DEVELOPMENT OF SURVEYING

INSTRUMENTS

Surveying is believed to be the world's third-oldest profession. To a surveyor, the

connection chain represents a challenging era in surveying technology and instrument

development. Surveying instruments were developed gradually. It is believed that, an extensive

use of surveying instruments came about during the early days of the Roman Empire. This re-

markable engineering ability of Romans is clearly demonstrated by their extensive construction

of structures and buildings which continue to exist even up to this modern era.
1.
Surveying Instruments
Dioptra. (3rd Century B.C)
20. Pedometer (1780)
2. Groma (4th Century B.C)
21. Alidade (1800)
3. Compass (13th century)
22. Prismatic Compass (1812)
4. Chorobates (20 B.C)
23. Tacheometer (1817)
5. Astrolabe (140 B.C)
24. Tripod (1820)
6. Cross Staff (400 BC)
25. Measuring Tapes (1829)
7. Plumb Bob (2600 BC)
26. Transit (1830)
8. Measuring Rope (4000 BC)
27. level (1832)
9. Merchet (4,000 B.C)
28. Perambulator (1840)
10. Odometer (139 AD)
29. Peg (1887)
11. Theodolite (1576)
30. Clinometer (1889)
12. Plane Table (1590)
31. Electronic Distance Measurement
13. Semicircumferentor (1597)
(EDM) Instruments (1948)
14. Telescope (1607)
32. Geodimeter (1953)
15. Gunter’s Chain (1620)
33. Tellurometer (1957)
16. Vernier (1631)
34. Total Station (1971)
17. Spirit Level (1661)
35. Global Positioning System (GPS)
18. Surveyor’s Compass (1728)
(1973)
19. Sextant (1731)
Dioptra (3 Century B.C)
rd
Dioptra

Historical Background:

It continued in use as an effective surveying tool. Adapted to surveying, the dioptra is

similar to the theodolite, or surveyor's transit, which dates to the sixteenth century. It is a more

accurate version of the groma. There is some speculation that it may have been used to build the

Eupalinian aqueduct. Called "one of the greatest engineering achievements of ancient times," it is

a tunnel 1,036 meters (4,000 ft) long, "excavated through Mount Kastro on the Greek island of

Samos, in the 6th century BCE" during the reign of Polycrates. Scholars disagree, however,

whether the dioptra was available that early.

Function:

It was used in leveling and for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. It consists es-

sentially of a copper tube supported on a standard and could be rotated in either a horizontal or

vertical plane. For measuring horizontal angles, a flat circular disc with graduations in degrees is

used. An arm containing sighting apertures at either end could be rotated to any desired position

on the disc.

Manner of operation:
 Have the 2-torch side touching the dioptra and if you have a shard in it the signal will extend

from the comparator up to 8 blocks, depending on how full the aura type the dioptra is reading is.
 Groma (4 Century B.C) th

Groma

Historical Background:

The groma surveying instrument may have originated in Mesopotamia or Greece before

the 4th century BC. Subsequently, it was brought to Rome by the Etruscans and named cranema

or ferramentum.

Function:

Groma is the principal tool used by the Roman surveyors to trace on the ground simple

and orthogonal alignments, necessary to the construction of roads, city, temples and agricultural

lands subdivision.

Manner of operation:

To use the groma, the surveyor set it up where two roads were to intersect at right angles,

and used the plumb bobs as guides for laying out a line of stakes or flags. Using the naked eye,
these stakes could be constantly realigned, to maintain a straight line as the course of the road

was plotted.
Compass (13th century)
Compass

Historical Background:

The compass was invented more than 2000 years ago. The first compasses were made of

lodestone, a naturally magnetized stone of iron, in Han dynasty China (202 BC – 220 AD). It

was originally called the "South Pointing Fish" The compass was later used for navigation during

the Chinese Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD), as described by Shen Kuo.

Function:

A compass is a magnetometer used for navigation and orientation that shows direction in

regards to the geographic cardinal points. For the structure of the compass, it will show the

diagram called compass rose in showing the 4 main directions: East (E), South (S), West (W)

and North (N). The angle increases in the clockwise position. North corresponds to 0°, so east is

90°, south is 180° and west is

Manner of operation:

To use a compass, hold the compass flat on your outspread hand in front of your chest.

Next, turn the degree dial so that the orienting arrow lines up with the magnetic arrow inside the

compass. Then, look at the travel arrow on the baseplate of the compass to tell you which

direction you’re facing.

Chorobates (20 B.C)
Chorobates

Historical Background:

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a master of architecture, presented De Architectura Libri Decem

(10 books) to this patron Augustus Caesar, about 20 B.C. Vitruvius wrote of the

CHOROBATES, an instrument used for leveling hydraulic gradients to cities and houses.

Function:

an instrument used for leveling hydraulic gradients to cities and houses. The water

supply for Rome alone was comprised of ten great a aqueducts, some coming from lakes as far as

sixty miles from the city. The CHOROBATES is described as a rod 20 feet long with duplicate

legs attached perpendicularly at each end.

Manner of operation:

Diagonal pieces connect the rod and the legs, and both diagonal members have vertical

lines scriven into them, over which plumb bobs are hung. When the instrument is in position,

and the plumb-lines strike both the scribe-lines alike, they show the instrument is level. If the

wind interferes with the plumb lines, the water level at the top of the horizontal piece is used.

Vitruvius instructs that the water level groove was to be "five feel long, one digit wide, and a

digit and a half deep". By using two or more chorobates, established levelly, the vertical

distance between instruments could be established by sighting along the depth of the uphill

instrument, to a rod placed atop the lower chorobate.

Astrolabe (140 B.C)
Astrolabe

Historical Background:

The astrolabe of Hipparchus is considered to be one of the best known of the measuring

instruments that have come down from ancient times. It is believed, that with an astrolabe

Hipparchus was the first to be able to measure the geographical latitude and time by observing

fixed stars. Previously this was done at daytime by measuring the shadow cast by a gnomon, by

recording the length of the longest day of the year or with the portable instrument known as a

scaphe. It was developed sometime in 140 B.C., and further improved by Ptolemy.

Function:

It was originally designed for determining the altitude of stars but it can also be used to

measure latitude and calculate time.

Manner of operation:

Calculating the Time:

Step 1: Hold the astrolabe by the ring at the top so it hangs down. Using the astrolabe any other

way will distort your readings. The very top of the astrolabe is where the “XII” is marked on the

outer rim. If there’s no ring on your astrolabe, pinch the top to hold it right-side up.
Step 2: Adjust the alidade to point at the sun to find the altitude. The alidade is the rotating bar

on the back of the astrolabe. Turn it until it’s angled directly towards the sun. Then look at the

angle measurement that the alidade is now sitting on top of, along the rim of the astrolabe. That

number is the sun’s altitude.

 If the angle reading is 40, for example, it means the sun’s altitude is 40 degrees.

 Never look directly into the sun when doing this. Protect your eyes with sunglasses

whenever you’re looking near the sun, too.

Step 3: Determine the zodiac date by lining up the alidade with the calendar date. On the back of

the astrolabe, you’ll find both the civil calendar dates and the zodiac dates. Place the alidade over

the current date to find the corresponding zodiac one.

Step 4: Align the rule with the correct zodiac date on the front of the astrolabe. The zodiac dates

are located on the outside edge of the rete, which is the top plate on the front of the astrolabe.

After turning the instrument over, move the rule so that it’s on top of the zodiac date you just

found.
Step 5: Rotate the rule and rete together, lining them up with the sun’s altitude. You’ll find the

altitude measurements on the tympan, which is the base plate of the astrolabe. Line up the

intersection point of the rule and rete with the altitude you measured.
Step 6: Find the time where the opposite end of the rule is pointing. Once you have the rule and

rete aligned properly, look at the opposite end of the rule. It will be resting over the time on the

outermost rim of the astrolabe.

 Cross Staff (400 BC)

Cross Staff

Historical Background:

By the Jewish philosopher and scientist Levi Ben Gerson, cross staff was described in

about 1342 and for astronomical and surveying purposes it is originally used. In the 16th century,

it became a mariner’s navigational instrument.

Function:

Two chains are usually provided one for measuring distance along the chain line and

other for measuring the offsets. The cross staff is used to set out the perpendicular directions for

offsets. In this survey, the base line runs through the center of the area, so that the offsets are left

or right side of base line are fairly equal. To check accuracy length of the boundary lines may

also be measured. After the field work is over, the survey is plotted to a suitable scale.

Manner of operation:

The user would also have four crosspieces of varying lengths and based on the height of

the angle being measured, navigators would typically use only one at a time and it also measures

angles up to 90o, 60o, 30o, and 10o and also known as transoms. At one end of the main staff

against his cheek, the navigator is placed to observe the sun, Polaris, or another bright star, and
the transom is adjusted so that the bottom edge touches the horizon and the top of it aligns with

the celestial object. By the point where the main staff between the transom matches the degree

scale, the altitude is determined and the navigator will use charts and maps to determine his

latitude from here.

 Plumb Bob (2600 BC)

Plumb bob

Historical Background:

Until the modern age, plumb bobs were used on most tall structures to provide vertical

datum lines for the building measurements. A section of the scaffolding would hold a plumb line,

which was centered over a datum mark on the floor. As the building proceeded upward, the

plumb line would also be taken higher, still centered on the datum. Many cathedral spires, domes

and towers still have brass datum marks inlaid into their floors, which signify the center of the

structure above.

Function:

A plumb bob, or plummet, is a weight, usually with a pointed tip on the bottom,

suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line, or plumb-line. It is a precursor to

the spirit level and used to establish a vertical datum. It is typically made of stone, wood, or lead

but can also be made of other metals. If it is used for decoration, it may be made of bone or

ivory.
Manner of operation:

To use a plumb bob, mark the location above the area where you want to draw a vertical

line. Loop the plumb bob string around a nail or other object. And lower the plumb bob until it is

very close to the working surface but not touching it.

 Measuring Rope (4000 BC)

Measuring Rope

Historical Background:

The ancient Egyptian measuring rope (the old term for "surveyors" was "harpedonaptae"

or rope-stretchers) was treated to hold its length. It was stretched taut between stakes and then

rubbed with a mixture of beeswax and resin. Some of the ropes depicted in hieroglyph were

graduated by knots tied at intervals. Accuracy was creditable, according to a 1909 triangulation

survey that tied some original boundary stones.

Function:

Plumb bobs were appreciated for their ability to furnish a true vertical line. The

Egyptians employed plumb tools in their sighting and leveling instruments, and as a way to

continue distances vertically. They exploited all the possibilities of the bob, using it for

astronomy, navigation, surveying, and building. It was their "workhorse" tool.

Manner of operation:

Plumb bobs were appreciated for their ability to furnish a true vertical line. The

Egyptians employed plumb tools in their sighting and leveling instruments, and as a way to

continue distances vertically. They exploited all the possibilities of the bob, using it for

astronomy, navigation, surveying, and building. It was their "workhorse" tool.

 Merchet (4,000 B.C)

Historical Background:

A few merkhets have been preserved, including one in the Science Museum in London.

This particular exhibit dates to 600 BC, and, according to a related inscription, belonged to the

son of a priest who hailed from a temple dedicated to the Egyptian god Horus, located close to

Edfu in Upper Egypt.

Function:

It was used to track the alignment of certain stars called decans or "baktiu" in the Ancient

Egyptian. When visible, the stars could be used to measure the time at night. There were 10 stars

for the 10 hours of the night; the day had a total of 24 hours including 12 hours for the day, 1

hour for sunset, and 1 hour for sunrise. Merkhets were used to replace sundials, which were

useless during the dark.

Manner of operation:

Merkhets is a bar with a plumb line, attached to a wooden handle. To use the it, the

surveyor set it up where two roads were to intersect at right angles, and used the plumb bobs as

guides for laying out a line of stakes or flags.

Odometer (139 AD)
Odometer

Historical Background:

Possibly the first evidence for the use of an odometer can be found in the works of the

ancient Roman Pliny (NH 6. 61-62) and the ancient Greek Strabo (11.8.9). Both authors list the

distances of routes traveled by Alexander the Great (r. 336-323 BC) as by his bematists

Diognetus and Baeton. However, the high accuracy of the bematists's measurements rather

indicates the use of a mechanical device. For example, the section between the cities

Hecatompylos and Alexandria Areion, which later became a part of the silk road, was given by

Alexander's bematists as 575 Roman miles (529 English miles) long, that is with a deviation of

0.2% from the actual distance (531 English miles).

Function:

An odometer or odograph is an instrument used for measuring the distance traveled by a

vehicle, such as a bicycle or car. The device may be electronic, mechanical, or a combination of

the two (electromechanical).

Manner of operation:
Theodolite (1576)
Theodolite

Historical Background:

The first instrument more like a true theodolite was likely the one built by Joshua

Habermel (de:Erasmus Habermehl) in Germany in 1576, complete with compass and tripod.

Eventually, the simple, open-sight alidade was replaced with a sighting telescope. This was

first done by Jonathan Sisson in 1725. The theodolite became a modern, accurate instrument

in 1787 with the introduction of Jesse Ramsden's famous great theodolite, which he created

using a very accurate dividing engine of his own design.

Function:

A theodolite works by combining optical plummets (or plumb bobs), a spirit (bubble

level), and graduated circles to find vertical and horizontal angles in surveying. An optical

plummet ensures the theodolite is placed as close to exactly vertical above the survey point.

The internal spirit level makes sure the device is level to the horizon. The graduated circles,

one vertical and one horizontal, allow the user to actually survey for angles.

Manner of operation:

Using the viewing scope on the theodolites side, record the vertical and horizontal angles.

How to take readings in Theodolite. To take measurements in a theodolite, begin by unlocking

the upper horizontal clamp. Then rotate the Theodolite until the arrow on the rough sights is in

line with the point you want to measure, and then lock the clamp.
Plane Table (1590)
Plane Table

Historical Background:

One of the oldest types of surveying instruments used in field mapping. The first

mention of the device in English was by Cyprian Lucar in 1590. Some have credited Johann

Richter, also known as Johannes Praetorius, a Nuremberg mathematician, in 1610 with the first

plane table, but this appears to be incorrect. The plane table became a popular instrument for

surveying. Its use was widely taught.

Function:

is a device used in surveying site mapping, exploration mapping, coastal navigation

mapping, and related disciplines to provide a solid and level surface on which to make field

drawings, charts and maps. It consists of a board attached to a tripod in such a way that it can be

leveled or rotated to any desired direction.

Manner of operation:

1. Hold the ranging pole perfectly vertical and pull the tape tight and as horizontal as

possible.

2. Place the alidade about 5mm to the left of the cross on the permatrace

3. Line up the alidade with the ranging pole using the foresight and the backsight. Shut one

eye! Ideally only one person should mark the points on the plan, so there is consistency.

4. Once aligned, slide the slider bar across so it intersects the cross. Draw a faint line from

the cross roughly to where you think the point you wish to mark lies.
5. Slide the alidade slider bar back in again, and place your scale ruler where it was your

colleague what measurement they have on the tape, i.e. how far the ranging pole is away

from the plane table. Using the 1:500 side of the scale ruler, mark on your first point with

a dot. For example, 17.50m = 3.5cm. Erase the faint line when done.

6. Continue in this vein for each point. When recording a continuous feature, such as a

ditch,

take measurements at about every 1m, or 2m, depending on how uniform the feature is.

7. Once you have completed your survey, GPS in the

location(s) of the plane table using a handheld GPS and mark the co-ordinates on the

map. Use these co-ordinates and the compass arrow to plot the location of your map on

an Ordinance Survey map or Google Maps. In the absence of a GPS, measure the

position of the plane table from two fixed points such as a road or corner of a building.
Semicircumferentor (1597)
Semicircumferentor

Historical Background:

The form was introduced in Philippe Danfrie, Déclaration de l’usage du graphomètre

(Paris, 1597), and was always popular in France. Many graphometers have an inset magnetic

compass. Most graphometers are made of brass, but some American ones are made of wood.

Some 19th-century graphometers had telescopes rather than open sights. Graphometers were also

known as semi circles or semicircumferentors

Function:

An early surveying instrument which was used to measure and layoff angles, and

establish lines of sight by employing peep sights.

Manner of operation:

A graphometer is a topographical instrument used to measure horizontal angles. It is

made up of a circle graduated in 360 degrees. Around the centre of this circle, a sighting device

can turn freely. This device, called an alidade, makes it possible to create a line of sight that

starts from your eyes, passes through the centre of the graduated circle, and ends at the selected

landmark or ranging pole. When in use, the graphometer is rested horizontally on a stand.
 Telescope (1607)

Telescope

Historical Background:

The invention of the telescope in. 1607 is generally accredited to Lippershey. In 1609,

Ga1ileo constructed a refracting telescope for astronomical observations. However, it was only

when cross hairs for fixing the line of sight were introduced, that the telescope was fixed in early

surveying instruments. Twentieth century astronomers developed bigger and bigger telescopes

and, later, specialized instruments that could peer into the distant reaches of space and time.

Function:

The main purpose of astronomical telescope is to make objects from outer space appear

as bright, contrasty and large as possible. That defines its three main function: light gathering,

resolution and magnification.

Manner of operation:

Manually point your telescope as best you can at the target, and then look through the

eyepiece. Hopefully, the object will be in the field of view, but if it isn’t, use the slow-motion

control knobs or dials on your telescope’s mount to make adjustments until the target is in the

center of the eyepiece.

Gunter’s Chain (1620)
Gunter’s chain

Historical Background:

It was designed and introduced in 1620 by English clergyman and mathematician

Edmund Gunter (1581–1626). These, the chain and the link, became statutory measures in

England[when?] and subsequently the British Empire.

Function:

Gunter's chain (also known as Gunter’s measurement) is a distance measuring device

used for surveying It enabled plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted, for legal and

commercial purposes.

Manner of operation:

The method of surveying a field or other parcel of land with Gunter's chain is to first

determine corners and other significant locations, and then to measure the distance between

them, taking two points at a time. The surveyor is assisted by a chainman. A ranging rod (usually

a prominently coloured wooden pole) is placed in the ground at the destination point. Starting at

the originating point the chain is laid out towards the ranging rod, and the surveyor then directs

the chainman to make the chain perfectly straight and pointing directly at the ranging rod. A pin

is put in the ground at the forward end of the chain, and the chain is moved forward so that its

hind end is at that point, and the chain is extended again towards the destination point.
Vernier (1631)
Vernier

Historical Background:

The vernier is a short auxiliary scale placed alongside the graduated scale of an instru-

ment, by means of which fractional parts of the smallest or least division of the main scale can be

determined precisely without having to interpolate. It was invented in 1631 by a Frenchman

name Pierre Vernier. Surveying instruments employ either a direct or retrograde vernier.

Function:

Scientific Research & Labs: Vernier calipers are also used in scientific experiments and

laboratories. For instance, when the temperature increases or decreases, they are used to measure

the expansion of metals and metallic products respectively. They are helpful in understanding the

characteristics of a metal.

Manner of operation:

1. Slide one of the jaws against the object. The caliper has two types of jaws. The larger

ones tighten around an object, to measure the distance across it. The smaller jaws fit into

an opening, and can then be pushed outward to measure its internal diameter. You can
 adjust both pair of jaws by sliding the smaller scale. Once you’ve got one of the jaws in

position, tighten the locking screw if there is one.

2. Read the main scale where it lines up with the sliding scale’s zero. The main scale on a

Vernier caliper typically tells you the whole number plus the first decimal. Read this just

as you would a ruler, measuring to the zero mark on the sliding (Vernier) scale.

3. Read the Vernier scale. Find the first mark on the Vernier scale that lines up perfectly

with any line on the main scale. That mark tells you the value of the additional digits.

4. Add the numbers together. Add the main scale and Vernier scale results together to get

the final answer. Make sure you use the correct units as labeled on each scale, or you

won’t get the right answer.

Spirit Level (1661)
Spirit Level

Historical Background:

The spirit, or bubble, level, a sealed glass tube containing alcohol and an air bubble, was

invented in 1661. It was first used on telescopes and later on surveying instruments, but it did not

become a carpenter’s tool until the factory-made models were introduced in the mid-19th

century.

Function:

A spirit level, bubble level, or simply a level, is an instrument designed to indicate

whether a surface is horizontal (level) or vertical (plumb). Different types of spirit levels may be

used by carpenters, stonemasons, bricklayers, other building trades workers, surveyors.

Manner of operation:

1. Locate the bottom edge of the level. This rests against the surface you're trying to level.

Torpedo level from Johnson Level

2. Some models feature magnetic edges, which "stick" to metal surfaces for ease of use.

3. Inspect the body of the level and check for grabbing points where you won't block the

vials with your hand(s).

4. Most levels feature a punched hole on at least one end for hanging above your

workbench.

5. The tube vial in the center of the level helps you find the true horizontal.

6. Tube vials on the ends finds the true vertical.

7. On many torpedo levels and other specialized levels, there is an angled tube vial to find

level at 45°.
 Surveyor’s Compass (1728)

Surveyor’s compass

Historical Background:

Circumferentors were made throughout Europe, including in England, France, Italy, and

Holland. By the early 19th century, Europeans preferred theodolites to circumferentors.

However, the circumferentor remained in common use in mines and in wooded or uncleared

areas, such as in America

Function:

A circumferentor, or surveyor's compass, is an instrument used in surveying to measure

horizontal angles A circumferentor consists of a circular brass box containing a magnetic needle,

which moves freely over a brass circle, or compass divided into 360 degrees.[1][2] The needle is

protected by a glass covering.

Manner of operation:

To measure an angle with a circumferentor, such as angle EKG (Figure 1), place the

instrument at K, with the fleur-de-lis in the card towards you. Then direct the sights, until

through them you see E; and note the degree pointed at by the south end of the needle, such as

296°. Then, turn the instrument around, with the fleur-de-lis still towards you, and direct the

sights to G; note the degree at which the south end of the needle point, such as 182°. Finally,
subtract the lesser number, 182, from the greater, 296°; the remainder, 114°, is the number of

degrees in the angle EKG. If the remainder is more than 180 degrees, it must be subtracted from

360 degrees.
 Sextant (1731)

Sextant

Historical Background:

The name comes from the Latin sextus, or “one-sixth,” for the sextant’s arc spans 60°, or

one-sixth of a circle. Octants, with 45° arcs, were first used to calculate latitude. Sextants were

first developed with wider arcs for calculating longitude from lunar observations, and they

replaced octants by the second half of the 18th century.

Function:

Sextant, instrument for determining the angle between the horizon and a celestial body

such as the Sun, the Moon, or a star, used in celestial navigation to determine latitude and

longitude. The device consists of an arc of a circle, marked off in degrees, and a movable radial

arm pivoted at the centre of the circle. A telescope, mounted rigidly to the framework, is lined up

with the horizon.

Manner of operation:

The angular distance of the star above the horizon is then read from the graduated arc of

the sextant. From this angle and the exact time of day as registered by a chronometer, the latitude

can be determined (within a few hundred metres) by means of published tables.

Pedometer (1780)
Pedometer

Historical Background:

Leonardo Da Vinci envisioned a mechanical pedometer as a device with military

applications. The modern all-mechanical pedometer was introduced later to the Americans by

Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson obtained a unit from France, but it is not known if he modified the

design, or introduced it to the US as is. Although this pedometer is widely attributed to Jefferson,

proof is difficult to obtain as he never applied for any patents on any of his inventions. In 1780,

Abraham-Louis Perrelet created the first pedometer, measuring the steps and distance while

walking.

Function:

A pedometer is a device, usually portable and electronic or electromechanical, that counts

each step a person takes by detecting the motion of the person's hands or hips. Because the

distance of each person's step varies, an informal calibration, performed by the user, is required if

presentation of the distance covered in a unit of length (such as in kilometers or miles) is desired.

Manner of operation:

To use a pedometer, fasten it to the edge of your pocket, waistband, or belt so it’s near

your hips and legs to more accurately count your steps. However, if you have a pedometer that’s

meant to be worn around your wrist or on your shoe, make sure to attach it securely.
Alidade (1800)
Alidade

Historical Background:

The earliest alidades consisted of a bar, rod or similar component with a vane on

each end. Each vane (also called a pinnule or pinule) has a hole, slot or other indicator through

which one can view a distant object. There may also be a pointer or pointers on the alidade to

indicate a position on a scale. Alidades have been made of wood, ivory, brass and other

materials.

Function:

A device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform a

task. This task can be, for example, to triangulate a scale map on site using a plane table drawing

of intersecting lines in the direction of the object from two or more points or to measure the

angle and horizontal distance to the object from some reference point Polar measurement. Angles

measured can be horizontal, vertical or in any chosen plane.

Manner of operation:

Align the alidade with the object from which angle is to be measured. Aim the crosshairs

in the main scope at the point to be measured. Use the locking knobs on the side of the theodolite

to keep it aimed at the point. Use the horizontal angle zero reset key on the display unit.
Prismatic Compass (1812)
Prismatic Compass

Historical Background:

The 'Prismatic Compass' was invented by the maker Charles Schmalcalder and patented

in 1812.

Function:

A prismatic compass is a navigation and surveying instrument which is extensively used

to find out the bearing of the traversing and included angles between them, waypoints (an

endpoint of the lcourse) and direction.[1] Compass surveying is a type of surveying in which the

directions of surveying lines are determined with a magnetic compass, and the length of the

surveying lines are measured with a tape or chain or laser range finder.[2] The compass is

generally used to run a traverse line.

Manner of operation:

Hold your compass steadily in your hand so the baseplate is level and the direction-of-

travel arrow is pointing straight away from you. Hold it about halfway between your face and

waist in a comfortable arm position with your elbow bent and compass held close to your

stomach. Look down at the compass and see where the needle points.
Tacheometer (1817)
Tacheometer

Historical Background:

The first mechanical tachometers were based on measuring the centrifugal force, similar

to the operation of a centrifugal governor. The inventor is assumed to be the German engineer

Dietrich Uhlhorn; he used it for measuring the speed of machines in 1817.

Function:

is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other

machine.[1] The device usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated

analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly common.

Manner of operation:

To use the photo tachometer, you start by creating a reflective mark on the rotating

surface you wish to measure. You must also ensure the rest of the rotating surface is

comparatively non-reflective. An easy way to do this would be to create a white spot with a paint

marker on an otherwise black or dull-metal shaft.

Tripod (1820)
Tripod

Historical Background:

The modern sturdy, but portable, tripod stand with three leg pairs hinged to a triangular

metal head was invented and first manufactured for sale by Sir Francis Ronalds in the late 1820s

in Croydon. He sold 140 of the stands in the decade 1830-40 and his design was soon imitated by

others

Function:

A surveyor's tripod is a device used to support any one of a number of surveying

instruments, such as theodolites, total stations, levels or transits.

Manner of operation:

The tripod is placed in the location where it is needed. The surveyor will press down on

the legs' platforms to securely anchor the legs in soil or to force the feet to a low position on

uneven, pock-marked pavement. Leg lengths are adjusted to bring the tripod head to a

convenient height and make it roughly level. Once the tripod is positioned and secure, the

instrument is placed on the head. The mounting screw is pushed up under the instrument to

engage the instrument's base and screwed tight when the instrument is in the correct position.

The flat surface of the tripod head is called the foot plate and is used to support the adjustable

feet of the instrument.Positioning the tripod and instrument precisely over an indicated mark on

the ground or benchmark requires intricate techniques.

Measuring Tapes (1829)
Measuring Tapes

Historical Background:

The first record of people using a measuring device was by the Romans using marked

strips of leather, but this was more like a regular ruler than a tape measure. It is there Farrand and

William Wentworth Brown began mass-producing the tape measure. Their product was later sold

to Stanley Works. It was Farrand's concave-convex tape that went on to become the standard for

the majority of pocket tape measure tapes today.

Function:

Tapes are used in surveying for measuring Horizontal, vertical or slope distances. Tapes

are issued in various lengths and widths and graduated in variety of ways.The measuring tapes

used for surveying purposes are classified in 4 types according to the material from which they

are manufactured:

1. Linen or Cloth Tape is made of linen cloth with brass handle at zero end whose length is

included in the tape length. It is very light and handy, but cannot withstand much wear

and tear. So it cannot be used for accurate work. It is little used in surveying except for

taking subsidiary measurements like offsets.

2. Metallic Tape is reinforced with copper wires to prevent stretching or twisting of fibers.

They are available in many lengths but tapes of 20 m and 30 m are more commonly used.

3. Steel Tape is made of steel ribbon varying in width from 6 mm to 16 mm. It is available

in lengths of 1, 2, 10, 30 and 50 meters. It cannot withstand rough usage and should

therefore be used with great care.

 4. Invar Tape is made of invar, an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%). It is 6 mm wide

and is available in lengths of 30 m, 50 m and 100 m. It is costly and delicate and should

be thus handled with great care.

Manner of operation:

To use a tape measure, pull the tang out from the housing and hook it on the edge of the

object to be measured. Stretch the blade across the object, press the lock, and then observe

where the blade meets the end of the object. The nearest line on the blade to the end of the

object is the final measurement.

Transit (1830)
Transit

Historical Background:

The invention of the transit is credited to Young and Draper who worked independently

from each other sometime in 1830. Both men were able to put together in one instrument the

essential parts of what has long been known as the universal surveying instrument.

Function:

A primary survey fieldwork consists of measuring horizontal and vertical angles or

directions and extending straight lines. The instruments that can perform these functions have

additional refinements (built-in) that can be used for other survey operations, such as leveling.

Two types of instruments that fall into this category are the engineers’ transit and the theodolite.

Manner of operation:

1. Make sure that the tripod is stable and securely planted before starting the leveling

process. It is important to do this step to make sure the instrument will not tip over while

doing the leveling process.

2. Make sure that the attachment between the transit level and the tripod is secure.

3. Make sure the four leveling screws are not too tight against the leveling base plate.

4. First position: line up the telescope until it is located directly over a pair of leveling

screws. Using the leveling screws, center the bubble in the spirit vial.

5. Placing both of the leveling screws between your thumb and forefinger; turn both screws

at the same time in opposite directions and watch for movement in the graduated spirit

vial.
6. Move thumbs together in or out. The bubble will follow the left thumb.

7. Second position: when the bubble is centered, rotate the telescope 90°.

8. Repeat the thumbs in, thumbs out action until the bubble is centered in the second

position.

9. Turn the telescope back to the first position and make the proper adjustments to ensure

that the instrument is still level.

10. Move the instrument through various stages of the 360° and check if the instrument is

level at all points.

 Level (1832)

Level

Historical Background:
 It is invented by William Gravatt in 1832. Telescope is used to observe the distant object

through line of sight provided by its arrangement. In general, the telescope is fixed to the vertical

spindle of dumpy level so that it can be rotated along with vertical spindle.

Function:

Levels are the different instruments used for leveling in surveying. There are various types of

levels such as dumpy level, Y level, cushing’s level, tilting level, cooke’s reversible level and

automatic level instruments for leveling in surveying. The process of measuring vertical

distances in surveying is called leveling.

1. Dumpy level is the most commonly used instrument in leveling. In this level the

telescope is restricted against movement in its horizontal plane and telescope is fixed to

its support.

2. Objective Lens Objective lens should be made as the combination of crown glass and

flint glass. Because of this some defects like spherical aberration and chromatic

aberration can be eliminated

3. Y level or Wye-level consists y-shaped frames which supports the telescope. Telescope

cane be removed from the y-shaped supports by releasing clamp screws provided. These

y-shaped frames are arranged to vertical spindle which helps to cause the rotation of

telescope.

4. Cushing’s level, the telescope is restricted against rotation in its longitudinal axis and it is

non-removable. But the object end and eye piece end can be interchangeable and

reversible.
 5. Tilting level consist a telescope which enabled for the horizontal rotation as well as

rotation about 4 degree in its vertical plane. Centering of bubble can be easily done in this

type of level. But, for every setup bubble is to be centered with the help of tilting screw.

6. Cooke’s reversible level is the combination of dumpy level and y-level. In this

instrument, the telescope can be reversed without rotation the instrument.

7. Automatic level is like the dumpy level. In this case the telescope is fixed to its supports.

Circular spirit can be attached to the side of the telescope for approximate leveling.

Manner of operation:

The level instrument is set up on a tripod and, depending on the type, either roughly or

accurately set on a leveled condition using foot screws (Leveling screws). The operator looks

through the eyepiece of the telescope while as assistant holds a tape measure or graduated staff

vertical at the point under measurement.

Perambulator (1840)
Perambulator

Historical Background:

The origins of the surveyor's wheel are connected to the origins of the odometer. While the latter

is derived to measure distances travelled by a vehicle, the former is specialized to measure

distances. Much of the material on the earliest stages in the development of the hodometer are

adequately covered in odometer.In the 17th century, the surveyor's wheel was re-introduced and

used to measure distances.

Function:

A surveyor's wheel, also called a clickwheel, hodometer, waywiser, trundle wheel,

measuring wheel or perambulator is a device for measuring distance. It was also used for

road traverses and surveys of runs (pastoral holdings) where less accuracy was required.

Manner of operation:

Each revolution of the wheel measures a specific distance,

such as a yard, metre or half-rod. Thus counting revolutions

with a mechanical device attached to the wheel measures the

distance directly. Surveyor's wheels will provide a measure of

good accuracy on a smooth surface, such as pavement. On

rough terrain, wheel slippage and bouncing can reduce the accuracy. Soft sandy or muddy soil

can also affect the rolling of the wheel.

Peg (1887)
Peg

Historical Background:

Ancient tribesman used ropes and pegs to plan out where structures were to be built. For early

mapping, usually existing physical monuments such as rivers, mountains, and forests marked

Function:

Peg in surveying is a short pin or bolt-type structure made up of wood or metal or plastic which

is tapered at its one end to secure it in the desired point or station. Survey pegs are used for

marking the points and boundaries of the residential or industrial site. Due to the pointed ends of

the peg, it can be easily installed on the ground. Wooden pegs are cheap and commonly used peg

in surveying.

Manner of operation:

Stake out the area you want to use using some good quality survey pegs. A square is usually

ideal so start by staking your pegs into the ground at your four points. Then use some string to tie

from peg to peg and stake a few more pegs along your borderline equidistant apart.
 Clinometer (1889)

Clinometer

Historical Background:

The Abney level is a handheld surveying instrument developed in the 1870s that includes a

sighting tube and inclinometer. One of the more famous inclinometer installations was on the

panel of the Ryan NYP "The Spirit of St. Louis"—in 1927 Charles Lindbergh chose the

lightweight Rieker Inc P-1057 Degree Inclinometer[1] to give him climb and descent angle

information.

Function:

is an instrument used for measuring angles of slope, elevation, or depression of an object with

respect to gravity's direction. It is also known as a tilt indicator, tilt sensor, tilt meter, slope alert,

slope gauge, gradient

meter, gradiometer,

level gauge, level

meter, declinometer,

and pitch & roll

indicator. Clinometers
measure both inclines and declines using three different units of measure: degrees, and

percentage points.

Manner of operation:
Electronic Distance

Measurement (EDM)

Instruments (1948)
Electronic Distance Measurement

Historical Background:

Origin of Electronic Distance Measurement Electronic distance measurement can be done by

instruments like geodimeter, tellurometer or distomat etc. The first EDM instrument called

geodimeter was developed in Sweden in the year 1948. Geodimeter is geodetic distance meter

developed based on a modulated light beam.

Function:

Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a way of determining the length between two points

by looking a phase change that occur as electronic energy waves, which travel from one end of a

straight line to the other.

Manner of operation:

To measure the horizontal distance between two points, one surveyor uses an EDM instrument to

shoot an energy wave toward a reflector held by the second surveyor. The EDM records the

elapsed time between the wave's emission and its return from the reflector. It then calculates

distance as a function of the elapsed time.

 Geodimeter (1953)

Geodimeter

Historical Background:

The Geodimeter (acronym of geodetic distance meter) was the first optical electronic

distance meter surveying instrument. It was originally developed for measuring the speed of

light. It was invented in 1947 by Erik Osten Bergstrand [sv] and commercialized in 1953 by

the AGA (Aktiebolaget Gasaccumulator) company of Sweden. It was used in the

Transcontinental Traverse.

Function:

Geodimeter. an instrument designed to measure distances by means of the time required for

electromagnetic waves in the optical or infrared regions of the spectrum to cover the

distance.

Manner of operation:

1. Aim instrument at the point. To measure a distance press the A/M key

2. After 3.5 sec. The slope distance (SD) is seen on the display. If you want to see the other

values. i.e. horizontal distance (HD) and vertical distance (VD), press ENT…

3. To measure to the next point, aim the instrument horizontally and vertically at the prism

target and repeat the above instructions. If you measure to the next point in this mode, N,

E and ELE will be displayed first

 Tellurometer (1957)

Tellurometer

Historical Background:

The original tellurometer, known as the Micro-Distancer MRA 1, was introduced in 1957. It

was invented by Trevor Wadley of the Telecommunications Research Laboratory of the

South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), also responsible for the

Wadley Loop receiver, which allowed precision tuning over wide bands, a task that had

previously required switching out multiple crystals.

Function:

The tellurometer design yields high accuracy distance measurements over geodetic distances,

but it is also useful for second order survey work, especially in areas where the terrain was

rough and/or the temperatures extreme.

Manner of operation:

For measuring distance, two Tellurometers are required, one to be stationed at each end of

the line, with two highly skilled persons, to take observations. One instrument is used as a
master unit and the other as a remote unit. Just by pressing a button a master can be

converted into remote unit and vice-versa.

Global Positioning System

(GPS) (1973)
Global Positioning System (GPS)

Historical Background:

The GPS project was launched in the United States in 1973 to overcome the limitations of

previous navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors, including classified

engineering design studies from the 1960s. The U.S. Department of Defense developed the

system, which originally used 24 satellites.

Function:

GPS is a highly accurate navigation system using signals from satellites. To determine a location

on the Earth’s surface, irrespective of weather conditions. • It is dependent on GPS satellites high

above the Earth which transmit signals. Signals containing the time and location of the satellite

Manner of operation:

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is made up of satellites, ground stations, and receivers.

GPS is a system. It’s made up of three parts: satellites, ground stations, and receivers. Satellites

act like the stars in constellations—we know where they are supposed to be at any given time.