hybrid)
2. Mid season - Mature within 80 to 90 days
Varieties:- All head early, Wisconsin, All green
3. Late season - Mature within 90 to 120 days
Varieties: - Pusa drum head, Tanish ball head, Red Cabbage, Pusa Ageti (High temp.)
Climate: Cool season crop with stand much cold moist and even in frost. High temp is not
suited. It requires mean annual temperature of 15 – 220 C. It can tolerate frost to a great extent
better than cauliflower.Optimum seeds germination is done at 12 to 16oC. Above 25oC, the
growth is stunted.
Soil: Can be grown on all types of soil. It preferred sandy loam soil. Early crops can be taken on
light soils while late on heavy soils in which plants grow slowly. The optimum pH is about 6 to
6.5. The soil should be rich in organic matter and well drained
Sowing of seeds : Early - August to September
Mid season – October-November
Late crop – December - January.
Seed rate: 400 to 500 gram for early variety and 300 to 400 g. for medium and late variety.
Nursery: The nursery soil is preferred to fine tilth. Raised beds are prepared to a height of 10-
15 cm and an area of 60 – 80 sq. m nursery is sufficient for one acre. In nursery beds are sown
in lines. Beds are covered with organic manures with increase in temperature promotes early
germination, water is sprinkled.
Transplanting: It should be done in the evening and the field should be immediately irrigated
after T.P. is completed. Healthy and stocky seedling of 4 to 5 weeks old should be selected for
transplanting.
Spacing: Early variety: 45 cm x 45cm or 60cm x 30 cm.
Midseason - 60cm x 45cm ,
Late season- 60cm x 45cm or 60cm x 60cm.
Manures and fertilizers- 15 to 20 T/h. F.Y.M should be incorporate during soil preparations
N P2O5 K2 O (kg/ha)
0 75 37.5 as a basal dose
100 0 0 After 20 DAT
100 0 0 After 40 DAT
Total 200 75 37.5
Irrigation: Light irrigation should be given soon after T.P. and then 10 to 15 days interval
should be kept according to soil and weather. The critical period is head forming and head
developing so the optimum moisture should be maintained by frequent and light irrigations.
Uneven irrigation causes head bursting or splitting.
Weed control - The heavy manuring and frequent irrigation provides good conditions for weed
growth. Hand weeding is not economic. The crop is shallow rooted so deep ploughing is not
advisable. So chemical weed control is the only way.
Most of the weeds can be controlled by pre-emergence application of fluchloralin @ 1.2
kg a.i. /hect or alachlor @ 2.5 kg per hector is sufficient.
Harvesting : The cabbage heads should be harvested when they attain full size and are solid.
It should be usually done cutting the heads with the help of sickle or long knife, outer leaves are
removed. The best time for harvesting is in the afternoon or early in the morning. If the
harvesting is not done at correct maturity time then the heads burst or split and lose their market
value. The early crop may require 2-3 cutting whereas the late crop should be harvested only in
one operation. Entire plant is uprooted the heads are detached only heads are cut leaving stump

28
in field when the crop is meant for seed production.
Yield - The average yield is about 25 to 30 t/h for Early and 35 to 40 t/h. for mid and late
season cultivar
Disease: Damping off: Black rot, Leaf spot and blight, Wire stem, Club root, Root knot
Insect: Mustard saw fly, Mustard aphids, Diamond black moth, Cabbage butterfly
Premature seeding or bolting - Means the formation of seed stalk before the formation of head
or the failure of the leaves to form a solid head. This is the common defect in early cultivars to
the growers.
Causes :
 Early sowing of crop, high temp during seedling raising.
 Cool season some time season is not cool during growing period results in poor growth
and fail to form heads.
 Extreme changes in temperature results in bolting or fail to form heads.
 Poor growth of seedlings.
 Varietal character
 Check on the growth of plants in seedbed.
 Poor of seed vitality
 Poor soil
 Failure to control – weeds, insects and disease, pest at proper time.
 Lack of proper manuring
 Influence of heredity.
Remedy :
 Use variety resistant to bolting
 Avoid early planting
Cabbage seed production:
In plains – no var. produce seeds. Only it produces seeds in hills of India.
- Seed yield: 500-650 kg/ha.
- Cross pollinated crops
Four methods used for seed production of cabbage.
1. Head intact method / Head to seed method:
Only a cross cut given to facilitate the emergence of flower stalk.
2. The core intact method: outside leaves removed and only central portion left from where
flowers stalk-out.
3. The stump method: head removed and fully the stump left
4. Seed to seed method.
The core intact and stump method give higher yield of seed.
Cauliflower ( Syn. Phool Gobhi, Ful kobi, Fulawar)
B.N : Brassica oleracea Var. Botrytis
Family : Cruciferae (Brasicaceae)
Origin : Sea coast of Greece to England or Cyprus or Denmark.
Chromosome no.: 2n=18
Pollination: Cross pollination
Introduction: Cauliflower is the most important winter season vegetable in India. It has high
quality protein and Vit. 'C' content which are survived after cooking. It is thermo-sensitive crop.

29
 The name cauliflower originates from the Latin words Caulis and Floris means cabbage
and flower.
India is rank second for producing cauliflower in the world and its share is 36 % in total
world production. In India, cauliflower is cultivated in area of 3.7 lakh hector, while its
production is 67.5 lakh MT and its productivity 18.3 MT/hector. The major producing state of
India for cauliflower are West Bangal, Bihar, Haryana, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Assam,
Chattisgarh, Maharastra, M.P. and U.P. Among this, West Bangal is rank first for cauliflower
production. Its share is about 19 %. With the development of new varieties, it is now being
cultivated in non-traditional areas like, A.P., T.N., and Kerala. (Indian Horticulture Database,
NHB 2010-11)
In Gujarat, cauliflower is occupy about 21100 hector area and its production 3.87 lakh
MT and productivity 18.4 MT/ha. The major producing district of Gujarat for cauliflower is
Banaskantha and Sabarkantha. Gujarat rank fifth position for cauliflower production and its
share 6 % in Total India cauliflower production.
Importance and uses: Its white tender head or curd is formed by the flower primordial, which
are used as vegetable in curries, soups, and for pickling. It is cooked alone or mixed with
potatoes. Leaves are used for feeding animals.
Varieties :
Type of Time of Duration of Improved Varieties
variety transplanting production
Very Early II Fortnight of September- Early Kunvari group, Pusa Early
July October Synthetic.
Early August October- Kartiki group, Pusa katki, Pusa deepali,
November S-235.
Medium September Nov. Dec. Aghani group, Improved Japanese, Hisar-
Season/ 2, Pus Synthetic, Pant Subhra.
Normal
Medium Late October December- Giant Snow-ball
January
Late November January- Snow-ball-16, Pusa Snow-ball-1,
February Pusa Snow-ball-2, Pusa Seedless, Hisar-1
Climate: Cauliflower is more exactly climatic requirement than cabbage or broccoli. It is quite
responsive to temperature and photoperiod and has specific temperature according to variety.
The average optimum monthly temperature is 15-20OC with the average maximum at 25 OC and
the minimum at 8 OC. Early variety requires higher temperature in short days. At relatively
lower temperature the curds of early varieties become ricy, leafy, loose and yellow resulting in
poor quality. At relatively lower temperature the curds of late varieties remains under sized or
small, showing some signs of bolting. In hot dry weather, the curd becomes small and hard.
Thus it is very essential that the early, main and late varieties are planted at proper time.
Soil : It can be grown on variety of soil provided with rich in nutrient and have adequate
moisture possess a good drainage and also contain a plenty of organic matter. Sandy loam soils
are preferred for early crops while, loams and clay loams are preferred for late crop. Cauliflower
grows best on neutral slightly acidic soils, i.e. at pH-6 to 7. If the pH is below 5.5 liming should
be done at the rate of 5 to 10 quintals/ ha for successful crop.
Spacing :- Early - 45 x 45 cm Mid/late - 60 x 45 cm Late- 90 x 45 to 60 cm
Seed rate: 500 gram per hector
Transplanting - same as per cabbage.

30
Manures and fertilizers- 15 to 20 T/h. F.Y.M should be incorporate during soil preparations
N P2O5 K2 O (kg/ha)
0 75 37.5 as a basal dose
100 0 0 After 20 DAT
100 0 0 After 40 DAT
Total 200 75 37.5
Irrigation - Light but frequent irrigation should be given water should not be allow to stagnate.
 Irrigation should be constantly supplied to ensure continuous growth.
 Irrigation should be given after every 8 to 10 days to the early crops and 5 to 6 days to the
late crops.
 At the time of curd formation the crop should again be watered at close intervals.
Gap filling - 7 to 10 days after transplanting gap filling should be done so that plant stand is
maintained properly.
Interculture: The crop is shallow rooted only shallow digging by hand tools provides good
environment to the crop and keeps the weeds down.
Weed control - As per (cabbage)
Blanching: Blanching is an essential operation to protect the heads from sun burning and
yellowing so that they may not loose the part of flavour and attractive appearance. This
operation may be done by drawing and tying the tips of the leaves when the curds are formed.
This will induce milky white colour to the curd which may sell at premium price in the market.
Blanching should be done when the curds has grown fully. The period of blanching in hot
weather is not exceed 3 to 5 days while for cool weather is up to week. Most of late types of
variety have self blanched habit. The Pusa Himjyoti has self blanched habit.
Prolonged period of blanching in hot weather results in rotting and discoloration of
curds and in cool weather curds begins to bolt and become ricey/ branched. Mostly late
maturing varieties are self blanching. So there is no need of blanching.
Harvesting - When the curd has reach to fully developed stage. The curd should be compact.
All the curds are not ready for harvest at a time. So inspect the whole field every third day and
harvest the mature curd. The harvesting should be done during morning or evening time so that
the curds may keep fresh.
According to variety the curds are ready to harvest in 60 to 70 day (Early) 90 to 100
days in midseason and 110 to120 days in late cvs. after transplanting.
Perfect curds - the curd or heads in which the parts are well arranged so that it looks almost
homogenous and have milky white colour.
Yield - The average yield is about 25 to 50 t/h, may vary according to soils, climate, variety.
The yield is slightly higher in late and mid season varieties than early.
Physiological disorder
I Browing : ( Due to boron deficiency.)
Symptoms : Water socked are's appeared on stem and on curds . It is associated with hallow
stems, change colour of leaves thickening, brittleness and down curling of older leaves.
Remedy - Application of borax at the rate of 10 to 15 kg/ha in acid soils. or o.25 to 0.50 %
solution of (1 to 2 kg /hact.) borex spray in acute conditions covered the disorder.
II Whiptail:
Causes - Due to molybdenum deficiency and occures in acid soils (below 5 pH).The leaf
blades do not develops properly and may be strap-like. In severe case only the midribs develop.
Which account for the name 'whiptail'
Remedy -
1. Apply 2.5 kg sodium or anonium molybdenum per hectare

31
 2. Raise soil pH up to 6.5
III Blindness - Means the plants does not bear curd. The leaves become large thick leathery
and dark green colour.
Causes : 1. Low temp when, plants small. 2. Damage accurse to terminal bud during handling
or due to insect damage.
Remedy : 1. Avoid injury due to low temp. 2. Care should be taken during handling and
transplanting. 3. Take proper care for insect/ pest damage.
IV. Ricyness / Fuzziness - Due to elongation of Receyness and peduncles in flowers.
Cause - Due to high temp and poor quality seeds.
V. Leafyness / Bracting - Formation of small thin leaves from the curds. Which reduce
quality of curds.
Cause - Due to high temp.
VI.-- Hollow stem - Due to boron deficiency ands higher supply of N2
VII. Buttoning: Due to deficiency of nitrogen and causes small curds called buttons. This can
be controlled by application of proper nitrogen doses.
Disease and pest: As per the cabbage
Cauliflower seed production:
The seeds of early and mild season cvs. can easily be prepared in plains while the late
cultivars do not form the seed stalks in plain due to not fulfilled the chilling requirements.
Removal of central portion of curd for easier initiation of flower stalk in cauliflower is called
scooping.
1. Crops is cross pollinated maintain 1600 m- Isolation distance between two cvs. and
cabbage knolkhol or other cruciferous crops
2. Provide long duration for growth. Transplant seedling during beginning of September,
3. Apply N2 in three splits i.e. a. First at transplanting. b. Second during crop growth phase
(Vege-phase) c. Third at commencement of flowering.
4. Select- Well developed compact curds infield. Rogue out all poorly developed and off
type plants.
5. Irrigate crop at regular interval & pod formation.
6. Make horizontal cuts in curds to induce easily flower stalks.
7. Controlled pests and disease. 8. Rogue out infected plants.
9. Harvest fully ripens plants, threshed out clean and stored at cool dry place.
Yield - 500 to 600 kg / ha from early maturing 300 to 400 kg/ha from late maturing varieties.

TUBER :
Tuber crops are an important group of subsistence crops in tropical and subtropical zones.
Carbohydrates synthesised and stored in the form of starch in underground tubers are used as food by
millions in under developed countries. It is also used as raw material by many industries. Potato, sweet
potato, elephant foot yam, tapioca and yam are major tuber crops grown in India.
Tuber crops are mainly grown as rainfed with minimum cost of production. All are propagated
by vegetative means and require fertile and well drained loose soil for root development. All tuber
crops require high dose of potassium for high productivity.

POTATO
B.N. Solanum tuberosum L.
Family : Solanaceae
Origin : South America (peru, Boliva)

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Chromosome No: 2n=4x=48
Mode of pollination: Self pollination
Introduction: Potato is the nature's gift. It is also known as "King of Vegetables". Potato is one of the
important rabi crops of our country. Potatoes are an economical food since they provide a source of low
cost energy to the human diet. It is the only non-cereal crop which is considered as a major crop in the
world. It is 4th major food of the world after rice, wheat and maize. China rank first for area and
production in the world. India rank second position (19.9 %) in producing potato in the world. In India,
it is cultivated an area of 18.63 lakh hector and its production is 423 lakh M.T. and productivity 22.7
M.T./ha (Indian Horticulture Database, NHB 2010-11). The major producing states of India are W. B.,
U.P, Bihar, Punjab and Gujarat.
Gujarat rank fifth position for potato production. But, Gujarat state has highest productivity for
potato crop i.e. 28.81 M.T./ha. It is cultivated both under plain fields as well as riverbed conditions in
Gujarat state. In India Gujarat is considered to be very famous for its unique cultivation of potato in
riverbed, not only that it thrive best in riverbeds but also for good potential in plains which is around
50 to 55 t/h. The major producing districts of Gujarat are B.K., S.K., Anand and Kheda.
CPRI (Central Potato Research Institute) was established in year 1949 at Simla (H.P.)
Importance and Uses: Potatoes are mainly used for vegetables alone or mixed with other vegetables.
It is also used for several industrial purposes such as production of starch and alcohol. Its starch is used
in Laundries and for sizing yarn in textile mills. Potatoes are also used for the production of dextrin and
glucose. As a food product itself, these are converted into dried products such as potato chips and
sliced.
It is rich source of starch and vitamins, especially C and B1. The chemical present in potato is
solanin (5mg/100g) if it increase grater that 20mg/100g, the potato is unfit for consumption.
Medicinal value: Potato is good for patients suffering from high blood pressure owing to presence of
potassium and small amount of sodium.
Botany: The underground stem of the potato is known as stolen. At the end of the stolen the tubers are
developed. An enlarged underground modified stem produced at the end of the stolen is called tuber.
The tuber arises as a terminal enlargement of the stolen and usually enlarges after the stolen has ceased
to grow.

33
Climatic requirement - It is a cool season crop. It thrives best in cool regions. Satisfactory tuber
occurs if soil temperature is between 17-190 C. Higher soil temp. adversely affect the tuber
development. Most of the variety do not tuberize when more than 23 0 C temp.
Soil: The potato can be grown almost on any type of soils. Excellent potato can be grown under the
riverbed system of cultivation. The ideal soil for potato is well drained, well aerated, and deep and
having pH range of 5.2 to 6.4, Alkaline soils creates favourable conditions for scab diseased. Heavy
black sticky soils not suitable for this crop. Harvesting is also difficult in this type of soil.
Potato varieties :
Early maturing variety (78-80days): Kufri Chandra Mukhi, Kufri Bahar, Kufri Alankar, Kufri
Lovkar, Kufri Jyoti Mid Duration (90-100 days): Kufri Badshah, Kufri Shreeman, Kufri Lalima,
Kufri Ashok, Kufri Jawahar, Kufri Chipsona-1, Kufri Chipsona-2, Kufri Giriraj, Kufri Pukhraj, Kufri
Anand
Late duration (100-110): Kufri Dewa, Kufri Sinduri
Kufri Chipsona I and II are suitable for processing purpose.
Planting:
i. Propagation: Potato is propagated through tubers which have a dormancy of 8-10 weeks. Eyes on
surface of tubers have axillary buds. Sprouted tubers when used for planting put up fast and vigorous
growth. To increase sprouting, tubers are taken out from cold storage 10-15 days before planting and
kept in pre-cooling chamber for 24 hrs.
ii. Selection of seed tuber:
1. The seed tuber should be tree from any seed borne disease ( Brown rot, common scab,
Rhizoctonia)
2. It is free from mixtures of two or more varieties.
3. It should be firm and sound with sprouts.
4. It has the size of 4 to 5 cm in diameter and 40 to 50 gram. by wt. (25 gram. recommended by
Deesa centre)
5. Injured or damage tuber should be rejected.
6. The seed tubers are used after the dormant period is over.
7. Used only certified seeds.
iii. Seed treatment: For planting the crop, the seed potatoes, after removing from the cold storage, be
kept in a cool and shady for one to two weeks to allow the emergence of sprouts. The sprouted tubers
should be used as planting material. Both whole and cut tubers should be treated with 0.25%
Aretan/Tafasan(6 % Mercury) solution for at least two minutes against black scruff disease and rotting
of seed potatoes. Dipping of cut seed tubers in 0.5% Dithane M-45 for ten minutes is also effective in
avoiding rotting in early planting.
iv. Planting time: 2nd fortnight of November.
v. Methods of planting:
a. Planting on ridges
b. Flat method
Depth of planting: 15 cm.
v. Seed rate: 3000kg/hector
vi. Spacing: 45 x 15-20

34
True Potato seed: Nearly 40 % of total production of potato cultivation is for seed tubers. Bulky
nature of tubers is a problem for transportation and it increases seed cost considerably. Transmission of
viral diseases through tubers is another disadvantage. To avoid above, the concept of true potato seed
(TPS) was evolved.
TPS is required only at a small quantity, 100-150 g/ha compared to 1000-1500 kg/ha by tubers.
TPS is also fret from viral disease and by using TPS, storage loss of seed tubers can be avoided.
For production of TPS, parental lines are planted as summer crop in north Indian hills. In plains, extra
light 4-5 hours in the end of the day during December-January by 150 W sodium lamps is provided for
flowering. Male and female parents are should flower profusely and should be highly fertile with
abundant pollen grains. Female lines should be male fertile. Both male and female parents are planted
side in the ratio of 1:4 in same block and are artificially pollinated. For both parents, tubers of 30g
weight are planted. Female flowers are pollinated by applying pollen grains on stigma using a brush.
Well developed berries are collected 40-50 days after pollination and allowed to ripe at room
temp for 2-3 weeks. Seeds after extraction are treated with 10 % hydrochloric acid with continuous
stirring for 20 min.
To break dormancy of extracted seeds, TPS is soaked in GA3 (2000ppm) solution for 48hrs. Seeds are
later dried and sown in nursery bed. Seedlings are transplanted to main field at 4-5 leaf stage.
TPS has not become popular due to heterogeneous nature of progenies and practical difficulties
in crop raising. This is currently employed for development and exchange of varieties among research
institutes.
Manures and Fertilizer - manures 25-30t/h F.Y.M should be incorporate during soil preparation.
Fertilizer : N P K ( kg/ha )
110 110 220 as a basal dose
110 0 0 After 35 days from planting or before first earthing up
Total 220 110 220
Irrigation - First irrigation should be given when tubers are sprouted then subsequent irrigation should
be given at an interval of 10-12 as per requirement, for light sandy soil 6 to 8.
Earthing up- It is the essential operation in potato crop to provide optimum conditions for
tuberization. Earthing up should be done in such a way that adequate amount of soil remains to cover
the tubers. First earthing up should be done at 30 to 35 days after planting to provide optimum space
for tuberization and the second one 25 to 30 days after first to cover the expose tubers there by
preventing greening effects, frost damage and entrance of light spore in tuber. Also, It is always better
to do earthing up at the time of top dressing of N2 fertilizer. This operation may also be followed by
light irrigation because it helps in establishing the roots which have been already disturbed during
earthing up.
Harvesting (Digging) - Potato crop is harvested when leaves and stems are dried. It is ready for
harvest 3 to 4 month after planting. The haulms are cut from top of the ridges to harden the skin to
prolong keeping quality. Then tubers are dug out after 10 to 20 days depending upon the type of soil
and its moisture content. Care should be taken to avoid injury to the tubers. It is also harvested by
potato digger.
Yield - Early variety: 20 t/h. Late variety: 35 to 50 t/h

35
 Storage: The best method is cold storage, but unfortunately the number of cold storage plants is limited
in India. So the local and indigenous methods are applied by farmers. Generally two methods are
adopted. 1. Room storage 2. Pit storage.
1 Room storage - Room should have a high plinth and good ventilation. The doors and ventilators
should be fitted with insect proof wire nets. Potato should be stored in single layers on sand. Frequent
examination is necessary to discard tuber shows rotting symptoms.
2 Pit storage - In these systems, tubers are spread in pits 60 to 75 cm. deep and 2.5 m long and 1 m
wide. The pit should be at cool, shady place, water is sprinkler in side the pit to cool it. After two days
neem leaves, dry grass or sugar care trace is lined all around the pit inside. Pits are then filled with
tuber leaving 15 cm on top followed by a 1feet layer of dry grass. A trench is provided over the pits as
protection from rain and sun.
3. Cold storage - This is the best method for storing potatoes. Temperature and humidity are regulated.
Best temp and humidity for potato is 2.2 to 3.3o C and 75 to 80 per cent relative humidity. Potato stored
at less than 0oC suffer from internal break down known as "Black heart" / hollow hearts Potatoes are
spread over the shelf to a thickness of not more than 30 cm individual shrives are about 45 cm high and
15 cm space is allowed between two layers.
Diseases:
Non parasitic diseases : Black or hollow heart, Frost damage, Freezing injury, Greening
Parasitic disease: Early blight, Late blight, Black scurf, Common scab of potato, Bacterial, Brown rot,
Black leg or soft rot, Charcoal rot
Insect/ pest: Cut warms, Epilackna beetles, Leaf eating catter pillars, Aphids, Jassids, Potato tuber
moth.
Spices:
Turmeric:
B.N. : Curcuma longa
C. arometica
C. domestica
Family: Zingiberaceae
Origin : South East Asia (India or Java)
Plant part use: Rhizome
Important chemical content: Curcumin- 5 to 6 %.
Essential oil: 0.24 %.
Uses : Powder of turmeric used as good colour and flavouring agents in vegetable, pickles
and meat preparation. (Green and dry turmeric used as seasoning purposes).
Mango Ginger:
Mango-ginger is botanically related to neither mango nor ginger, but to turmeric (Curcuma
longa). Morphologically mango-ginger plant is similar to turmeric, but has shorter crop
duration of six months. The rhizomes are pale yellow inside with lighter colour outside, have
sweet smell of unripe mango when crushed.

36
Uses: Stomachic, tonic, blood purifier and act as carminative. Also in used dental pain,
appetites, cough & antibiotic. Contain 'Curcumin' (5 - 6 %) a natural colour, used in dye
industries. The turmeric produced in Kerala especially in Earnakulum, Kottayam, Trichur &
Cannanore districts has high 'Curcumin' content. Powder use for manufacturing of cream
and cosmetic item. The volatile oil contains 'Turmenol' which is used in pharmaceutical
industries.
India : Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, T.N., M.S., Karnataka, Kerala and Gujarat (First three
states contributes 70 % area)
Gujarat: Panchmahal,Vadodara, Surat, Navsari and Anand.
Climate: Warm and humid, medium but long rainy season is excellent.
Soil : Can be grown on various soils. Thrives best in well drained, friable, rich sandy or clay
loam soils. Crop stands neither water logging nor alkalinity. 5 to 7.5 pH,
Varieties:
Released by G.A.U.: Sugandhum, Gujarat Turmeric – 1.
Released by N.A.U.: Gujarat Navsari Turmeric-1.
Releasedby IISR, Calicut : 'Sudarshana' &' Suguna', 'Prabha' & 'Prabtibha
HARS,Pottangi, Kerala: Ranga’, ‘Rashmi’,’Roma’& ‘Surama’
 Other varieties: 'Krishna', 'Kesar', 'Rajapuri', 'Roma' & 'Local'.
 Export oriented variety from India: Allepy turmeric (Best in World)
Planting:
 Propagation: It is propagated by Rhizome, especially by mother rhizome, Mother
rhizomes – 4 to 5 cm long, 30 g in wt., having one healthy bud. Select healthy well
developed well dried and disease free whole or split mother rhizomes and fingers are
also used for planting.
 Planting Time: April- May
 Seed Rate: 2000 - 2500 kg/ha rhizomes. Selected rhizomes are treated with 0.25 %
Agallol solution for 30 minutes, rhizomes sown at 5 to 7 cm depth.
 Planting distance : 30 x 20 cm or 20 x 20 cm or 30 x 30 cm, 30 x 15 cm
 Method of planting:
o Flat bed or raised bed
o Furrow method of planting

37
  Rhizome treatment: It is treated with slurry of cow dung for early sprouting of
rhizome.
Manure and fertilizers: 25-30 t/ha FYM
N P K kg/ha
30 + 60 + 60 Basal dose
30 + 0 + 0 60 DAP
Total 60 + 60 + 60 kg/ha
After care:
1. Weeding: 3 – 4 weedings are required at 60, 90, 120 and 150 days of planting. Weedings and
hoeings are done simultaneously.
2. Irrigation: First irrigation should be applied immediately after planting. Then Second one
after 3-4 days after first irrigation. As per need and soil type, it should be irrigated at 8-10
days interval. The crop is very susceptible to water logging, so, light irrigation is preferable.
3. Mulching:
Mulch with dry leaves thickly on which a layer of cow dung is spread. 1st mulching after
planting for better sprouting and growth. Second mulching is done after weeding and
application of fertilizers, after 50 -60 days of sowing.
4. Earthing up: Plants are earthed up and mulch is replaced. Provision of shade. By raising
castor on the bunds and within the crop. Daincha is also grown for shade purpose.
Intercrops: Maize or chillies are grown as inter crops. Turmeric can also be raised as an inter
crop in coconut and areca nut plantations.
Rotations: Turmeric is a heavy feeder. Hence depletes soil nutrients. Continuous cropping
results in build up of diseases. It is rotated with rain fed paddy, sugarcane, banana, betel vine,
vegetables.
Harvesting: Depending upon the varieties, the crop comes to harvest in 7-9 months.
 Main season of harvesting falls in February – April.

 Maturity indication is complete yellowing and drying up of plants

 Above ground parts are cut close to the ground level.

 Field is irrigated 1-2 days in advance of harvesting the crop.

 Crop is harvested by Ploughing or digging.

 Rhizomes are gathered by hand picking and cleaned.

38
  Rhizomes are washed.

 Mother rhizomes are separated from the fingers before they are cured.
Yield: Average yield 25 to 30 t/ha
Diseases: Rhizome rot, Leaf spot - Spray BM @ 0.5 %
Pest: Shoot borer – 0.1 % Malathion
Preservation of seed rhizomes:
1. Mature, healthy rhizomes are heaped over a layer of sand (5- 10 cm thickness) under shade of
a tree or shed.
2. Covered with turmeric leaves.
3. Heaps are plastered with earth mixed with cow dung.
4. Treat with Dithane M 45 0.3% or Bavistin 0.1% solution for 30 min and shade dried before
heaping.
5. Remove rotten rhizomes at the end of storage period.
Processing: It involves the steps viz curing, Polishing and colouring.
Curing: Fingers are separated from mother Rhizomes and are usually kept as seed materials. The
fresh turmeric cured before marketing curing involves boiling of fresh Rhizomes in water and sun
dried. For curing the traditional method is the clear rhizomes are boiled in copper/ galvanized /
Iron or earthen vessel with water just enough to soak them. At some places the cow dung slurry is
used as boiling medium. Boiling is stopped when froth comes out and white fumes appear giving
out a typical odour. The boiling lasts for 45 to 60 minutes when the rhizomes are soft. Over
cooking spoils the colour of final product, while under cooking renders the dried product, brittle.
Improved method : Clean finger- approximately 50 kg are taken in perforated trough of size 0.90
x 0.55 x 0.40 m made of GI or MS sheet with extended parallel handle. The perforated trough
containing the finger is then immersed in pan. The alkaline solution (0.10 % sodium carbonate or
sodium bicarbonate) is poured in to trough so as to immerse the turmeric fingers. The whole mass
is boiled till the finger become soft. The cooked fingers are taken out of the pan by lifting the
trough and drain the solution in to pan. Alkalinity of the boiling water helps in imparting orange
yellow tinge to the core of turmeric. The cooking of turmeric is to be done within two or three
days after harvesting. The mother rhizomes and finger generally cured.
The cooked finger one dried in sun by speeding 5 to 7 cm thick layers on bamboo mat or
drying floor. Thin layer is not desirable as colour of final product is affected. At night time the
material should be heaped or covered. It may take 10 to 15 days for completely drying.

39
The yield of dried product varies from 20 to 30% depending upon variety, location of growing.
Polishing : Dried material has poor appearance and rough dull outer surface with scales and root
bits. This can be improved by smoothing and polishing outer surface by manual or mechanical
rubbing. Manual consists rubbing dried turmeric on hard surface or trampling them under feet,
wrapped in gunny bags.
Improved method : Using hand operated barrel or drum mounted on central axis, rotated for 30
rpm filled with turmeric.
Colouring : This is done to half polished rhizomes in two way
(1) Dry and (2) wet-colouring.
1. Turmeric powder is added to polishing drum in the last 10 minutes in dry process.
2. Turmeric powder is suspended in water and mixed sprinkling inside the polishing basket.

GINGER

B.N. : Zingiber officinale L. (Rhizome- modified stem)

Family : Zingiberaceae
Origin : South East Asia (Europe)
Ginger is one of the five most important major spices of India. India is the largest
producer of dry zinger in the world, accounting for more than 60% of world production. One
third of the production of Ginger in the country is exported. Kerala is the largest producer of
ginger accounting for more than 70% of the total countries production.
Ginger is the rhizome of underground modified stem of the plant. Ginger is the herbaceous
perennial but, it is cultivated commercially as an annual crop. It is one of the oldest spices
with a distinct flavour and pungency. The chief constituent (chemical) of oil is a
'Zingiberene'. Essential oil is about 1.9 to 2.2%.
Uses :
 Ginger is used as a spice.
 It is used in the preparation of Ginger oil and oleoresin.
 It is used in the preparation of soft drinks, alcoholic beverages.
 Green Ginger is used in the culinary preparations.
 Preserved Ginger is used for the manufacture of processed food.
 It is used as carminative and stimulant.

40
Ginger is cultivated in
States: Kerala (70 %), Gujarat, M.S., U.P., H.P., A.P. and W.B.
Gujarat: Dahod,Panchmahal,Surat,Anand,Baroda & Valsad.
Varieties:
Several cultivars (clones) of ginger are grown in the different ginger growing areas in India. They
are generally named after the places where they are grown. The varieties differ in size, fibre and
moisture content of the rhizomes and yield. Besides the local varieties, some exotic varieties
were also introduced. The following are some of the varieties grown in different states of India.
Kerala: Wynad local, Ernad, Kuruppamadi, Thingpuri
Assam: Jorhat, Nadia, Maran, Thinladium, Thingpuri.
Andhra Pradesh: Narsipatnam, Siddipet, Tuni.
Exotic varieties:
1. China: Introduced from China. This variety has got 3.43% fibre. It has too much moisture. The
yield of dry Ginger from green ginger is 13- 15%.
2. Rio-de-janeiro: This variety was introduced from Brazil. It has 5.19 % fibre. It consists more
moisture. The yield of dry to green ginger is 16-18%. It became more popular where Ginger is
used in green form.
High Altitude Research Station, Pottangi has released the following varieties.
1. Suprabha: It is a clonal selection from Kanduli local. Rhizomes have plumpy fingers and
bright grey skin. It yields about 3.4 tonnes per ha. It has got 4.4% fibre.
2. Suruchi: It is a clonal selection from
Kanduli local. The Rhizomes are greenish yellow. Its yield is 2.7 tonnes per ha. It has 3.8%
fibre.
3. Suravi: It was developed as a mutant. Fingers are cylindrical. Yields about 4 t per ha.
Durations of the above varieties vary from 220 to 230 days.
'Himagiri': released by Dr. Y.S. Parmar Uni. of Hort. & Forestry, Solan (H.P.) yielded 13.14
t/ha fresh ginger.
Propagation: Propagated by seed rhizomes. Rhizomes are cut into small pieces (setts) of 2.5 to
5.0 cm. They may weigh about 15 – 20 grams having one or two buds.
Climate: It requires warm humid climate. It grows up to 1500 m above MSL. It requires
moderate rainfall from sowing to sprouting. Partial shade is necessary. Though, it is also
grown in open areas.
Soil: It requires deep, well drained, humus rich soil. It is sensitive to water logging. It can be
grown well on sandy loams, clay loams and laterite soils.

41
Preparation of land and planting:
Deep tillage for better development of rhizome. 2-3 deep ploughing, 2-3 cross
harrowing.
Planting:
 Planting time : 2nd fortnight of April
 Seed rate : 900 - 1400 kg/ha
 Planting distance: 30 - 45 cm row to row
 15 - 22 cm within a row (plant to plant)
 Planting material: Ginger is propagated by fingers rhizome should have following
characters:
o 4 - 5 cm length
o Free from disease infection
o Av. weight should be 25 - 30 g
o 1 - 2 full developed eye should be present

 Seed treatment: For control of soft rot disease rhizome should be dipped in 0.2 %
Dithan M-45 (mencozeb) solution for 10 minutes or 0.5 % serasan solution for 10
minutes.
 Methods of planting:
(a) Flat or raised bed method:
In sandy loam soil, flat beds and medium black or in black soil raised beds are
prepared.
(b) Furrow method:
In this method, furrows are opened at 30 - 45 cm distance and within furrow,
ginger rhizomes are planted at the slope of ridge of with 15 - 20 cm distance.
Rhizome buds are planted 3 - 5 cm deep and soil is pressed over it.
Manure and fertilizers: 25-30 t/ha FYM

N : P2O5 : K2O (kg/ha)

25 : 40 : 60 Basal dose at the time of sowing

25 : 00 : 00 60 DAP at the time of (Earthing up)
Total 50 40 : 60 ( kg/ha )

42
Mulching: In ginger cultivation, mulching the field is an important operation. First mulching
is to be done at planting with 10-12 tonnes of green leave per ha. Second mulching is done at
40-60 days after first mulching with 5 tonnes of green leaves. Farm yard manure is spread
over the green leaves. In irrigated crop – raise cow pea and black gram as live mulches.
Remove the mulches 60 days after sowing during rains. Castor seeds are sown on bunds at 9
m intervals, to serve as wind breaks.
Irrigation: First irrigation should be applied immediately after planting. Then Second one
after 3-4 days after first irrigation. As per need and soil type, it should be irrigated at 8-10
days interval. The crop is very susceptible to water logging, so, light irrigation is preferable.
For Light soil 30-40 irrigation are required and for Heavy soil 20-25 irrigation are required.
Earthing up : Earthing up should be done at 30 DAP to cover the rhizomes and to provide
support to the plant.
Weed control: Three –four weeding are necessary between June to September. After each
weeding, mulch is to be replaced.
Rotations and mixed cropping: Continuous Ginger cultivation – promote exhaustion of fertility
and favour the incidence of diseases. In Irrigated lands – Ginger is rotated with betelvine, banana,
turmeric, Onion, Garlic, Chillies, Vegetables, Sugarcane, Maize etc Ginger can be grown as
intercrop in Coconut, Areca nut, coffee, Mandarin, Mango, Guava and Grapes.
Harvesting : Ginger is ready for harvesting when leaves become yellowish and Pseudo stem
dry.
For Green ginger – harvesting should be done at 150-180 days after planting (Dec. –
Jan.)
For Dry ginger – it should be 210-240 days after planting & dried in the sun for a week
after removing the outer skin.
Light irrigation is given before harvesting. Dig the plants carefully. Soak them overnight.
Wash thoroughly. Sundry for a day or two before marketing as green ginger.
Yield: 25 to 30 t/ha (Green)
1.3 to 1.8 t/ha Dry ginger
Processing:
I. Dry Ginger: Preparation of commercial dry zinger involves a series of steps. Fully
developed rhizomes are harvested after 8 months of planting for preparation of Dry Ginger.

43
1. Soaking in water: The rhizomes are soaked overnight in cement tubs for easy removal of
skin.
2. Trampling: The rhizomes are trampled under feet in the tub. Avoid damage to epidermal
cells containing flavouring oil.
3. Peeling: The skin is peeled off, with sharp bamboo knives. Don‟t rupture epidermal cells.
This step hastens drying process.
4. Washing and Drying: The peeled rhizomes are washed and sun dried for 3-4 days on
cement floors. 11
5. Polishing: After drying, the rhizomes are polished by rubbing with a coarse cloth to
remove all bits of skin or dirt. These are called unbleached ginger. To get bleached Ginger,
peeled rhizomes are soaked in 2% lime water for 6 hours, fumigated with sulphur for 12
hours. Yield of dry Ginger is 16 to 25% of the fresh Ginger.
II. Preserved Ginger: Ginger is harvested at 7 months after planted for preparing the
Preserved Ginger. It is preserved in syrup or brine.

Preservation of seed rhizomes:

 Ginger rhizomes are harvested during December – January.
 They are to be planted during April – May. Hence, there is a need to preserve the seed
rhizomes for a period of about 4 -5 months.
 The selected healthy rhizomes are treated with a solution of 0.1 % Quinolphos and
0.3% Dithane M 45 for 30 min.
 The rhizomes are stored in pits dug in a cool and protected place.
 Pits of 1 m depth, 1m width and of convenient length are prepared.
 Walls are plastered with cow dung.
 Layer of sand is spread at the bottom of the pit.
 Layer of rhizomes are alternated with dry sand or saw dust layers.
 Some gap is left at the top for aeration.
 Pits are covered with wooden planks giving one or two holes for aeration.
 Entire pit is plastered with mud leaving a hole.
Diseases:
Soft rot of ginger: Water soaked lesions developed at the base of the pseudo stem. Later
rotting spread to rhizome. Foliar yellowing starts from the base & progress upwards.
Control :( 1) Provide good drainage & select Healthy seed.
(2) Adopt crop rotation & avoid water logging.
(3) Planted on ridge after the application of neem cake
@ 2 t/ha.
(4) Spraying of 0.3 %, Dithane M-45.

44
Pest: Shoot borer: Spraying of 0.1 % Malathion during July-October.

CARDAMOM (Small)
B.N. : Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton
Family : Zingiberaceae
Origin : Southern India ( Western Ghat)
Useful plant part: Fruit (capsule)
Cardamom is popularly known as the Queen of Spices and also Green Gold. It is one of
the ancient species of India and is also one of the most valued spices of the world. It is next only
to black pepper as the largest foreign exchange earner among various Indian spices. It is a dried
fruit of a tall herbaceous perennial plant having underground rhizomes. Among three
cardamoms small one is the most popular species. India has the largest area (90% of the world
area) and is also largest producer (70%). In India the cultivation of small cardamom is mainly
confined to the southern states viz., kerala (60%), Karnataka (30%), Tamilnadu (10%). Among
the different spices, exported from India cardamom ranks second after black pepper. Nearly 40%
of the production is exported to more than 60 countries.
 Chemical content in seed is “Cineol “
Uses: Due to its delicate aroma, cardamom is one of the most expensive spices in the world.
Used for flavouring of various foods, beverages and liquors. Seeds contain 2-3 % essential
oil. Cardamom seeds lose their flavour quickly when ground. The essential oil of cardamom
is used for medicinal purposes both in alllopathy and in Ayurveda. It is used as powerful
aromatic stimulant, carminative, stomachic and diuretic. Cardamom seeds are chewed to
prevent the bad bread, indigestion, nausia and vomiting. Eating one cardamom daily with a
table spoon of honey improves eye sight and strengthens the nervous system and keeps one
healthy. It is believed by some people that excessive use of cardamom causes impotency.
Botany: Cardamom is an herbaceous perennial plant. A fully grown plant is about 2- 4 m
height. The real stem of the plant is the underground rhizome. The aerial pseudo stem is
made up of leaf sheaths.
Climate: Small cardamom is a humid tropical plant.
Soils: Grows best on well drained humus rich forest soils. Water logging and excessive soil
moisture conditions are detrimental. Moisture level should be 40 to 50% of the field capacity
of the soil. An ideal site is a sloppy land with good drainage. In India cardamom is grown on

45
red, deep and good textured laterite forest soils having plenty of humus and leaf mould. Ideal
pH is 5.0 to 6.5
Varieties :
Elettaria cardamomom var. Major – consisting of wild indigenous types.
E.cardamomom var. Minor - Three types of varieties are distinguishable in cardamom
based on the plant type.
1. Malabar: Plants of medium size, panicle prostrate, capsule round to oblong.
2. Mysore: Plant robust, panicles erect, capsules greenish and elongate.
3. Vazhuka: Plants robust, panicles semi erect, intermediate type between
Malabar and Mysore.
Improved varieties:
1. CCS-1 ( Coorg cardamom Malbar Selection-1)
2. ICRI–1(Indian Cardamom Research Institute, Myladumpara
3. ICRI – 2
4. Mudigree-1
5. PV-1, PV-2
6. SKP-14
Propagation: Cardamom can be propagated by seeds, rhizomes and suckers. Out of which
seed propagation is most preferred because of certain advantages over vegetative
propagation.
By seed: This is the most common and widely prevalent method. A large number of
seedlings can be raised within a short time in nursery. The main disadvantage is that the
progeny is highly variable with no uniformity in the yield. The seeds also do not remain
viable for longer time.
By rhizomes: Planting material of rhizomes is collected by up rooting 2 to 2 ½ year old
clumps. These materials are noted for their high yields. The advantage of this material is
greater uniformity and earlier bearing habit compared to seedlings. One of the very serious
disadvantage is that Cardamom Mosaic Disease spreads through rhizomes. Plantations raised
by vegetative means are short lived. Getting adequate plant material is another difficulty. If
rhizomes are used for propagation continuously. The plants tend to loose their vigour after a
few generations. Due to these limitations farmers use seedlings only.
Tissue culture planting material is available in large numbers.

46
Transplanting/sowing: The best season of planting seedlings or suckers is May- June after the
receipt of monsoon showers. The seedlings or suckers are planted in the pits up to collar region
for better growth. Cloudy days with light drizzle are ideal for panting. About 10-18 months old
seedlings are used for planting.
Planting distance: Karnataka : 2 m x 2 m Kerala : 2m x 3m

Manuring: N P2O5 K2O

75 + 75 + 150 (NPK kg/ha) irrigated condition
30 + 60 + 30 ” rain fed ”
Irrigation: Cardamom is generally raised as rain fed crop. However, it responds well to
irrigation. It is necessary to irrigate the crop during dry periods to get increased yields. Since,
cardamom is raised under evergreen forests and on undulated terrain, conventional irrigation
methods are not useful.
Intercultural operations:
1. Mulching: Sufficient mulch should be applied of fallen leaves during November-
December to reduce the ill effects of draught which prevails during summer.
2. Weeding: 2 to 3 / year
3. Trashing: Removing old and dried shoots of plants. It should be done once in a year, with
the onset of monsoon under rain fed condition & 2-3 times in high density plantations.
4. Shade regulation: Light shade is more favourable in the initial stage to enhance
vegetative growth. Shade helps to regulate moisture as well as temperature.
5. Earthing up: After monsoon – which encourage new growth.

Harvesting: Cardamom plants start bearing in about 3 years after planting. Flowering starts
in April – May and continues up to August – September. Peak flowering will be in the month
of May- June. From flowering to maturity the fruit takes 5-6 months. Only ripe capsules are
harvested at 25-30 days interval, the harvesting is completed in 5- 6 pickings. In most of the
areas the peak period of harvest is during October – November. Ripe capsules are
harvested in order to get maximum green colour during curing.

Yield: Although the Cardamom plant start bearing from 2nd or 3 rd year of planting, an
economic crop can be obtained only from 4th or 5th year. Yield varies with variety and age.
Optimum average yield is 50-70 kg of dry capsule per ha. Yields decline from 10th year to
12th year.

47
1st year of bearing – 25-50 kg per ha (dry capsules)
2nd year of flowering 50-70 kg per ha (dry capsules)
3rd year of flowering 70-100 kg per ha (dry capsules)

48
Pests : Thrips, shoot borer, Aphid.
Diseases: Chlorotic, Damping off.
Processing: The commercial product of Cardamom is the dried capsules. At the time of
harvesting the capsules are juicy and fleshy, so they must be cured before sending them to
the market.
 Bleaching: Green colour of the cardamom capsules plays a vital role in the market.
Green colour of the capsules can be preserved by alkali treatment. So freshly
harvested cardamom capsules are soaked in 2 % washing soda (Na2 CO3) solution for
10 min. 34
 Drying: After bleaching, the capsules are dried either by sun drying or in fuel kilns
and electric driers. The capsules are sun dried for 3-5 days. These capsules get
bleached and does not store well. Hence, now a day‟s capsules are dried artificially in
which drying is complete and the green colour remains. In electrical drier in capsules
are dried at 45 – 500 C for 18 hours.
 Storage: Then they are stored according to size and colour and stored in black
polythene lined gunny bags to retain green colour during storage. These bags are then
kept in wooden chamber.
Sorting: The dried capsules are stored according to their size, colour and stored in black
polythene lined gunny bags to retain green colour during storage.

49
 BLACK PEPPER

B.N.: Piper nigrum L.

Family: Piperaceae
Origin: South India (Western Ghat)
Useful plant part: Fruits / Berry
Introduction: Pepper is the most important of all spices and popularly known as the “king of
spices”. Black pepper is a dried mature fruit of perennial ever green climbing vine. The
inflorescence is a catkin, a form of spike varying according to varieties. It is one of the most
important earliest known spices produced and exported from India. Because of its importance in
the spices and unique position in trade and large share in export earnings, it is popularly referred
as king of spices and black gold in trade.
Chemical compound found in black pepper is piperine. The aromatic odour of pepper is due to
an essential oil, while the pungency is due to oleoresin.
Uses:
 It is valued for its characteristic aroma, hot pungent and biting taste and is mainly used for
flavouring and seasoning.
 It is largely used as preservative by meat packers and in canning, pickling and baking
confectionery and preparation of beverages.
 The oil is used in soaps and in perfumes.
 It is extensively used in Ayurvedic medicines and pharmacological studies.
 It is considered as a powerful remedy for various disorders such as dyspepsia, malaria,
delirium treatments. The Egyptians used it for embalming. The Asians are said to have used
it as an aphrodisiac.
 Pepper extract acts as an effective repellent. Alcoholic extract of black pepper was found to
be highly toxic to several weevils on stored food products. Piperine has insecticidal effect
on its own.
Area and production: In world, it is grown in Srilanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil Mexico,
China, Thailand and Madagscar. India accounts for 54% of the total area under pepper in the
world but its share of production is only 26.6% whereas the other countries like Brazil,
Indonesia, Malaysia accounts for lesser percentage of area but with more share in the total
production due to their higher productivity. In India commercial pepper cultivation is

50
confined to southern states only. It is grown mainly in Kerala (96% area), Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu and Pondicherry.
Climate: Black pepper is a crop of warm humid tropics. Required adequate rainfall (2000-
3000 mm) and 75-95 % humidity. It tolerates temperature between 10 and 400C
Soil: Thrive best on clay loam, Red loam, Sandy loam & lateritic soils having pH 4.5 to
6.0 and rich in O.M.
Varieties:
Recently a number of improved varieties have been evolved & released for cultivation.
(a) Hybrids Cultivar,s Panniyur -1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 & 7 released by Pepper Research
Station, Panniyur, KAU, (Kerala) and
(b) Sreekara, Subhakara, Panchami, Pournami are recently released varieties from IISR
- Calicut. (Kerala).
Planting:
 Propagation: Pepper is generally propagated by cuttings which are preferred to seed
propagation. Pepper plants can also be raised from seeds but its takes long time for
germination takes nearly 7-8 yrs for bearing and also progenies are often mixed
characters due to cross pollination. Generally one meter long cutting are planted at the
rate of 3-4 per standard. Cuttings are taken from long shoots of the old bush as they
possess small roots and establish easily and quickly. In case basal shoots are not
available, long hanging shoots from terminal shoots are selected. But they take longer
time to establish due to lack of roots on the nodes.
 Planting of standard:
Black pepper needs a reliable tree for support. Black pepper vines are trailed
on supports which called standards. Also, standard provides shade to the vines. The
most popular live standard is Erythrina indica. Other common standards are used like
as Gravillea robusta (Silver Oak), Glyricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala,
Ailanthus sp. or other similar trees. Coconut, arecanut, jack tree, mango, subabul are
also used in homestead gardens.
Pepper plantation is initiated as a pure crop, it requires straight and quick
growing standards in the field before planting of pepper vines.
 Time planting: On set of monsoon (June)

51
  System of Planting: In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, rooted or unrooted cuttings are
planted in May-June. Pits of 30 x 30 x 30 cm are dug at a spacing of 2.5 x 2.5 m on the
northern side of the standard to avoid the severe western sun burning and the cuttings
are planted. Two rooted cutting are planted about 15 -30 cm away from the standard.
Cutting is planted with two nodes below ground level. In case of coconut and areca nut
which have a thick intercoiled root not close to the trunk. Pepper cuttings are to be
planted 100 to 120 cm away from the tree trunk. In some places, rooted cuttings are
raised in the nursery and then planted at the base of standard.
The peppers vines grow rapidly and after one year grow to achieve a height of
1.5-2 meters. As they grow, they have to tie with the standards at an interval of 30
cm. It is also a practice to bring vines down to ground level a year or 18 months. They
are cut and buried in the ground surrounding the standard. More shoots are put-fourth
after the operation and good and heavy root system develops.

Manuring: Judicious and regular manuring is necessary to get good yields. About 10 kg/pit
of well rotten cattle manure or compost is given in April – may. Fertilizers to supply 100 g
Nitrogen, 40 grams phosphate and 140 grams of Potash per standard for vines at 3 years
and above age may be applied annually in 2 split doses in April-May and August –
September. During the first year of planting 1/3rd of above dose and in second year 2/3 rd of
the above dose may be given. Manures are applied around the vines at a distance of 30 cm
and forked in to the soil.
Cultural Practices:
1. Shade regulation: In Pepper plantation, shade is given to the pepper vines,
especially during the hot weather to keep the soil cool and moist and to allow sun
light during cool weather to encourage production of flowers and fruits. The young
vines should be protected from hot sun during the summer months by providing them
with artificial shade. If not, the yield will be reduced to 50% or less. (Excessive shade
is harmful)
2. Training and pruning: The vines are trimmed at the top and prevented from
growing too tall for convenience of picking. In Tamil Nadu, pepper vines trained on
Silver oak standards are pruned at 6 m height from ground level for easy picking. The
vines are trained up the support to give one main shoot and two lateral orthotropic

52
 shoots. These are pruned regularly to encourage the development of lateral fruiting
branches but these lateral branches should not be tied to support,
3. Mulching - Mulching conserves soil moisture in the basins and prevent sun scorching
of young vines during summer. Green leaf saw dust or suitable Organic Mulch.
4. 3 to 4 diggings around the standards.
Harvesting: Pepper vines start yielding usually from the 3rd or 4th year. The vines gives
flower in May-June. It takes 6-8 months to fully ripen. Harvesting is done from November to
February in plains and January to March in hills. When one or two berries on spike turn red
the whole spike is plucked. A full bearing vine yields one kg of dry pepper. However,
individual vines recorded yields up to 3-5 kg of dried pepper. Harvesting of pepper is carried
out according to the purpose for which it is harvested. For preparation of white pepper, the
berries are harvested at a slightly advanced stage of ripeness i.e. when the berries turn red
(bright orange). To get black pepper the berries are gathered at younger stages.
Yield: 800 to 1000 kg/ha dried berry

Processing of pepper: Almost all the produce in India is processed in to black pepper and
only a very limited quantity is converted in to white pepper.
 For Black pepper: It consists of fully developed, but unripe dried berries of Pepper.
The harvested spikes are sun dried for 7 to 10 days on cement floor or mats, until the
outer skin becomes tough black, shrink and wrinkled. Drying is carried till the
moisture content gets reduced to 10-15%. Then the dried berries are separated from
the spikes by beating or rubbing between hands or trampling them under the feet. For
making good quality of Black pepper of uniform colour, the separated berries are
collected in a perforated bamboo basket or vessel and the basket with the berries is
dipped in boiling water for 1 minute. The basket is then taken out and drained. The
treated berries are sun dried on a clean bamboo mat or cement floor. The recovery of
black berry is about 33 % (26 to 36% depending upon the variety).
 For White Pepper: This consists of dried ripe fruits without pericarp (skin). It is
prepared by removing the outer skin along with the pulp before drying. White pepper
is prepared by one of the two methods

I. Water steeping technique (traditional method)

II. Steaming or boiling technique (improved method)

53
 I. Water steeping technique: It is a traditional and slow method. It involves 5 steps.

1. Steeping: Spikes with fully ripe berries are filled in gunny bags and are steeped
in flowing water for about 7 -8 days. During this steeping process, the skin
gets loosened from the seed.

2. Depulping: At the end of steeping, the berries are taken out and the skin with
the pulp is removed either by rubbing between hands or by trampling under
feet.

3. Washing: These depulped seeds are then washed and cleaned with fresh water
repeatedly (3-4 times)

4. Drying: The cleaned seeds are sun dried for 3-5 days on cement floor or mats
till they become white and the moisture gets reduced to 10-15%.

5. Polishing: The dried seeds are now dull white with colour. They are further
cleaned by winnowing or by rubbing with a cloth. The percentage of recovery
of white pepper is about 25% of ripe berries.

II. Steaming or boiling technique: This is an improved and quick method developed at
CFTRI, Mysore. It involves 4 steps.

1. Boiling: Freshly harvested spikes or berries are boiled for about 15 minutes.

2. Depulping: The boiled berries are then pulped mechanically. Boiled berries
passes through motorized fruit pulping machine.

3. Bleaching: The depulped berries are washed thoroughly by using bleaching

powder or any bleaching agent.

4. Drying: The cleaned berreis are sun dried for 3-5 days on cement floor or mats till they
become white and the moisture gets reduced to 10-15%.

Clove
B.N: Syzigium aromaticum Family: Myrtaceae

Soil and climate

Humid tropical climate with an annual rainfall of 150 - 250 cm and a mean temperature range

54
of 20°C to 30°C and elevation up to 1000 m are suitable. Deep rich loams with high humus
content and laterite soils are the best suited for clove cultivation.
Season
June – December is found to be optimum.
Slopes facing South and West should be avoided. North and North-Eastern slope is preferred.
Varieties
Local cultivars are used.
Planting
Seeds are extracted from ripe fruits and sown immediately. The seeds germinate in five to six
weeks. Two year old seedlings are planted in pits of 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm size filled with
soil and FYM 10 kg/pit at a spacing of 6 m either way. Apply 50 g/pit Azospirillum before
planting.
Aftercultivation
Provide shade for seedlings. Mulch the basins with dried leaves. Weed the basins as and
when necessary.
Banana can be grown to provide shade during the initial establishment. Small temporary
pandals may provided for partial shade during initial establishment.
Irrigation
Frequent watering is essential in the initial stages in the absence of rains. Irrigation should
be given during summer months. Applying 8 litres of water either through drip or through
basin during the months of January - May is beneficial.
Manuring
One year old plants can be applied with FYM 15 kg, N 20 g, P 20 g, K 60 g in two splits
during June - July and September - October. Every year the dosage is correspondingly
increased and a bearing tree of 7 years old may be applied with FYM 50 kg, N 300 g, P 300 g
and K 960 g. In addition to this apply 50 g in each
of Azospirillum and Phosphobacterium should be applied one month after manuring.
Time of application N P K
(g/plant)
I year old seedlings 20 20 60
7 year old tree 300 300 960
Plant protection
Pests
Stem Borer

Smear the surface of the stem and branches with Carbaryl 50 WP @ 2 g/lit of water.
Pour Quinalphos 25 EC @ 1 ml/lit in to the bore hole and plug it.
Apply Phorate 60g/tree in the soil
Black scale:
Foliar spray with Monocrotophos 1.5 ml/l or Dimethoate 1ml/l.
Leaf eating caterpillar
Leaf eating caterpillar can be controlled by spraying Quinalphos 25 EC @ 2 ml/lit.
Leaf rot
The foliage of affected trees should be sprayed with Carbdendazim 0.1 % or a prophylactic
spray with Bordeaux mixture 1 % also prevents the disease.
Leaf spot:
Pre-monsoon spray of Pseudomonas fluorescens (PfPPB) @ 0.2 % + Lawsonia leaf extracts
(5 %) or Spray with Copper oxy chloride @ 0.25 %.

55
Quick wilt
Affected trees suddenly wilt and dried off. Prolonged drought and water stagnation affects
the root growth. This is controlled by
(1) Drenching of Carbendazim or Mancozeb 1 g/lit of water in the root zone
(2) Wilting plants should be provided with shade and irrigated immediately
(3) In sloppy areas drip irrigation is recommended
(4) Dried leaves should be spread to conserve the moisture
(5) Growing of wind barriers to avoid the damages to the trees.
Harvest
Bearing starts from sixth year onwards. The flower buds should be harvested when they are
fully mature but before opening. The buds are harvested as clusters and separated and dried
in the sun for five to seven days.
Yield
2 - 3 kg dried buds/tree.

Minor Crops:
Cucurbits:
CUCUMBER ( Khira, kakdi)
B.N. - Cucurmis sativus Linn
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Origin: Asia and Africa
Local Name: Kakri, Kheera, Sukasa
Chormosome no.: 2n=14
Pollination: Cross pollinated crop
Introduction and uses:
 It is one of the oldest cultivated vegetables crops in India. It is second most widely
cultivated cucurbits after water melon. Cross-pollinated crop and pollinator is honey bee.
 Mostly small fruits are used for pickling and big fruits are used for salad and for cooking.
A portion of stem-end of the fruit is cut crosswise and rubbed together to remove the
white bitter substance that comes out. Then the fruit are used for salad.
 Its fruits have cooling effect and prevent constipation and useful in jaundice.
 Cucumber contains vitamin B and is a good source of vitamin C.
 The oil extraction from seed is good for brain and body.
 Drinking or water immediately after eating cucumber should be avoided, it causes severe
indigestion.
Climate: It is warm season crop and can not tolerate even slightly lower temperature. The
best temperature for its growth is 270 to 350. High humidity and high temperature are not
suitable for better fruit set, and such climate increases the infection of powdery mildew.
Soil: It can be grown on a variety of soil from heavy clay to sandy loam but for early
production a sandy or sandy loam soil is better. The best soil pH is between 5.5 to 6.5.
Varieties: China, Balam khira, Sheetal, Poinsett, Khira-75, Khira-90, Spineless long green.
Gujarat Kakdi-1. Pusa Sanyog (first F1 Hybrid), Poona safed khira, Japanese Long Green,
Priya
GCU-1 : Released by AAU during 2004.
Time of sowing: Cucumber is grown twice in a year in the plains.

56
Summer crop:-Jan - February- March. Rainy season - Aug-Sept.
Seed rate: Seed rate depends upon the germination percentage, season and distance of
sowing. On an average 1.5 to 2.0 kg seeds are sufficient for sowing one hectare field.
Method of sowing and spacing: Sowing of seed is done in hills and about 4 to 6 seeds are
sown and later on 3 to 4 plants are maintained in each hill. The seeds are sown at a depth of 2
to 3 cm
Spacing:- 1.5 m x 1.0 m.
Manures and Fertilizers: 20 to 25 t/ha FYM should be applied before sowing.
N P2O5 K2 O (kg/ha)
25 25 25 as a basal dose
25 0 0 30-35 DAS
Total 50 25 25
Irrigation: During rainy season crop does not require irrigation if rains are regular and
adequate. Proper drainage should be providing to remove excess water from the field. During
dry season the crop should be irrigate every 10-12 day depending on season and soil type.
Drip (4 litre/hr) or Picher method are also used for irrigation where scarcity of water.
Weed Control: 3 to 5 weddings are required according to season. As cucumber is shallow
rooted plant, deep intercultivation should be avoided.
Harvesting: Green fruits of proper size should be picked up from the vines. The fruits can be
cut, clipped or broken from the vines, avoiding injury to the plants. Picking should be done at
2 to 3 days interval. If the fruits are not picked at ripen stage the setting of new fruits are
checked.
Yield: 7.0 to 15 ton per hectare.
Diseases: Damping off, Powdery Mildew, Mosaic.
Pest: Aphid, Thrips, Leaf miner.

Ridge gourd-
B.N. : Ridge gourd - Luffa acutangula Roxb

Family : Cucurbitaceae
Origin : Spain
Local : Ridge gourd- Ghia Tori or dodka or Turia
name:
Chromosome no: 2n = 26
Pollination: Cross pollinated crop
Introduction and Uses: Fruits are use for culinary preparation in tender form. Due to easy
growing a few plants are grown in kitchen garden near fencing or any support. The name luffa is
given due to presence of gelatinous principle luffein in both the species. As tender fruits are
easily digestible and appetizing, it is prescribed for those who are suffering from Malaria and
other seasonal fevers.
It is widely cultivated in almost all tropical countries & throughout India. In India, Bengal,
Orissa, Chennai, Kerala & Mysore are the main centre.
Climate - It require warm and humid climate.
Soil: It is grown in all types of soil. Loam, clay loam and silt soils are best suited.
Varieties :
Ridge gourd: Pusa Nasdar, Arka Swathi, Anand Ridge gourd-1, Junagadh Turia Hy.-1, Akra
sumeet Jaipur long, Co-1, Satputia, Arka sujat, GARG-1

57
Sowing time - Summer- February-March
Kharif - June- July
Spacing - 1.5x 1.0 m or 2 x 0.5 m
Seed rate - 2-4 kg/ha
Sowing method- The seed is sown by dibblin method on Flat bed, Raise bed, Ridge & Furrow
Pit. 4 to 5 seeds are sown per pit. Later on 2 to 3 plants are allowed to grow.
Interculturing & weed control - As and when require.
Manures and fertilizer - 10-15t/h F.Y.M.
N P2O5 K2 O (kg/ha)
25 25 25 as basal dose
25 0 0 30-35 DAS
Total 50 25 25
Training of vine - During summer, crop gave the satisfactory yield without trailing while, During
rainy season due to luxurious growth of vine it is necessary to trail the vine on bower or any
support.
Harvesting - The crop is ready for first harvest about 60 days after planting. Fruits attain
marketable maturity in 5 to 7 days. Pickings are taken up at an interval of 3 to 4 days. Fruits
should not be left on the plant till they get over mature. Mature of just to mature are slowly
picked.
Yield - Ridge gourd - 8 to 13 t/h

Pest - Aphid, fruit fly.

Diseases - Powdery mildew/ downy mildew.
Bitter gourd - Karela
B.N : Momordica charantia Linn
Family : Cacurbitaceae
Origin : Indo – Burma region
Chromosome no: 2n = 22
Pollination: Cross pollinated crop
Introduction and uses: Alkaloid momordicin gives the bitter taste to the fruit. Fruit is rich in P,
Ca and Vitamin A. Fruit is wormicidal and cures stomach disorders and has beneficial effect on
the persons suffering from diabetes, arthritis, rheumatism and asthmatic complaints. Powder
prepared for plants is useful against ulcers. Protein of bitter gourd inhibits the growth of HIV 1,
viruses in human cell cultures.
Bitter gourds can be used as fresh vegetables can be canned and picked and used as dried
vegetables.
Climate: It is warm season crop grown in hot and moist weather, highly susceptible to frost. High
rainfall and cloudy weather promotes the infestation of diseases and pests. The average temp for
growth would be around 30-35oC with maximum around 40o and minimum between 20o and
25oC. Seed germination is well when the day temp is above 25oC.
Soil - Though it can be grown almost in any type of soil yet loam and fertile sandy loam soil rich
in organic matter and well manured are best suited. It does well in pH range of 5.5 to 7.0
Varieties: Pusa do-mausami, Coimbatoure long, Pusa Nasadar, Pusa Vishesh, Coimbature-1,
Jaipur long, Arka harit, Pride of surat / pride of Gujarat, Hissar selection, Karela long ( Bihar),
Kalyanpur Baramsai (Kanpur), Barmasi ( U.P.)

58
Sowing time - Summer & in Rainy season
Spacing - 1.5 m x1.5 m, 2 m x 1 m, 1.5 m x 1 m
Seed rate - 3 to 5 kg /ha
Sowing methods - As per bottle gourd.
3 to 5 seeds are sown per hill at 0.6 cm. depth. The seeds have hard seed coat, so seeds are soaked
in water for 24 hours then kept in gunny bag for two days than sown the seeds.
Thinning - At 2 leaf stage two plants/ hill & at four leaf stage only one plants/ hill kept.

Manures and Fertilizer - 8 to 10 t/ha F.Y.M.

N P2O5 K2 O (kg/ha)
30 60 60 As a basal
30 0 0 At flowering
60 60 60
Irrigation - First irrigation should be given immediately after sowing & then 5 to 7 days interval
should be kept during summer. In rainy season there is no need of irrigation if rainfall is regular.
Interculturing and weed control - In beginning the crop should be intercultured at a 15 to 20
days interval two to three times. So that the problem of weed control can be solve & growing
condition is also maintain good.
Trailing of vines - The vines are very long during the life span and fruiting continues with the
growth of vine. So support should be provide either individual plant or through bower.
Use of Growth regulator for increasing the yield: - The crop is monoecious, so the male and
female flowers borne in the same plant but at different place. In natural condition there is number
of male flowers & less number of female flowers.
Bitter gourd vines sprayed with 200 to 600 ppm etherel, plant become stunted and no. of
female flowers increased. Similarly spray of 100 ppm NAA increase the female flowers/plant.
Female flowers where also increased when morphactin solution (10 mg/ l) was sprayed over bitter
gourd plant starting from four leaf stage at a weekly interval four times. Spraying of IAA (35 mg /
liter) also induced a greater no. of female flowers.
Harvesting : Crop takes 55 to 110 days from sowing to harvesting. Picking is mainly done when
the fruits are tender and green. Pickings can be done at an interval of 2 to 3 days. Bitter gourd
fruits mature very fast and turn red. Irregular harvest may delay the formation of successive fruits
effect their growth and development. Irregular harvest also decreases number of fruits per pit.
Yield - The yield depend on cultivar, season, soil climate. The Average yield is about 8 to 14
t/ha.
Diseases: Powdery mildew, Downey mildew
Pest: Red pumpkin beetle, Cut worm, Aphid, Fruit fly.

Pointed gourd (Parwal)

B.N. : Trichosanthus dioica Roxb
Family : Cucurbitaceae
Origin : Assam (India)
Local name : Parmal, Potol, Parwal
Chromosome No.: 2n=24
Pollination : Highly cross pollination
Introduction and Uses: Parwal is one of the most nutritive vegetable. It is easily digestible,
diuretic and laxative and good source of protein, carbohydrates, Vit.-A and C. It useful in heart
and brain disorders. And also useful in disorders of circulatory system. This crop is widely grown

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in Assam, West Bengal, Bihar and U.P. In Gujarat, it is cultivated in Bharuch, Valsad, Navsari,
Kheda, Anand, Surat, Vadodra and Ahmedabad.
Immature fruit of parwal is udes as vegetables after cooking. Curry, fried preparations, pickles
and sweets made of parwal are also famous.
It is a dioecious crop and perennial, and remains dormant during winter.
Climate: It requires hot and humid climate. It is susceptible to frost and cold. The upper part of
the plant dies during winter. Better growth takes place at 210 C to 270 C.
Soil - A well drained, sandy to sandy loam, containing sufficient amount of organic matter is
most suited to its production. It is very susceptible to water logging.
Varieties :
The two more important forms are
i. Large, oblong, deep green fruits, white bands(strips)
ii. Shorter, thicker, pale green fruits without markings.
Improved varieties- CHES elite line, CHES Hybrid 1, CHES Hybrid 2, Faizabad Parwal 1, 3, 4,
Rajendra Parwal 1,2, Swarna Alaukik, Swarna Rekha
Planting of pointed gourd:
1. Propagation: Pointed gourd is vegetative propagated through vine-cuttings and root suckers.
Now a days tissue culture techniques are developed and tissue culture plants are sown by farmers.
The plants raised from seeds are weak, with small leaves, taking about a year to fruit. Moreover
the sex of the plants produced from seeds cannot be assured.
2. No. of cutting per hector: Mostly vine cutting of 35-60 cm long (3-4 buds) made from basal
portion from mature plants are taken in October, when fruiting is almost over, to ensure the sex
and variety to be planted. About 5000-8000 cutting are required for one hector land.
3. Planting time: Cutting is planted in September to October and it continues up to March.
4. Planting distance: 2 x 1 m or 2 x 1.5 m
5. Method of planting: The cutting are coiled in a shape of ring and planted directly in the hills
of prepared land or nursery. Also furrow are dug 30cm deep, cutting are planted 15 cm deep
keeping both end exposed.
6. Male-female ratio: Pointed gourd is a dioecious plant, only one sex is in a single plant. If all
the plants in a field are male, there is no fruit set and the total production is zero. For this reason,
maintenance of male-female ratio is necessary. A female: male ratio of 10:1 is maintained for
maximum fruit set.
Manures and Fertilizer - 15 to 20 t/h F.Y.M.
N P2O5 K2 O (kg/ha)
40 50 50 as basal dose
20 00 00 30 DAP
20 00 00 60 DAP
20 00 00 90 DAP
Total 100 50 50
Irrigation - No irrigation needed during rainy season. Water logging should be avoided. In
summer the crop should be irrigated at an interval of 8 to 15 days. During winter the crop is in
rest condition so no irrigation is needed.
Trailing and pruning of vine - Generally the vines are staked on bower framed with Iron/cement
pole & wire netting. From ground level to bower single stem should be staked & then spread on
bower. During winter the growth is retarded to a great extent. Therefore, the vines should be
pruned 30-45 cm from the ground in the winter (December-January).
Use of PGR: Three foliar Application of NAA@50mg/l in summer season increase the fruit set
as well as fruit yield.

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Harvesting - Harvesting is start 90 days from planting. It is a worm season crop. The fruits are
available from March- April to September - October; July- august is the pick period. Only tender
fruits are use for vegetable purpose. Once start, it is continue up to September - October & then
decline. Tender fruits are harvested at 3-5 days interval.
Yield - Ave. yield is about 12 to 15 t/h depends on soil, climate, practices
Insect-Pest: Leaf eating catter piller, Fruit flies, Red pumpkin bettle, Scale
Disease : Powdery mildew, Downy mildew, Anthracnose

Musk melon
B.N. : Cucumis melo
Family: Cucrbitaceae
Origin: China
Chromosome no: 2n = 22
Introduction: Fruits are sweet, musky in flavour, fruits are rich in protein, minerals like.
Calcium, Iron, Phosphorus and Vitamin A. Immature fruits are cooked as vegetable. Ripe fruits
are consumed whole some. They have cooling effect defend constipation. Quality of musk melon
is determined by colour, thickness, texture and absence of fibrous material along with aroma.
Softening of fruits is accompanied by the change of pectin from insoluble to soluble form.
Soil: It requires sandy soils. Loamy soils are good. Preferable pH 6 to 6.8. Soil should be rich in
organic manure, proper drainage facility.
Climate: It requires hot and dry climate. Optimum temperature 27 to 30 0 C. short days promote
female flowers. High temperature, low humidity, plenty of sun shine are essential for proper
ripening, high sugar content. Plants are sensitive to low temperature and frost.
Varieties: Arka jeet,Arka rajahans, Har madhu, Pusa madhuras, Pusa ras raj, Pusa sharbati
Sowing time - Last week of January to first week of February.
Spacing - 2 m x 1m, 2.5m x 1m
Seed rate - 4 to 6 kg/ha

Sowing method: Seeds can be directly sown in fields or first raised in polythene bags @ two
seeds per bag and water daily with enough care. Seedlings will be ready for transplanting in about
30 days. In case of river beds trenches are dug at 1 m deep and specially fertilized with FYM and
fertilizers otherwise pits of 60 cm3 are dug and filled with mixture of FYM and then sowing can
be done.
Manure and Fertilizer - FYM 15-20 t/ha
N P2O5 K2 O (kg/ha)
30 40 40 Basal
30 00 00 30 DAS
Total: 60 40 40
Irrigation: Pre sowing irrigation is given, if there is insufficient moisture in soil. Musk melon
plants require abundant moisture when the vines are rapidly developing and up to the time the
melons are grown. Crop requires eleven irrigations at the interval varying 4 to 9 days. Furrow and
basin irrigation is commonly adopted for watering in musk melon.
Interculture and weed control: Two to three inter culturing, First weeding. Is done 15 to 20
DAS or DAT. 2 to 4 weedings are required before the vine covers the whole area. Weedicides
like fluchloralin, Nitrofen can also be used for weed control.

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Harvesting: Crop is already for harvesting about 90 days after sowing depending upon variety.
Fruits of musk melon take 30 days from fruit set to maturity.
Maturity is determined by
1. a change in outer colour to yellowish green or brown.
2. Fruits will also slip from vine.
This is due to development of abscission layer resulting in automatic detachment of the fruit from
the vine when fully mature. This is called slip stage.
Yield : 10 to 15 t/ha

Legumes:
Beans and peas belong to the family legumineseae so they are called legume vegetables.
These include cool season vegetables like pea, French bean, lima bean, broad bean and tropical
vegetables like cowpea, hyacinth bean, winged bean, jack bean, sword bean etc. These are integral
components of sustainable agriculture due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and to
improve soil properties.
Common features of legume vegetables:
 Legume vegetables are rich in protein and essential amino acids and have significant role in
combating malnutrition among poor people and vegetarians.
 All legume vegetables are self-pollinated due to cleistogamous nature.
 All are direct sown crops and do not respond to transplanting. Since seed size is
comparatively bigger and they are closely planted, a high seed rate is required.
 Varieties specific to each season are to be selected for sowing.
 Legume vegetables require light and well drained soil for maximum yield. They are
sensitive to excess irrigation and water stagnation.
 Nitrogen fixation and Rhizobium inoculation: Majority of legume vegetables fix
atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to plants with help of Rhizobium bacteria
present in root nodules of legumes.

PEA
Botanical name: Pisum sativum – Garden pea
Family : Leguminaseae
Origin : Ethiopea
Chromosome no.: 2n=14
Importance:
Garden pea is rich in digestable protein, vitamin A and C. it is also rich in minerals like
calcium, potassium, iron and phosphorus. Fresh green pea is excellent food for human
consumption taken as vegetable or in soup large proportion of pea is processed either canned,
frozen, dehydrated. The straw of pea is a nutritious fooder. The pea protein is moderately
deficient in sulphur containing amino acids methionine, cysteine.
Varieties:
Alderman, Arkel, Asauji, Bonneville, Early badger, Early December. Meteor, Swarna Rekha,
N.P. 29, Pant Matar-2, Type-19, Punjab 87.

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Climate: It requires a cool growing season and moderate temperature are essential throughout
the growing season. High temperature is more injurious to pea crop than frost. Optimum
monthly temperature suitable for its growth is 13-180 C.
Soil: Pea can be grown on many types of soils from light sandy to clay soils. Hence, well
drained loamy soil is considered best for pea cultivation. Most favorable range of pH is
between 6 to 7.5.
Time of sowing: Pea is grown generally as a rabi crop. It is sown from the beginning of
October to middle of November.
Seed rate: Mid late varieties 80 to 90 kg per ha is the general recommendation. If sowing is
done in ridges and furrows method, seed rate adopted is 50 to 60 kg per ha. Seed rate also
varies with growth habit of varieties for early varieties 100 to 120 kg per ha. Seeds can be
sown on flat beds or raised beds either by broadcasting or behind the plough. Seeds are also
drilled through poras.(Tubes attached to deshi plough).
Spacing: 20-30 cm x 5 cm
Manuring:
Well decomposed FYM is applied at a dosage of 8 to 10 t/ha.
NPK should be applied in the ratio of 30: 50: 25 kg per ha.
Irrigation:
Crop requires 2 or 3 irrigations. First irrigation is given 40 DAS, second irrigation at bloom
stage 60 DAS.

Harvesting: The picking of green pods should be done by giving a simple jerk to the pedicle
with minimum possible disturbance to the plant. Generally 3 to 4 pickings are to be given in
the season. For good quality of produce harvesting should be done either early in morning or
late in the afternoon. Usually periodical pickings 6 to 8 day interval are taken.
Yield: Early varieties 100-725 Q/ha
Late and Mid season varieties 60 to 70 Q/ha.

CLUSTER BEAN
B.N. Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.
Family: Leguminosae /Fabaceae
Origin: India and Tropical Africa
Chromosome no.: 2n=14
Plant part: Bean
Local name: Guar
Introduction and Uses: Important crop grown for its tender green pods which is used as vegetable.
Among leguminous it is comparatively more drought resistant. Also It is cultivated as forage crop
in dry areas. Important place in national economy because of industrial importance due to presence
of gum (galactomannan) in its endosperm of seed. Guar gum is highly mucilaginous, used in
textile, cosmetics, explosives, paper; Today it is one of the significant foreign exchange earners of
our country. It is rich source of protein.
Mostly it is cultivated in northern India. In Gujarat, it is cultivated in 30962 hector land and
production 2.83 lakh MT and Productivity 9.16. Major guar producing district of Gujarat is B. K.,
Vadodra and Junagadh.
Botany: Plant is robust, erect, annual, 90 to 180 cm height, tap root system. Flowers are borne in
short axillary, purple in colour. Pods are flattened and borne in cluster, hence known as cluster

63
bean.
Climate: Drought resistant crop, grown successfully in areas where annual rain fall is 30-40 cm.
Mostly cultivated as rainfed crop in arid and semi-arid area of N.I. Ideal temperature for
germination and development is 25 oC to 30 oC. Susceptible to water logging condition.
Soil: Cluster bean can be grown in all type of soil except heavy and poorly drained. Well drain
medium black soil is good with pH 7.0 to 8.5.
Varieties: Pusa Sadabahar, Pusa Mausmi (Kharif season), Pusa Naubahar
For Guar gum- I.C. 9065, I. C. 11521

Sowing:
Summer: February to March in North India,
Kharif : June - July . Early sowing results in more vegetative growth, lodging
and poor yields.
Seed rate: For vegetable: 7-10 kg/ha.
Fodder crop: 40 kg/ha
Spacing: 45cm x 15 cm or 45 cm x 20 cm.
Manures and Fertilizers: 10 to 12 t/ha FYM should be added at soil preparation.
25 : 40: 00 ( N:P:K) kg/ha As basal dose. No need of top dressing
Excess Nitrogen results in more vegetative growth and low pod yield.

Irrigation:
Kharif crop does not require irrigation, if rains are normal and timely. Summer crop - irrigation
should be given at 10-12 days interval. Excess water should be removed from the field in kharif
season.
Weed control: Hand weeding as per need in kharif crop. Basalin as pre-emergence 1 kg a.i. per
hectare.
Diseases: Bacterial blight, Alternaria leaf spot, Anthracnose.
Pest: Jassids and Cater pillar.
Harvesting:
Tender green pods are ready after 50-60 DAS and continuous up to two months. 4-5 days interval
picking should be done. Regular picking for good quality of pods.
Yield: 80 to 100 q/ha. Pusa Naubahar --- 120 to 150 q/ha pod yield.
Seed yield: 10 to 15 q/ha.
Seed production:
 Self- pollinated crop, 25 to 50 M isolation is required.
 Three time roguing, viz, before flowering, at flowering, at maturity.
 60 to 70 % pods change their colour from green to light brown; the crop should be
harvested and kept for drying on floor for 8 to 10 days.
 Threshing, cleaning and packing is done.
Cowpea
B.N. : Vigna uniguiculata Family: Leguminosae / Fabaceae
Origin: India
Syn: Southern pea, Black eyed pea, Yard long bean
Local name: Lobia, Chouli
Chromosome no.: 2n=22, 24
Importance and Uses: Cowpea is a typical warm season crop adapted to tropics. Tender pods are
used as vegetable and dry beans as pulse. Due to its nutritive value and soil improving properties,
it is also used as a fodder, green manure and cover crop.

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Botany: It is a vigorously growing annual herb with strong tap root system. Growth habit ranges
from erect to climbing with profuse branching.
Climate: Cowpea is a warm season crop and comes up well between 21-35oC. Performance of
varieties varies with day length, rainfall and temperature. Hence, specific varieties are to be
selected for each season.
Soil: Even though, cowpea can be grown in any soil, fertile loose soil rich in humus is required
for a prolonged harvest.
Varieties: Pusa Komal, Pusa Phalguni, Pusa Dofasli, Pusa Barsati, Pusa Rituraj,
Gujarat Cowpea-1, Gujarat Cowpea-3, Gujarat Cowpea-4, Anand Vegetables Cowpea-1.
Seed rate: 12-15 Kg/ha.
Spacing: 30-40 x 15-20 cm
Fertilizer: 20:40:00 (N:P:K) Kg/ha.
Irrigation: Cowpea, in general, is sensitive to water logging and requires less moisture compared
to other vegetables. Irrigate trailing vegetable types at 10-12 days interval depending on soil during
pre-flowering phase. Hardening of plants by restricting irrigation during pre-flowering stage is
advantageous for avoiding excess vegetative growth and will induce early flowering.
Nipping of excess vegetative growth is a common practice for inducing flowering and
fruiting in bush and semi-trailing cowpea varieties especially when there is rain during flowering
and fruiting phase.
Harvesting: Tender fruits are harvested after attaining full size but before they become fibrous.
Green pods for use as vegetables can be harvested 45-90 days after sowing depending on the
variety. Pods should be harvested while tender.
Yield: 8-10 t/ha.

ROOT VEGETABELS:
Radish, carrot, beet root and turnip are major root crops grown inb the country. Though the crops
belong to different families, but their cultural requirements are uniform.
Common features of root crops:
1. In all root crops, the tap root and a portion of hypocotyl develop into flseshy root.
2. All roots crops are cool season crops and are the best grown during winter in planis and spring-
summer in hills of north India.
3. All crops, except beet root, exhibit two distinct groups viz, tropical or asiatic or annual types and
temperate or European or biennial types.
4. Seeds of annual types are produced in plains. Biennial types require a chilling temperature.
5. All root crops require well drained loose and friable soil without any cols for raising a good crop.
6. All root crops are seed propagated.
7. All major root crops are highly cross pollinated.
RADISH
B.N.: Raphanus sativus L Family: Cruciferae/ Brassicaceae
Origin: Europ or Asia
Synonymous: Mula, Mulo, Mooli, Muli.
Chromosome no: 2n=18
Mode of pollination: Cross pollination
Introduction and uses: Radish is one of the most common root crops grown all over the country for its
enlarged roots. Radish is grown for its tender tuberous roots which are eaten raw as salad or as cooked
vegetables. It has unique pungent flavour. It has unique pungent flavour. It has cooling effect, prevent
constipation and increase appetite. It is good for piles, liver trouble, and jaundice. Juice of fresh leaves

65
is used as diuretic and laxative. It is a good source of vitamin-C and minerals. It is not easily digested if
taken alone. The alkaloid present in radish is Isothiocynates.
Climate: Cool season crop, but Asiatic var. resists more heat than the European. Short day low
temperature is best for quality of roots. Ideal temperature for growth and development of quality roots
in radish is 10-15.5 0 C. In hot weather, roots become more pungent. Hence, it should be harvested
when roots are small and tender during hot periods.
Soil : Being a root crop, radish requires loose and friable soil, rich in organic matter.
Varieties: Radish roots vary greatly in size and colour as well as the length of time for which they
remain edible. The radish varieties are divided broadly.
1. European or temperate types: small size with excellent quality and mainly used for salad purpose.T
They are biennials in nature. E.g. Pusa White Icle, Pusa Himani,
2. Asiatic and sub-tropical: More pungent than temperate types and have large roots.
E.g. Desi, Pusa Chetaki, P usa Rashmi, Japanese White, Punjab Safeda, Arks Nishant, Jaunpur
White.
Pusa Himani is only variety which can be grown through the year.
Sowing: Sowing start from August and continuous up to March-April.
- Asiatic variety: August to September.
- European: November to January.
Seed rate: 8 to 10 kg/ha.
Method of sowing: Flat or on the ridges.
Spacing distance: 30 cm x 10 cm.
Depth: 4 cm,
Close planting delays maturity and produced ill-shaped roots.
Fertilizers: Quick growing root crop, high fertilizer requirement. 20-25 t/ha FYM should be added at
the time of soil preparation. Chemical fertilizers should be apply as:
N P K (kg/ha)
30 50 50 Basal
30 00 00 20 to 30 DAS
Total 60 50 50
Irrigation:
 Light irrigation after sowing
 10-15 days interval regular irrigation should be given.
 Sufficient moisture during growth period for root development
Weed control: Shallow hoeing and 2-3 hand weeding facilitate root growth. Earthing-up should be
done for enlarged root production.
Harvesting:
Early variety: 25 to 30 DAS. Delay in harvesting resulted in spongy and hollow roots. All the roots are
not develop at one time. A light irrigation is given before pulling out roots.
Yield: Indian var. - 150 to 200 q/ha
European - 75 to 100 q/ha.
Diseases: White rust.
Pest: Aphids, Mustard saw fly.
Seed Production:
 Cross- pollinated, Isolation distance: 1600 m for foundation seed and 1000 m for certified seeds.
 Only Asian varieties produce seeds in plains, while European var. in hills.
 The selected roots are prepared for planting , 2/3 tops and 1/3 roots are cut before planting in main
field at distance of 75cm x 60 cm ( True -to- root)

66
  Off type of plants are removed.
 Average yield is 4 to 6 q/ha.
 Some growers leave the plants in the field and allow them to produce the seeds. This method is not
successful because the seeds produced by this method produce poor quality roots and results in
early bolting.
CARROT
B.N.- Daucus carota L.
Family: Umbelliferae/ Apiaceae
Origin: Europe, Asia and North Africa.
Chromosome no: 2n=18
Mode of pollination: Cross pollination
Introduction and uses: Carrot is grown all over India and is used for human consumption as well as
per forage and particularly for feeding. It is also used in halwa, pickles, gajar, gajar pak, preserves,
rayata. Carrot roots are rich sources of carotenes. Carrot is excellent source of vitamin A and Iron, also
vitamin B and C, rich in sugar. Black carrots are used for the preparation of a sort of beverage called
kanji, which is a support to be a good appetite. The orange coloured varieties are rich in carotin a
precursor of vitamin A and contain appreciable quantity of thiamine and riboflavin.
Carrot has many medicinal properties. It increases quantity of urine and helps in elimination of
uric acid. It has cooling effect and is beneficial for people suffering from gall stones, constipation and
heart troubles.
Carrot is annual herb for root production and biennial for flowering and fruit set.

Climate: Tolerant to high temp. But it is cool climate crop. Optimum temp. for germination is 7 oC to
29 o,For root growth 18 oC to25 oC.
Soil: Well drained, deep loose sandy loam soil having high amount of humus and free from hard layer.
Varieties:
Types:
They are two groups.
1. Asiatic type: Pusa Kesar, Pusa Meghali
2. European type: Pusa Yamdagini, Chantaney, Nantes half Long, Early Nantes, Danvers

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Sowing time: Plain:- Asiatic var. August to September
European: Octobers to mid December.
Hills : March to June.
Seed rate: 6 to 10 kg/ha.
 Carrot can be sown either in flat beds or on ridges at 30 x 10 cm, depth of sowing is 2 cm.
 Ridges sowing give better and early yield than flat bed sowing.
Fertilizers: 20 to 25 t/ha FYM should be added at soil preparation.
N P K (kg/ ha)
25 50 80-10 Basal
25 00 00 30-40 DAS
Total 50 50 80-100
Irrigation: Sufficient moisture in soil at the time of seed sowing for proper germination. Light
irrigation should be given at 10 to 12 day interval. Heavy irrigation results in excessive foliage growth
with poor root formation.
Weed control: After germination light hoeing or weeding should be done to facilitate aeration and
better root development. Pre-emergence herbicide can be used to control weeds. Generally 3-4 hand
weeding required during the season of crop.

Harvesting: Marketable stage is depending on size of roots. Delay in harvesting roots become fluffy
and unfit for consumption. Harvesting is done by pulling them out by hand if sufficient moisture is
available. Light irrigation before harvesting will facilitate harvesting.
Yield: Asiatic var. give more yield than European var.
Average yield varies from 100 to 200 q/ha.
xPhysiological disorders: Cavity spot and Carrot splitting
Diseases: Damping off, Bacterial soft rot.
Pest: Cut worm, White worm, White grub.
Beet root
Botanical name: Beta vulgaris – Beetroot

68
 Family : Chenapodiaceae
Origin : Europe
Chromosome number : 2n = 18
Beet root is a popular root crop grown for its fleshy roots which are used as cooked vegetables,
salad and for pickling and canning.
The five selections of Beta vulgaris are Garden beet, Mangle, Sugar beet, Chard or Swiss chard,
Foliage beets. Its flowers during second year if allowed. The flower stalks grow in height of more than
one meter. Beet fruit contains two to six seeds.

Tuber:
SWEET POTATO
B.N.: Ipomaea batatas Lam.
Family: Convolvulaceae
Origin: Brazil
Local name: Shakarkand, Mitha aloo, Shakaria.
Importance and Uses: Important tropical and sub tropical crop cultivated throughout the world.
It is one of the world’s highest yielding crop with reference to total food production and requires
low inputs. Asia accounts for 92% of world's sweet potato area and production it occupy the
seventh rank world statistic, after wheat rice, potato, barley and cassava. it has the ability of the
highest solar energy fixing efficiencyIts roots are used after boiling or after roasting. Also used
for making flour, this is mixed with other types of flour. Undeveloped roots and vines are used
for cattle feed. Roots are rich in starch varies from 19 to 32%. The crop has many industrial uses,
like manufacture of starch, alcohol, syrup and in backing and confectionery.
Climate: Prefers moderate cool climate. Optimum temperature range 21 to 260 C. Sweet potato
is a largely a rabi season crop.
Soil: Well drain, sandy loam soils with a clay sub soil is essential for better yields. The soil
should be rich in organic matter, free from hard layer and should have better irrigation facilities.
Varieties: Pusa Safed, Pusa Lal, Pusa Sunehri, Kiran, Samrat, Kalmeg, V2, V6, No. 4004, V8,
V12, Varsha, Sree Nandini, Rajendra Sakarkand 5 and Yellow Jercy.
Planting: It is propagated by sprouts from tuber and vine cuttings. Vine cuttings are collected
from previous crop and are used for planting the succeeding crop. Length of vine cutting should
be 30 to 50 cm with 4 to 5 sound buds.
 Ridges planting method give higher yield than flat beds.
Planting distance: 60 x 20-25 cm should be maintained.
Planting time: It is varies according to season and place to place. Central India -October-
November
Manures and Fertilizers: Depends on soil type, variety and season of planting.
N P K (kg/ha)
37.5 75 75 as Basal
37.5 00 00 35 to 40 DAP
Total 75 75 75
Top dressing should be followed by light earthing up.

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Irrigation: Interval and amount of irrigation depend on soil type and season. Irrigation should be
apply just after planting and later on 10 to 12 days interval should be kept. During rainy season
excess water should be removed for proper growth and root development.
Weed control: Till the vines are spread on the soil, the crop should remain weed free from
weeds. Normally 2 to 3 weeding are needed.
Harvesting:
Crop is ready for harvest after 120-135 DAT. At maturity leaf colour changed as well as tuber
become brittle when fully developed. The vines are removed before harvesting, then tubers
digging out with kudali or spade.
Yield: Rianfed area: 6 to9 t/ha, Irrigated with improved varieties: 20-30 t/ha
Diseases: Stem rot, Black rot, Wilt, White rust, Leaf spot.
Pest: Leaf eating cater pillars, Sweet potato weevil.
Storage: Generally, red skinned tubers store better than white skinned. Tubers can be stored for
2 to 3 months at 15 o C with 85 to 90 % humidity.

LEAFY VEGETABLES (GREEN VEGETABLES):

Leafy vegetables are rich in Ca, iron, and other minerals and in vit A & C. It is recommended
that every person should consume at least 40 gram of green leafy vegetable every day. Besides their
soft fibrous matter provide the necessary roughages in the diet. Green leafy vegetable should be used
immediately after harvested or brought from the market. To make the best use of green leafy vegetable
it is also necessary that they should be cooked properly so that all the essentials nutrients of food may
be available to the maximum. Do not buy those which are left over from the morning/ from the
previous day sale. They become wilted and loss their nutritive value. However if they are to be stored
for a day or so , they should be wrapped in cloth or in banana leaf and keep in cool, dark, damp place
away from dust and flies. Never soak them water because water dissolve the valuable nutrients and it
may loss from leafy vegetables e.g. vit-a, B2 and minerals. Leafy vegetables should be washed in a pot
of water only before cooking to remove dirt and mud. After washing they should be immediately
cooked in as little water as possible.
Amaranthus, spinach, fenugreek, coriander, beet leaf, gogu and lettuce are the major leafy vegetables
grown in the country.
Common features of leafy vegetables:
(1) Most of leafy vegetables are of short duration and entire harvest is over within 80-90 days.
(2) Leaf vegetables are cultivated by direct sowing and by transplanting. In transplanted method, 25-30
days old seedlings are transplanted at a closer spacing and harvesting is done by frequent clippings
or cutting.
(3) Since leaves are consumed directly, application of plant protection chemicals should be avoided or
limited to minimum.
(4) Seeds are small, soil should be prepared to a fine tilth through ploughing and levelling.
(5) Oxalate and nitrate levels in leaf vegetables are quite high compared to other vegetables.
(6) For maintaining succulence, soil should be moist with steady supply of nutrients, particularly of
nitrogen.
Palak (Spinach)
Desi palak : Beta vulgaris var. Bengalensis
Vilayathi palak: Spinacea oleracea (Spinach)
Family : Chenopodiaceae

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Origin: Indo-china region
Chromosome no.: 2n=18, 12
Mode of pollination: Cross pollination
Synonyms for desi palak: Spinach beet, beet leaf, Indian Spinach
Local name: Palak
Varieties:
Desi palak: All green, Pusa palak, Pusa jyothi, Pusa harit, Jobner green, Arka Anupma
Vilayati palak: Virginia savoy, Early smooth leaf
Soil: Prefer sandy loam good drainage. Palak is highly salt tolerant crop and can be grown successfully
in saline sodic soil.
Climate: Though winter season crop, palak can be grown throughout year under mild temperature
conditions. Withstand frost and some extent and warm weather. If temperature is very high, it results in
bolting.
Sowing time: Winter: Oct-Nove. Summer: Feb-March
Seed rate: 25 to 30 kg per ha.
Manuring: Nitrogen fertilizer is more important. Apply 30 per ha of well decomposed FYM. 25 to 50
kg of N is given as basal and 20 kg Nitrogen after every cutting.
Irrigation: More number of irrigations is essential in light or sand soil. Summer crops require frequent
irrigations at 3 to 4 days interval. In winter, autumn irrigations are given at 10 to 15 days interval.
Harvesting: Starts at 25 to 30 DAS. It may continue to 15 to 20 days interval. Cut only green succulent
tender leaves, winter crops give more cuttings than summer crop varieties.
Yield: It varies with cultivar 12 to 30 t per ha.
Amaranthus:
Botanical name: Amaranthus spp.
Family : Amaranthaceae
Origin: Probably India
Local name: Tandljo, Chaulai, Tandukeerai
Chromosome No.: 2n=32, 34, 64
Mode of pollination: Self pollination
It is one of the oldest and common vegetables crops grown in India. There is several kind of
Amaranthus variety cultivated in India. Leaves and succulents stem are used for vegetables. They are
very good source of iron (38.5 mg/100g), Calcium (350-400mg/100g) and Vitamin A and Vitamin -C.
The crop is cultivated twice in a year, once in the monsoon and once in summer. It is suitable for
sowing in summer. High oxalate and content and nitrate levels are reported from leaves of various
species. Short duration, quick response to manure and fertilizers, high yield, easiness in cultivation and
availability of diverse type’s suite to specific agro-climatic situations make it a favorite crop of farmers
to any cropping systems. Both leaf and grain types play a vital role to combat malnutrition of poor
people.
Climate and Soil: Mostly it can be grown in all season. Leaf amaranthus is a warm season crop
adapted to hot humid climatic conditions. It can be grown in any type of soil. But most prefer well
drained loamy soil rich in organic matter. The ideal pH id 5.5-7.5.

Varieties: Two varieties green and red. The green variety is more common.
Co.-1,2,3, Pusa Chaulai, Lal sag, Choti Chaulai, Arka Suguna, Arka Arunima
Method of sowing: The seed is sown broadcast after mixing with fine earth for uniform distribution. It
can be sown by drilling or broadcasting the seeds in line made 20-30 cm apart.
Seed rate: 2-4.5 Kg /Ha
Sowing season: Kharif: May-June, Winter: Oct- Nov. Summer: Febr.-March

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 Manure and fertilizers: FYM-25-30 t/ha.
30:25:25 kg NPK/ha.
Nitrogen applied in two spilt. First as a basal dose and second after third or fourth picking.
Irrigation: For winter 12-15 Days interval, Summer 8-10 days interval.
Harvesting: Usually starts in about 3-4 weeks after sowing. The plants are either cut periodically or
whole young plants are pulled out with the roots. For a better yield, periodical cutting of the plants is
recommended. About 8-10 cuttings can be taken at weekly interval.
Yield: 10-15 t/Ha in a span of 2 months.

Chapter VI Bulb crops

The group of bulb crops includes onion, garlic, leek, shallot and chive. These belong to the
family Alliaceae (Amaryallidaceae) and genus Allium. They are grown in India as winter
vegetables.
Bulb means a short, modified underground stem surrounded by usually fleshy modified leaves that
contain stored food for the shoot. A bulb's leaf bases, also known as scales, generally do not
support leaves, but contain food reserves to enable the plant to survive adverse conditions.
The common features of bulb crops are :
1. The stem is under ground and rudimentary. The edible portion, the bulb is formed by fleshy leaf
bases in onion, fleshy auxiliary buds within thin foliage in garlic.
2. All the bulb crops have a characteristics odour due to presence of allyl-propyl-disulphide.
3. All are cool season vegetables and are grown during winter season in plains.
4. Bulb crops are propagated through seeds or bulb or cloves. When raised from seeds, seedlings
after attaining proper size are transplanted.
5. Seed propagated bulb crops are annuals for bulb production and biennials for seed production.
6. Seed producing bulb crops are highly cross pollinated and pollination is by honey bees, flies
and other insects.
ONION
B. N. :- Allium cepa L. Family: Alliaceae
Local name:- Hindi : Pyaz
Origin: North West India
Plant part: - Bulb
Chromosome no.: 2n= 16
Pollination: Cross pollination
Introduction: Onion is valued for its bulbs having characteristic odour, flavour and pungency
which is due to the presence of a volatile oil – allyl-propyl-disulphide (C6H12S2). Pungency is
formed by enzymatic reaction when tissues are broken. The anti-fungal factor in onion is due to
phenolic compound known as Catechol. The yellow colouring material found in outer skin of
bulb is called quercetin. Bulbs are suited for storage for a long period and for long distance
transport. Onion greens are also used by harvesting crop at pencil thickness and when small bulb is
formed. The flowering shoot known as Scape is also used as vegetable. It is rich in minerals like
phosphorus and calcium and carbohydrates. It also contains Protein and Vitamin C.
India is the second largest producer (19.90 %) of onion in the world, next to China. India
occupy the area about 10.64 lakh hector, while its production is 151.18 lakh MT and productivity
14.23 MT/ha. Maharashtra (33%) is the leading onion producing state in India followed by
Karnataka (17 %) and Gujarat (10 %).Lasongaon in Maharashtra is the biggest onion market in
India. In Gujarat, it is cultivated in area of 62010 hector land and its production is about 15.14 lakh

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MT and productivity 24.42 MT/ha. The major producing districts of Gujarat are Bhavnagar,
Rajkot and Amreli.
Uses: It is use as a green and mature stage for salad and spices in a variety of flavour dishes and
soups. It is very important in cookery; hence it is called the "queen of kitchen". It is also used as
fried, boiled, baked and pickles etc. Dehydrated onions powder and onion flakes are used as spices
in Arab countries.
Medicinal uses: It is diuretic and applied on wounds and boils. During summer it reduces the
body heat and is also useful in dysentery. Bulb juice is very useful in faintness, infantile
convulsions, headache, and epileptic and hysterias fits. Its hot juice is also dropped into the ear to
relieve ear pain. It is applied in eyes in dimness of vision, to allay irritation of insect bites.

Types of onion: The following types of onions are grown in India:

1. Common onion (Allium cepa var. cepa) – with large bulbs born singly and propagated through
seeds. It is mainly used as salad or in curries.
2. Multiplier onion or potato onion (Allium cepa var. aggregatum) – producing small bulbs
borne in clusters and generally propagated through small bulbs. Mainly used for seasoning
curries.
3. Shallot (Allium cepa var. ascalonicum) – Produces bulbs in clusters on surface of soil. This
perennial onion rarely produces seeds and is propagated through bulbs.
4. Tree onion or Egyptian onion (Allium cepa var. viviparaum / proliferum) – This viviparous
plant produces a perennial underground bulb and is not widely cultivated. The bulb-lets
produced in place of umbel are used for pickling and seasoning. Bulb-lets are also used for
propagation.
5. Chive (A. schoenoprasum):. This is a hardy perennial bunching herb grown for their hollow
green leaves. It is propagated by root division and is tolerant to extreme cold and drought.
Botany:-Onion is a biennial herb with a characteristic smell. Flowers are produced during second
phase after formation of bulbs. Flowering structure is called an ‘umbel’, which is an aggregate of
many small inflorescences (cymes) of 5-10 flowers. Though individual flowers are hermaphrodite,
they are cross pollinated due to protandry.
Climate: Onion is a cool season vegetable and grows well under mild climate. For bulb formation
it requires long days and still higher temperature (20-25oC). Onion is treated as a long day plant,
for bulb formation and its development.
Soil: Onion can be grown on a variety of soils ranging from sandy loam to heavy clays, but most
preferred sandy loam, silt loam and deep friable soil. The most favourable soil pH range is 5.8 -6.8.
Varieties: Onion varieties differ in size, colour of skin, pungency, and maturation of bulbs.etc.
Large sized bulbs are mild in pungency and are sweet in taste compared to small sized onions. Red
coloured cultivars are more pungent than silver skinned varieties and keep better in storage.
Improved varieties: Pusa Red, Nasik-53, Agri Found Light Red, Agri Found, Agri Found Dark
Red, NHRDF Red, Nasik Red, Bellary Red, Patna Red and Patna White, Pusa white, Gujarat
White Onion-1, Junagadh Local (Pilli Patti), Talaja Local ( Lal)
Hybrid varieties: IIHR, Bangalore has developed F1 hybrids like Arka Kirtiman, Arka Lalima
and Arka Pitamber.
Raising of seedlings:
 500 sqm areas are required for planting of one ha.
 Seeds are sown in the month of September to November for rabi season crop and May –June for
kharif crop.
 Before sowing seeds should be treated with Thirum 2 to 3 g per kg of seeds.
 The seeds are sown in nursery in furrow opened 1 to 2 cm deep at 5 to 7 cm apart and just after

73
 dropping the seeds in the furrows they are covered with fine soil or compost which facilitate
early and uniform germination.
 Light watering done regularly
 Drenching of Bavistin at0.2 % will check the incidence of damping off diseases.
 In 6 to 8 week time seedlings are attain plantable size.
Transplanting:
 Seedlings are transplanted at 10 to 15 cm in height and 6 to 8 week old
 Planting is done at 15x15 cm or 15 x10 cm.
 Prior to transplanting of seedlings, uppermost 20 to 25 % portion is cut in order to facilitate
quick establishment of seedlings, reduce the transpiration rate because the volume of foliage is
reduced.
Seed rate: 8-10 kg seeds are required for one hector of land.
Sowing time:
Season Nursery raising Transplanting
Winter season September - October November-December
Kharif season May-June July-August
Spacing: 15 x 10, 15 x 15, 10 x 10
Manures and fertilizers: 20 to 25 t/ha FYM should be incorporated at the time of soil preparation.
N P K (kg/ha)
37.5 60 50 as a Basal doses
37.5 ---- ---- 30 DATP
Total 75.00 60 50

Irrigation:
 Just after TP light irrigation is essential, second after four day of DAT.
 Then every 8-10 days interval up to bulb formation, it should be irrigated as per need.
 Critical stage of irrigation is bulb formation and bulb enlargement.
 Irrigation should be stopped before 15 to 20 days of maturity; otherwise it will delay the
maturity and reduce the quality of bulbs.
Interculturing and Weed control: Crop should be remaining weed free up to two months for
better quality and yield. Shallow rooted crop so shallow weeding is done to avoid root injury.
Generally 3 to 4 weeding are sufficient for normal yield. Basalin 1.0 kg a.i. in 1000 liters of water
can be sprayed before TP + one hand weeding keep the field weed free.
Harvesting: It is depend on its type and purposes.
1. Onion for greens: For high quality green leaves plants are pulled when they are lead to
pencil thickness when bulb formation starts.
2. Immature bulbs: For home consumption and supply to market, immature onion plants are
pulled along with bulbs.
3. Mature bulbs: a) Fully mature bulbs are harvested after 4 months.
b) Dropping of tops just above the bulb known as neck fall.
c) The top may be down manually before 8 to 10 days of harvesting.
d) The outer scales on the bulbs become loose and cloured.
The dehydration ratio is 10:1.
Curing: Curing is essential operation after harvesting. It will remove excess moisture from outer
skin and neck of onion bulbs. Curing increases the storage life of bulbs, improving the colour of
skin. Cured onion has tight skin and well dried outer skin.
Yield:- 35-40 ton /hector
Diseses: Purple blotch, Downy mildew,Bacterial soft rot, Neck rot, Onoin smut.

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Pest: Thrips, Maggot, Leaf eating catter pillar.
Bolting: The term bolting in onion means pre-emergence of seed stalks prior to time of their
formation of bulbs.
Causes: 1. Low temperature
2. Genetic make up of plant
3. Age of seedlings at transplanting
4. Deficiency of nutrients
5. Poor quality seeds
6. Time of planting
Control: MH 40 was found to be more effective in controlling the problem of bolting

Seed Production:
 Maintain 1000 m isolation distance between two cultivars. It is Cross-pollinated crop, honey
bees.
 Biennial for seed production. Seed to seed or bulb to seed method is followed.
 High seed yield—in seed to seed method, yield is high as compared to bulb to seed method.
 High quality seed --- Bulb to seed method. Because selection of true to type bulbs is possible.
 Healthy, diseases free, 2.5 to 3.0 cm diameter bulbs are planted at 30 x 20 cm in the months of
October.
 Three months after planting flowering stalks are produced. Rouging is done at this stage.
 Early umbles produced heavier seed with a better quality.
 Ripened individual umbles are cut and dried in a well ventilated place, threshed, sun dry and
stored in bins.
 Seed yield is 8 to 10 q/ha.
GARLIC
B.N.: Allium sativum L.
Family : Alliaceae
Synonymous: Lahsoon, Lassan, Poodu, Vellulli
Origin: Central Asia
Chromosome no.: 2n=16
Introduction and Uses:
 Garlic is produced only in one season-winter.
 The edible underground bulb it’s made of smaller bulb lets known as cloves.
 Cultivated throughout the country and important spice or condiment used for flavouring
vegetables dishes.
 TN, UP, Gujarat, AP and Punjab are main growing states.
 Used in several food preparations such as chutneys, pickles, curries, ketchup.
 Its powder is also used in many preparations.
 Green leaves are also used in chutney and salad
 The typical flavor of garlic is due to the presence of Chemical Allecin plus Diallyl
disulphide.
 Garlic oil contains Diallyl propyl disulphide and another sulphur compound Allin. The oil
is used in paralytic and rheumatic infections
 Antibiotics have been prepared from its extracts.
 Used in stomach troubles, headache, tooth-ache, ear-ache.
 Allicin has anti bacterial activity.

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 Climate: It is cool season crop and hardy to frost. The crop requires low temperature for vegetative
growth as well as bulb formation. When temperature goes above 300 C bulb size is affected.
Soil: It can be grown on a variety of soils ranging from sandy loams to heavy clays. Sandy loam,
deep and friable soils having better moisture retention capacity are best. Heavy. The optimum pH is
5.8 TO 6.5.
Varieties:
(1) White coloured: More popular and less pungent.
(2) Red coloured: Medicinal purposes. More pungent
(a) Small size: T 56-4, Creole, Italian and Tahiti
(b) Big size: Solan, Phawari, Rajali gaddi.
(c) Released from Gujarat: Gujarat Garlic-1,2, 3, Gujarat Garlic-10, G-282.
Seed rate: The seed rate depends on size of the bulbs. 3.5 to 5.5 quintals of cloves are required for
planting of one hectare field.
Planting time:
October to November
Planting: Cloves are planted at distance of 15 x 7.5-10 cm. Planting is done by dibbling or
dropping cloves in furrows
Manures and Fertilizers:
N P K (kg/ha)
25 50 50 Basal dose
25 ---- ---- 30 DAP
Total 50 50 50
Irrigation:
 Sufficient moisture at the time of planting
 Winter season 8-10 days interval, in warm season at weekly interval.
 Light irrigation 2-3 days before harvesting makes the bulb harvest easy.
 Excessive moisture before harvesting results in poor quality bulbs.
Weed control: Shallow cultivation. Usually up to 60 days crop should be remain weed free. Root
injury should be avoided.
Harvesting:
 170 to 180 DAP
 Crop become yellow, fall and dry.
 Bulbs with the leaves are collected and small bundles should be made.
 After 5-7 days bulbs are separated and stored in cool place.
Yield: Average 10-20 t/ha.
Diseases: DM, Bacterial soft rot.
Pest: Thrips, Maggot.

SPICES:

Fennel
B.N. : Foeniculum vulgare Miller
Family : Apiaceae / Umbelliferae
Origin : Europe (Mediterranean countries)

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Introduction: Fennel is an important cash crop among spices. Seeds of fennel posses the
aromatic odour with a pleasant taste. Fennel seeds yield 4-5 % volatile oil, the main
constituent of which is “Anihele”. Gujarat and Rajasthan are the chief growing states in
India. India exports fennel to U.S.A., Germany, Japan, Singapore, Canada, Malaysia and
Dubai.
Cultivated area:
India : Gujarat and Rajasthan are the major states.
Gujarat : Main districts are Banas Kantha, Mehsana, SabarKantha, Patan, Kheda &
Gandhinagar
Uses:
1. Seeds are used as mouth freshener
2. It is also used in pickle.
3. Seed contain volatile oil used in preparation of soap, medicine, perfumes, cough drops,
nematicides, cold drinks etc.
4. Green leaves as vegetable (Seeds contain 14 to 20 % protein).
5. It is widely flavoring and garnishing material in culinary preparations.
6. They are useful against the disease affecting chest, spleen and kidneys.
Soil: Well drain and fertile, loamy and medium black are suitable.
Climate: Cool and dry weather are most suited to fennel. Cool long night is beneficial for
better flowering and seed development.
Improved variety :
PF-35, Guj.Fennel-1, Guj. Fennel-2, Guj.Fennel-11, CO.1. Fennel
Sowing:
Sowing time: Sowing is done during Oct.-Nov (Rabi) and June-Aug (Kharif).
Seed rate: 5-9 kg/ha seeds are required for one hectare.
Sowing method: Seeds are either directly sown in field or transplanting. Seeds are sown in
rabi season by broadcasting or in rows spaced at 30-45 cm apart. Seeds are sown shallow.
While in kharif season, the seedlings are raised in nursery during June, an area of 100 sq. m
sufficient to raise seedlings to plant one hectare. The seedlings will be ready for transplanting
by about 40-50 days. Then it should be transplanted at 90 x 60 cm spacing.
Seed treatment: Before sowing, the seeds may be soaked in water for 5 days for prompt
germination.

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Manures and fertilizers :
20 t/ha well rotten FYM at the time of land preparation
1. Kharif : Kg/ha
N P K
40 + 60 + 0 As basal dose
30 + 0 + 0 30 DAT as top dressing
30 + 0 + 0 60 DAT ” ”
Total 100 + 60 + 0 kg/ha
2. Rabi : Kg/ha
N P K
45 + 45 + 0 Basal dose
22.5 + 0 + 0 30 DAT as top dressing
22.5 + 0 + 0 60 DAT ” ”
Total 90 + 45 + 0 kg/ha
Irrigation : Kharif – As required
Rabi - 7 to 8 Irrigation are required at interval of 20-25 days.
Inter-culturing : 2 to 3 times as and when required
Earthing up : 75 DAT in Kharif crops to prevent lodging.
Harvesting : Kharif : 215 days. Rabi : 150 days
(A) Seed purpose – All the umbels do not mature at the same time, so picking of only
well developed umbels. Harvesting should be done when seeds are fully developed but
still green.
(B) Pan Masala – Green umbel – more sugar, less fiber, low yield but fetch higher price.
Yield: Kharif - 2000 to 2500 kg/ha, Rabi - 1800 to 2000 kg/ha
Diseases : Collar rot, Blight
Pest : Aphid

CUMIN (JEERA)
B.N. : Cuminum cyminum L.
Family : Apiaceae / Umbelliferae
Origin : Egypt or Mediteranean region.
Plant part: Fruits (dried seed)
Introduction: Gujarat ranks first in production and area of Cumin. Aromatic fragrance is due
to an alcohol ‘ cuminol’. Volatile oil content ranges from 2.8 to 4.7
It is cultivated in
Country: Egypt, India, Iraq and China

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India : Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab
Gujarat : Patan, Rajkot, Surendranagar, Banaskantha, Ahmedabad, Jamnagar, Mehsana
and Sabarkantha.
Botany: Annual with a height of 30-45 cm. produces many branches. Leaves are long
divided deep green. Flowers small, white or rose coloured born as umbels. Seed elongated 6
mm long and light yellowish brown.
Uses : Dried cumin seeds are used as condiment in preparation of curry bread, cheese,
pickle and also used in mixed spices and curry powder.
- Cumin oil has medicinal value and is also used in perfumery and for flavouring food
and beverages.
- Cumin helps in earning foreign exchange.
- Seeds are used in prevention of diarrhea.
Climate: It is Rabi crop. So it requires cool and moderately dry climate for growth and
development . High humidity with cloudy weather is harmful which cause powdery mildew.
Soil: Well drained, sandy to sandy loam soils are suitable with adequate organic matter
Improved varieties:
 Released from GAU, Jagudan:
1. MC–43
2. S-404
3. Gujarat Cumin- 1: Tolerant to wilt, Plants are erect with pink flowers, grain colour is
ash brown, mature within 105-110 days.
4. Gujarat Cumin- 2: Blight resistant (Ash colour of seed), mature in 100 days.
5. Gujarat Cumin- 3: " " " "
6. Gujarat Cumin- 4: Medium tall, bushy, flower is dark purple. Very high yield
potential (1250 Kg/ha), High volatile oil (4.2%), Resistant to wilt.
7. Vijapur-5
 Released from RAU: RS-1, RZ-19, RZ-209
Sowing:
 Propagation: Through seeds
 Seed rate: 12 to 16 kg/ha. seeds required for broadcasting.
 Seed treatment: Seeds are soaked in water for 8 hrs, dried – treated with Ceresin @ 3
g/kg of seed before sowing.

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  Time of sowing: First week of November is best.
 Method of sowing: Bed size: 1 m x 5 to 10 m
Depth of sowing: Depend upon slope of soil) sown at 1 cm depth
1. Broadcasting
2. Drilling : 30 x 10 cm spacing
Manures and fertilizers: 15 to 20 t FYM/ha

N P2O5 K2O (kg/ha)

15 + 15 + 0 Basal dose
15 + 0 + 0 Top dressing 30 DAS
30 + 15 + 0 Total
Irrigation: 3 to 5 irrigation are required at 15 to 20 days interval according to soil and
climatic conditions. First irrigation immediately after sowing and second at 8-10 days after
germination or first irrigation. Subsequent at 15-20 days interval. Last heavy irrigation must
be given at the time of seed formation.
Weeding and inter-culturing: 2 weeding + 2 Inter-culturing
Harvesting: Crop mature within 105 to 120 days. Golden yellow colour of seed indicates
maturity of crop. Plants are uprooted in early morning & suns dried for 2 to 3 days and then
thresh out by beating with the bamboo sticks. After cleaning grading should be done.
Yield : 800-1000 kg/ha (Seed). Guj. Cumin-4 : 1253 kg/ha
Disease :
1. Blight : Dithane M 45 – 4 sprays -1st spray 30 DAS, remaining sprays at 10 day interval @
2 g/litre.
2. Powdery mildew: 3 sprays of Sulphur @ 20-25 g/10 liter water. 1st spray 40 DAS and
remaining sprays at 15 days interval.
3. Wilt: Uproot & remove the affected plants.
Pests: Aphid and Thrips

FENUGREEK (Methi)
B.N.: Trigonella foenum graecum L.
Family: Febaceae / Leguminosae
Origin: South East Europe

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Introduction: Fenugreek is also called as “goat horn” or Cow shorn” because the seeds pods
resemble like horn. It is anuual herb, growing to a height of about 45-60 cm with green
leaves and small white flowers.
Cultivated area in India
 India: The crop grown in all states except Assam and W.B.
 Gujarat : Patan, Anand, Junagadh, Banas Kantha, Mehsana (Unjha)
 More than 80 % area and production is contributed by Rajasthan.
Uses:
 As a condiments, as a leafy vegetables, used in pickles and salad.
 Seeds are mainly used as spice for flavouring all most all dishes.
 Plants foliage is used as cattle feed.
 It has high medicinal value as it prevents constipation, removes indigestion
and is appetizing, anti-diabetes and diuretic. It is act as carminative & used in many
Ayurvedic medicines.
 Important chemical present in seed is Diosgenin which is used to prepare
contraceptive pills.
There are two types of methi:
Common methi – Trigonella foenumgreakum – is quick growing and produces erect shoots
to a height of 40-70cm.
Kasuri methi – Trigonella corciculata also called as Champa menthi. Champa methi is a
slow growing type and remains in rosette condition during most of its vegetative
growth period. Out of these two the former is more commonly cultivated.
No.Common Methi Kasuri Methi (Dwarf)
1 T. foenum graecum Trigonella corniculata
2 Quick growing Slow growing
3 Produces upright shoots Initially remains in rosette condition
4 Produce 2-3 white flowers at the base Produce 2-3 white flowers in heads
of each leaf. formed on long stalks.
5 Pods are straight 3-10 cm long, each Pods are smaller and sickle shaped.
contain 10-15 seeds & beak shaped
Climate: Mostly grown as irrigated in rabi season, required cool and dry climate. Cloudy
weather is not suitable because it induces powdery mildew. Susceptible to frost.
Soil : Well drained and fertile, sandy, sandy loam and medium black soils are best suited.
Improved varieties:
Pusa Early Bunching: Vegetable purposes

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Kasuri Selection, Rajendra Kranti, EC 4911, IC 9955, Methi No. 47 , RMT-1,
RMT- 143, CO-1, Hisar Sonali, Gujarat Fenugreek – 1 (Jagudan)
Sowing:
Propagation: It is generally propagated by seeds. Seeds are generally broadcasted in beds
and surface raked to cover it.
Sowing time: October-November
Method: Broad cast over beds and rake in rain fed conditions. In irrigated conditions beds of 200
cm wide 500 – 700 cm length are prepared. Seeds dibbled in lines at 20-30 x 15 cm spacing.
Seed rate : 25 Kg /ha for line sowing & 30-35 Kg/ha for broadcasting
Seed treatment: Seeds are soaked in water for 3 to 4 hrs for better germination inoculated
with Rhizobium culture.
Spacing: If sowing in line, 20- 30 x 10 cm for line sowing.
Manures and fertilizers: 20 t/ha FYM at the time of soil preparation.
N P2O5 K2O (kg/ha)
20 + 20 + 20 As basal dose
20 + 0 + 0 30 DAS
40 + 20 + 20 kg/ha
Irrigation: 4 to 5 irrigation is sufficient
Ist irrigation should be applied at 30 DAS and second at 45-50 DAS and IIIrd at 70-75 DAS
and IVth at 85-90 DAS and Vth at 105-110 DAS special care should be taken to avoid water
stress at pod and seed development period/ stages.
Weeding: 2 hand weeding. Interculturing – 2 to 3.
The herbicides which are very effective in fenugreek are pre- plant application of
fluchloralin, at the rate of 0.75 kg/ha supplemented with hand weeding at 50 DAS could keep
the crop weed free.
Harvesting: Flowering starts at 50 DAS.
Matured: 115- 120 DAS, leaves turn yellowish brown & Pods dried, threshed by beating,
cleaned dried & stored. Green leafy vegetable – 30 to 35 DAS
Yield: 2000 kg/ha (seed), 800-1000 seeds kg/ha (Dual purpose)
Pest : Aphid
Disease : Powdery mildew, use Sulphur, : Root rot - Drenching of B.M.

CORIANDER
B.N. : Coriandrum sativum L.
Origin : South East Asia

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Family: Apiaceae / Umbelliferae
Coriander is cultivated on a large scale for its seeds. It is one of the important minor
spices. It is herbaceous annual with 30-45 cm height, hollow erect stem.
Cultivated area
States : A.P., M.P., M.H., T.N., Rajasthan and Gujarat
Gujarat: Kutchh, Junagadh, Jamnagar, Mehsana and Banaskantha
Uses:
 Leaves and Seeds are used as common spices because of a pleasant aromatic odour.
 Seeds are also used in preparation of pickles, sauce; curry powder.
 The essential oil used for medicinal purposes & as a flavouring agent in foods &
perfumes used in religious ceremony, pan masala etc.
 Important chemical present is Linalool.
 Seeds contain 0.3 - 1.7 % essential oil.
 Green leaves are rich in Vitamin-A.
Climate: It can be grown in all season. In Gujarat, it is grown as Rabi crop. Although, it
require cool and dry climate. The cloudy weather is harmful. Its require frost free climate at
flowering & seed formation.
Soil: It can be grown in all types of soil. Well drained, sandy loam with good WHC is better
in irrigated condition, whereas in rain fed condition, black or heavy soil is better than loamy.
Improved varieties:
CO-1 (TNAU), CO-2(TNAU), Gujarat Coriander (dhana)-1, Gujarat Coriander (dhana)-2,
Karan, CO-3, Sindhu, Swathi, Sadhana.
Sowing:
Sowing time: 15th October to 15th November.
Seed rate and Seed treat. : 12-15 kg/ha for irrigated condition, 25-30 kg/ha for un-irrigated
condition.
For reducing seed rate coriander seeds are splitted in two equal parts (halves), splitted
halves germinate faster. Seeds are treated with thiram @ 3 g/kg of seeds before sowing.
Spacing: 20-30 x 15 cm.
Sowing method: Drilling (Line sowing) and Broadcasting.
Manures and fertilizers:
10 to 15 t/ha FYM at the time of soil preparation.

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 N P2O5 K2O (kg/ha)
10 + 10 + 0 Basal dose
10 + 0 + 0 at 30 DAS
Total 20 + 10 + 0 kg/ha
Irrigation:
 1st irrigation immediately after sowing,
 2nd irrigation at 7-8 DAS & subsequent irrigations are given at 12 - 15 days interval.
 Total 4 to 5 irrigations are sufficient.

Weed control ,Thinning and hoeing:

 Ist hoeing and weeding should be done 30 days after sowing as initial growth of coriander
is slow.
 IInd hoeing and weeding in irrigated coriander may be done between 50 to 60 days after
sowing depending upon the growth of weeds.
 The herbicides which are very effective in coriander are pre-plant fluchloralin at the rate
of 0.75 kg/ha. Pre-emergence Oxyfluorfen at the rate of 0.15 kg/ha or Pendiamithalin at
the rate of 1.0 kg/ha can also used.
Harvesting: The crop will be ready for harvest in 80-120 days. Kharif crops comes to harvest
earlier than Rabi. Green colour turn to straw coloured. If harvesting is delayed – seeds shattered
fruits splitted. The Plants are cut or pulled. Then tied in bundles. Put in shade for drying to avoid
grain shattering and loss of essential oil. After 2-3 days of shade drying, the grain is threshed,
winnowed and sundried. The moisture content is reduced from 2 to 6 per cent. The cleaned, dried
produce is stored in gunny bags lined with white polythene
Yield: 1500 kg/ha (seed)
Pest: Aphid
Disease: Powdery mildew

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