02 Force Systems

FORCE SYSTEMS
STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

ENG2018
FORCE SYSTEMS
Force System refers to a set of forces that act on an object or structure. It is
described by how the line of action of the forces are related.
FORCE SYSTEMS
Coplanar (2D) Spatial (3D)
Non- Non-
Concurrent Concurrent
concurrent concurrent
y y
Parallel Non-parallel Parallel Non-parallel
y y y y
x x
z
x x x x
z z
FORCE SYSTEMS
Force systems may either be coplanar (2 dimensional) or spatial (3
dimensional). In reality, all force systems are 3 dimensional, however, if they
are all in the same plane, it will be convenient to analyze them as a coplanar
system. Both type of systems are subdivided into concurrent and non-
concurrent forces. Concurrent forces have line of action that intersect at a
single point. Oppositely, non-concurrent forces do not intersect at a single
point. Non-concurrent forces may be parallel or non-parallel.
COMPONENTS AND RESULTANT FORCES
As discussed in the introduction lecture, any force can be resolved (the
process of taking components) into components. The axes of those
components must be normal to each other, typically forces are resolved into x
and y axes components for coplanar forces.
Fx  100 cos  30   86.60N
y Fy  100sin  30   50.00N
Fy
30°
x
Fx
In the example we have a 100N force that goes upward to the right at a 30
degree angle. If drawn to scale, “how much it goes upward” and “how much it
goes to the right” are the vertical (y) and horizontal (x) components
respectively.
Fx  100 cos  30   86.60N
y Fy  100sin  30   50.00N
Fy
30°
x
Fx
The expression for calculating the exact
value of the components can be determined
by drawing the component forces from the
Fy
tail of the force to the head (in any order).
Fx  100 cos  30   86.60N 30°
y Fy  100sin  30   50.00N Fx
Or
Fx
Fy 30°
Fy
30°
x
Fx
Notice that because the axes of components
are perpendicular, the resulting triangle is a
right triangle which makes the expression
Fy
for components simple.
Fx  100 cos  30   86.60N 30°
y Fy  100sin  30   50.00N Fx
Or
Fx
Fy 30°
Fy
30°
x
Fx
COMPONENTS AND RESULTANT
COPLANAR - CONCURRENT
FORCES
If any force can be resolved into components, conversely, those components
can be combined to become the original force. With this idea, any two force
(or more) can be combined to a resultant force. The forces to be combined
need not be orthogonal.
 
 
FORCES
Again, more than two forces can be combined to take a resultant force.
 
If two forces are combined, the shape formed is a triangle therefore it is also
called a force triangle. For more than two forces, the shape formed is called
the force polygon.
Another description that may explain what a resultant force is that it is the
single force that can replace the system of forces with the same effect.
FORCES
Discussion will start at coplanar concurrent forces because it is the easiest
system to analyze. Again, coplanar forces are forces that are all in the same
plane or can be analyzed in two dimensions. Concurrent forces means that all
forces intersect at a single point.
x
FORCES
Example 1. Find the resultant force of the two forces shown
50N
x
86.60N
FORCES
Notice that the forces are on the x and y axes, meaning
that they are perpendicular to each other.
50N
Solution:
First, redraw the forces, from tail to head
manner in any order. Then connect the first tail
to the last head. That will be the resultant force. 86.60N
For perpendicular forces it is easy to get the resultant
force. Since they form right triangles, applying
Pythagorean Theorem can solve the resultant force
50N (hypotenuse of the triangle).
R  86.62  502  100N

86.60N
FORCES
From the property of a right triangle, the angle can be
determined.
50
tan  
86.60
Solution:   tan 1 50
 30
As mentioned in the introduction, a force is not
only described by its magnitude but by its 86.60
direction as well. The angle in the force triangle The resultant force is R=100N, upwards to the right, 30°
can be used to described the direction of the from the x-axis.
resultant force.
50N
θ 30°
86.60N
FORCES
y
50N
60°
20° x
70N
FORCES
By postulate of alternate interior angles, the angle at the head
of the first load on the opposite side with respect to the
horizontal is also 60°. With a knowledge that the angle of a
straight line is 180°, angle α can be determined.
60° 20°
α 70N
Solution: 50N
First, redraw the forces, from tail to head
manner in any order. Then connect the first tail
to the last head. That will be the resultant force. R
20°   180  60  20  100

50N 70N
By law of cosines:
60° R 2  502  702  2  50  70  cos 100 

R
R  92.82 N
FORCES
  47.96
100 ° 70N
50N
47.96°
Solution: 60°
θ
100 ° 70N Finally, direction of force can be determined.

50N
β   60  47.96  12.04
60°
The resultant force is R=92.82N, upwards to the right,
Next, the direction must be described. Find β 12.04° from the x-axis.
By sine law (cosine law may also be used).
sin 100 sin 

92.82 70
FORCES
50N
FX 1  50 cos  60   25N
FY1 FY 1  50sin  60   43.3N
60°
Solution:
Notice how it was much more difficult to solve FX1
the resultant force by using force triangles
FX2
 
when system of forces are not orthogonal. For
this reason, forces are typically resolved into x 20° FX 2  70 cos 20  65.78N
FY2
and y components first for easier
computations.
70N  
FY 2  70sin 20  23.94N
Horizontal and vertical components of the resultant force are next computed by combining all the horizontal
components then all the vertical components.
  
FORCES
FX 1  25 N FX 2  65.78 N
FY 1  43.3 N FY 2  23.94 N
Solution: R
Find the horizontal and vertical component of θ 19.36N
the
90.78N
FX  FX 1  FX 2  25  65.78  90.78N The resultant force can now be easily computed by
FY  FY 1  FY 2  43.3  23.94  19.36N Pythagorean Theorem because the forces are
orthogonal.
Note that horizontal forces were added since they are at R  90.78  19.36  92.82N
2 2
the same direction (both given forces were directed to

the right), while vertical forces was subtracted (first Angle is also easy to compute by this method.
force is upwards while second force is downwards).  19.36 
  tan  1
  12.04
 90.78 
FORCES
Summarizing the second method:
FX 1  50 cos  60   25N FX 2  70 cos  20   65.78N
FY 1  50sin  60   43.3N FY 2  70sin  20   23.94N
Solution: FX  FX 1  FX 2  25  65.78  90.78N
FY  FY 1  FY 2  43.3  23.94  19.36N
R
19.36N R  90.78  19.36  92.82N
2 2
θ
90.78N 1  19.36 
  tan    12.04
 90.78 
FORCES
Solution:
With enough practice, there is no need to draw the force triangle.
There is also no need to draw the triangles of individual forces to their
components, nor to compute them one at a time.
FX  50 cos  60   70 cos  20   90.78N

FY  50sin  60   70sin  20   19.36N
R  90.782  19.362  92.82N
1  19.36 
  tan    12.04
 90.78 
The expression for Fx and Fy are easily written by remembering conventions. First, always use angle referred to the
horizontal axis. Following that, for x component, the forces must be multiplied by the cosine of the angle while for y
component, use the sine of the angle. Lastly, for horizontal forces, take forces to the right as positive, to the left as
negative while for vertical forces, take upward forces as positive and downward forces as negative.
FORCES
Example 3. Find the resultant force applied on the bolt at A
FORCES
Following the numbering of forces of the
problem creates a force polygon that would
have congested labels. For a clearer solution,
rearrange the forces.
Solution:
Try first the “graphical” 100N
method but applying 150N
trigonometric identities to 80N
determine accurate values. 110N
Redraw the forces, from tail 110N
to head manner in any order.
Then connect the first tail to 150N 80N
100N
the last head. That will be the
resultant force.
R R
FORCES
Most of properties we use in the method are for triangles only.
Therefore, the polygon should be subdivided into triangles.
Technically speaking, resultant force of two forces at a time are
being computed until there are only two forces whose resultant
force is the resultant force of the original set of forces.
Get the angle of F1 with respect to the vertical
Solution: 90  30  60
100N
It is known that F2 is 20° from the vertical
150N
60° Knowing that the angle of a straight line is 180°
180  60  20  100
F6 110N
100° F5
By cosine law
80N
20° F5 2  1502  802  2 150  80  cos 100 
F5  181.84 N
R
FORCES
F5  181.84 N
Compute the angle of F4 with respect to the vertical
90  15  75
Knowing that the angle of a straight line is 180°
180  75  105
By cosine law
Solution: F6 2  1002  1102  2 100 110  cos 105 
30° 15° 100N 75° F6  166.72 N
39.59°
150N 25.67°
By sine law
105° sin 100  sin 1 
60° 69.74°

181.84 80
100° F5
F6 110N 1  25.67
By sine law
80N sin 105  sin  2 
20° 
166.72 110
 2  39.59
R
Knowing that the angle of a straight line is 180°
3  180  30  15  25.67  39.59  69.74
FORCES
F5  181.84 N F6  166.72 N 3  69.74
By cosine law
R 2  181.842  166.722  2 181.84 166.72  cos  69.74 
R  199.66 N
By sine law
Solution: sin  69.74  sin  4 
30° 15° 100N 75° 
199.66 166.72
39.59°
150N 25.67°  4  51.57
105°
60° 69.74°
Total internal angle of a triangle is 180°
100° 110N 5  180  100  25.67  54.33
80N
Compute the angle of F2 with respect to the horizontal
20°
54.33°  6  90  20  70
51.57° R
70° θ Knowing that the angle of a straight line is 180°
  180  70  54.33  51.57  4.10
FORCES
RX  150 cos  30   80 cos  70   100 cos 15   199.13N

RY  150sin  30   80sin  70   110  100sin 15   14.29N
R  199.132  14.292  199.647N

Solution:
Difficulty of graphical solution with use of  14.29 
  tan 1    4.106
trigonometry and geometry is even more evident in  199.13 
systems with more than two forces. Next try using It is easier for this method as well to get accurate answers
direct computation by first resolving each force into since there are less intermediate computations.
components then combining them.
Remember the conventions for quick computations:
1. Refer angle with horizontal axis
2. Multiply force by cosine for x component
3. Multiply force by sine for y component
4. To the right positive, left negative
5. Upwards positive, downwards negative
FORCES
CONCEPT QUIZ:
1. What are considered as coplanar force systems?
A. Forces that are in 3 dimensions C. Forces that are in the same plane
B. Forces that have the same plan D. Forces that have same units
2. What are considered as concurrent forces?
A. Forces that are currently the same C. Forces that concur
B. Forces that intersect at a single point D. Forces that rent
3. In creating a force triangle / force polygon, how are forces drawn?
A. Tail to Head C. Head to head
B. Tail to tail D. Any way
COPLANAR – NON-CONCURRENT
FORCES
In contrast to concurrent forces, non-concurrent forces do not all intersect at
a single point. Non-concurrent forces are classified to either be parallel or
non-parallel.
x
From this point, force polygon will not be utilized. Convenience of resolving
forces into components then combining component for each axes is
undeniably superior.
FORCES
One key difference to non-concurrent to concurrent force is the importance of
location. Remember that in the introduction it was discussed that a force is
described by three attributes: magnitude, direction, and line of action. Line of
action is defined by a combination of the direction and any point on its path.
In the discussion of concurrent forces, line of action/location of resultant force
was not computed since it will be located at the point of intersection of the
system of forces.
θ
FORCES
Another way to think of it, is that the line of action is a line. Remember in
analytic geometry, to describe a line, a point anywhere along the line and the
slope of the line may be given. Taking the direction is similar to computing the
slope of a line. However, this time, a point that the line of action intersects
must be given to fully describe the resultant force.
θ
FORCES
In order to discuss the computation of resultant of non-concurrent forces, the
concept of moment must first be explained. Moment or torque, or moment of
force is the rotational equivalent of linear force.
For simplicity, it may be thought of that a concentrated force causes linear

movement or linear deformation while a moment causes rotational
movement or deformation.
FORCES
Technically, the correct term is either torque or moment of force, however, in
civil engineering, it is commonly referred to as moment. In general, a moment
is an expression involving the product of a distance and physical quantity.
When a force is applied at a distance, the product of force and distance is thus
the moment of force. It refers to the physical attribute torque. Again,
however, in the civil engineering field, this “rotational force” is commonly
referred to simply as moment.
F d
M
A very simple example is applying force on a wrench to turn a nut.
FORCES
A force applied at a distance will produce moment but will of course still
retain its effect as a concentrated force. Therefore a force applied at a
distance can be replaced with a force applied at the point and an applied
moment.
F d
Where M=Fd
M
FORCES
Example 4. Find the moment applied on the nut at A
20N 0.15m
Solution:
To find the moment caused by a force on a point, multiply
the force by the perpendicular distance
M  Fd  20  0.15   3Nm
Note that moment has units of force x distance. One may think that it is similar to work or energy units. However, it is
an entirely different attribute so energy units such as Joules should not be used. Distance for work computation is
parallel to the force applied while distance for moment calculation is perpendicular to the line of action.
FORCES
Now that the nature of a moment
has been discussed, it can now be
explained that to find the resultant
force of non-concurrent forces, the
resultant must also produce the
same moment about a point as the =
system would. A system of forces
can be replaced by a single force
and a single moment both located =
at a point where their moments
are computed.
FORCES
It can be done at any point.
However, a resultant can be best
defined by the total force only but
located such that it will produce
the same moment as the system at
any given point. =
As discussed, location or line of
action is the final attribute of force
needed to describe it. =
FORCES
Varignon’s Theorem may be used
to find the location of the resultant
force. Varignon’s Theorem states
that the effect of the whole is equal
to the sum of the effects of its
components. If the effect used is
moment, the location of the =
resultant force will be found.
N
Fd   Fi di
i 1
Note that any point may be used as
reference / taken moment about.
FORCES
Example 5. Find the resultant force and its location
0.15m
20N 0.10m
40N
A
FORCES
Next use the Varignon’s Theorem to find the location of the
resultant force. Keep in mind that the explanation behind it
working is that the moment of the resultant about a point is
equal to the sum of the moment of the parts at that point.
Solution: Fd  F1d1  F2 d 2
Because the forces are parallel, their resultant force 60d  20  0.15   40  0.10 
will have the same direction and the magnitude will
simply be the sum of their magnitudes. d  0.1167 m
R  F1  F2  20  40  60N
The resultant force is 60N downwards (same direction as

the parallel forces) 0.1167m to the left of point A
FORCES
Find the moment about point B by the system of forces
M  20  0   40  0.15  0.10   2Nm

Find the moment about point B by the resultant force
Solution:
M  60  0.15  0.1167   2Nm
As shown, if a resultant force is correctly located, it will
B cause the same moment about any point as the system of
forces on that point.
Point A was only used as a reference point since the
distances to A was already given. However, as Note for solution of parallel forces, sign convention for
discussed before, the resultant force should be located direction is no longer needed to be applied since they are
such that at any point, its produced moment will be the all in the same direction.
same as the moment produced by the system. To show
this point, try taking moments at the other end.
FORCES
Resultant force of distributed loads
In applications of force systems, there are forces that are better represented
as distributed loads. Take for example, the weight of hollow block walls on
structure’s beam. The behavior of its weight cannot be captured by a single
force. A distributed load is represented as the amount of force per unit length.
6kN / m
=
4m 4m
FORCES
There are parts of structural analysis where resultant force of distributed
loads have to be computed. This resultant force is also called as equivalent
force. For the example shown, there is said to be 6kN for every meter, since
there are 4 meters, there must be 6x4=24kN of equivalent force.
24kN
6kN / m
= =
4m 4m 4m
FORCES
It is typically drawn with a curved tail to signify that it is not the actual
behavior of the force but just a resultant concentrated force.
24kN
6kN / m
= =
4m 4m 4m
FORCES
In general, the total force of a distributed load is calculated by computing its
area where the magnitude of the load is considered as a dimension. The total
force is then located at the centroid of the area.
R
1
Rectangular Load R  WL x L
2
R
1 2
Triangular Load R  WL x L
2 3
R
1 1 W1  2W2
Trapezoidal Load R  W1  W2  L x L
2 3 W1  W2
It is better to simply divide the trapezoidal load
into a rectangular and triangular loads.
FORCES
Example 6. Find the resultant force and its location of the force system
9kN
5kN / m 7 kN / m
1.0m 2.0m 0.5m 2.5m

FORCES
x2
x1
R1 9kN R2
5kN / m 7 kN / m
1.0m 2.0m 0.5m 2.5m

Solution:
First compute the total force of each Next, compute the location of the forces. Recall that for a rectangular
distributed load. Remember that the total load, the total force is located at the middle while it is at 2/3 of length
force is the “area” of the distributed load. for a triangular load. Left end will be used as reference for location.
1
R1  5  2   10kN x1  1.0   2.0   2m
2
2
1
R2  7  2.5   8.75kN x2  1.0  2.0  0.5   2.5   5.167m
2 3
x3  1.0  2.0  0.5  3.5m
FORCES
x2
x1
R1 9kN R2
5kN / m 7 kN / m
1.0m 2.0m 0.5m 2.5m

Solution:
R1  10kN R2  8.75kN x1  2m x2  5.167 m x3  3.5m Find the location of the resultant force of the system by
using Varignon’s Theorem.
Find the total force of the system. Since all of the forces
are parallel (vertical, downwards), they can already be Rx  R1 x1  R2 x2  R3 x3
summed without using force triangle or taking 27.75 x  10  2   8.75  5.167   9  3.5 
components.
R  10  9  8.75  27.75kN x  3.485m
FORCES
x2
x1
R1 9kN R2
5kN / m 7 kN / m
1.0m 2.0m 0.5m 2.5m

Solution:
3.485m 27.75kN
9kN
5kN / m 7 kN / m
1.0m 2.0m 0.5m 2.5m

FORCES
CONCEPT QUIZ:
1. What is the additional attribute of resultant force that is needed to find for
non-concurrent forces over concurrent forces?
A. Magnitude C. Push or Pull
B. Direction of Line of Action D. Location of Line of Action
2. Direction of resultant force can be different from the direction of the
forces of a parallel force system
A. True
B. False
3. The total force of a distributed load is
A. Square of the Magnitude C. Area of the Load
B. Volume of the Load D. Indeterminate
FORCES
So far, all the examples of non-concurrent forces given were parallel. For non-
parallel forces, similar to examples of concurrent forces, forces must first be
resolved into x and y components. After resolving the components, x
components will be parallel to each other, and y components to each other.
Methodology will not be much different after, adding the parallel forces then
finding the magnitude of the resultant by Pythagorean’s Theorem then the
direction by arc tangent. The location will then be determined by Varignon’s
y
Theorem.
R  Rx 2  Ry 2
 Ry 
  tan  
1
x  Rx 
FORCES
y
(4,11)
30° 80kN
30kN
40kN
(4,2) 20°
x GRID LINES EVERY 1M

FORCES
Example 7.
y
(4,11)
40kN
Solution: 60°
First, resolve the forces into x and y components. In
30°
doing so, recall the convention to use angle with
30kN 80kN
respect to horizontal then use cosine for x and sine
for y components. Use the direction sign conventions
as well. 69.282kN
Remember also the concept that a force may be
resolved at any point along its line of action. When
coordinates where the line of action passes is already
given such as in this problem, it is convenient to
resolve the forces in those points. 13.681kN 40kN
  90  30  60
F1 X  80 cos 60  40kN F2 X  40 cos 20  37.588kN (4,2) 20°
F1Y  80sin 60  69.282kN F2Y  40sin 20  13.681kN 37.588kN
Next find the x and y components of the resultant force.
x
RX  F1 X  F2 X  40  37.588  77.588kN
RY  F1Y  F2Y  F3  69.282  13.681  30  85.601kN
FORCES
Example 7.
y
(4,11)
40kN
Solution: 60°
Next find the resultant force and direction
30°
R  Rx 2  Ry 2   77.588  85.601
2 2
 115.53kN 30kN 80kN
 Ry   85.601 
  tan    tan 1 
1
  47.81
 x
R  77.588  69.282kN
In finding out the direction, always use the positive value of 47.81° 77.588kN
Ry and Rx. The angle acquired will always then be referred
to the horizontal. 85.601kN 115.53kN
13.681kN 40kN
Draw the resultant force at a guess location. To find the
actual location of line of action, Varignon’s Theorem will be (4,2) 20°
performed. Any point would do, but for simplicity of 37.588kN
GUESS
solution, perform it at the origin (0,0), perpendicular LINE OF ACTION x
distances would be easier, it would simply be the
coordinates where forces are resolved.
FORCES
Example 7.
y
(4,11)
40kN
Solution: 60°
In addition, it is better to resolve the components of the
30°
resultant force at the x or y axis, this way, there is only one
30kN 80kN
unknown. If not done this way, the solution will be much
more complicated. For this example resolve the resultant
force at the x axes. 69.282kN
Lastly, in applying Varignon’ Theorem for non-parallel 47.81°
forces, direction of moment about the point of reference
must be considered carefully. Direction may either be
clockwise or counter-clockwise. For convention, use
13.681kN 40kN
clockwise as positive.
CW+ CCW- (4,2) 20°
37.588kN
85.601 x   40 11  69.282  4   37.588  2   13.681 4   30  2  GUESS
LINE OF ACTION x
x  9.317 m 77.588kN
85.601kN 115.53kN
FORCES
Example 7.
y
(4,11)
Solution:
x  9.317 m 30kN 30°
The actual line of action a little more to the right of the 80kN
guess line.
47.81°
40kN
(4,2) 20°
(9.317,0)
FORCES
Example 7.
y
(4,11)
Solution:
30kN 30°
If technique of resolving the resultant at either of the axes 80kN
is not performed, it is better not to resolve the resultant
force. Simply find the perpendicular distance of the
resultant force to the reference point, for convenience, the
origin.
115.53  d   40 11  69.282  4   37.588  2   13.681 4   30  2  47.81°
(x,y)
d  6.904m
This may be accepted as a description of location of line of
40kN
action but a point where it intersects is preferable such as
that answered previously (9.317,0). The answer can be (4,2) 20°
improved by specifying the point nearest to the reference
point.
42.19° x
Since the line is perpendicular to the line of action:
90  47.81  42.19
FORCES
Example 7.
y
(4,11)
Solution:
d  6.904m 30kN 30°
Use trigonometric identities to find x and y. 80kN
x  6.904 cos  42.19   5.12m
y  6.904sin  42.19   4.64m
47.81°
(x,y)
40kN
(4,2) 20°
42.19° x
FORCES
y
(3,7)
50kN
65° 20kN
70kN
70°
(5,3)
60kNm
x GRID LINES EVERY 1M

FORCES
Example 8. y
Solution:
This problem is similar to the previous one except there is
now applied moment. Solution will be the same except
that Resolve the forces into x and y components.
  90  65  25 (3,7)
F1 X  50 cos 25  45.315kN F2 X  70 cos 70  23.941kN 50kN
F1Y  50sin 25  21.131kN F2Y  70sin 70  65.778kN 65° 20kN
RX  F1 X  F2 X  F3  45.315  23.941  20  49.256kN

RY  F1Y  F2Y  21.131  65.778  44.647kN
70kN
R  Rx 2  Ry 2   49.256    44.647   66.479kN 70°
2 2
(5,3)
1 
Ry   44.647 
  tan    tan 1    42.19
 x
R  49.256  60kNm
x
FORCES
Example 8. y
Solution:
R  66.479kN   42.19
To know the location, sketch a guess line of action, and
write the resultant as components in one of the axes then
use Varignon’s Theorem. This is where the applied moment
45.315kN (3,7)
appears in the solution. Taking clockwise as positive, about
the origin: 21.131kN 20kN
44.647 X  49.256  0   60  45.315  7   21.131 3
23.941 3  65.778  5   20  6 
42.19° 65.778kN
X  13.32m
23.941kN (5,3)
60kNm 44.647kN
49.256kN x
X
FORCES
Example 8. y
Solution:
R  66.479kN   42.19 X  13.32m
Notice how the reaction goes way farther from the

origin than the estimated location. This is to provide (3,7)
the additional 60kNm counterclockwise moment. Try 50kN 42.19°
solving it without the 60kNm moment, it will be 65° 20kN
noticed that the force will be closer to the origin. If the
applied moment is reversed as a clockwise moment,
the resultant force location will be even closer to the 70kN
origin. 70°
(5,3)
60kNm
x
X
FORCES
Example 9. Find the resultant force acting on the dam per linear meter length
due to its own weight and the hydrostatic lateral force. Define the location of
the resultant force by its location on the ground from the toe. The unit weight
of the concrete dam is 23.5kN/m3.
5m 15m
20m
DAM’S TOE
196.2kPa
FORCES
Sample image of an actual dam

FORCES
Example 9. Find the resultant force
5m 15m Solution:
Find the total force due to the hydrostatic load for every
1m width of the dam. Notice that the units are in kPa,
meaning it is a triangular area load. But if multiplied to a
1m width of the dam it becomes 196.2 kN/m, a
W1 W2 triangular distributed load.
20m
1962kN 1
F  196.2 1 20   1962kN
2
DAM’S TOE Next, find how heavy the dam is for every 1m width of
196.2kPa
the dam. The trapezoidal shape of the dam is better
divided into a rectangular and triangular for easier
computation.
Notice that when the unit weight is multiplied by the width, from kN/m3, it becomes kN/m2. If you multiply it by the
height of the dam, the weight becomes kN/m, or a distributed load. When final computations of distributed load total
force is carried out depending on the shape, multiplied by length again, it becomes kN or force. Another way of
looking at it is the total weight of the dam is calculated by multiplying the unit weight by its volume. The problem is it
should not be multiplied by the length right away to see where location of the total force is.
FORCES
5m 15m Solution:
Computing the weight of the dam for every meter width:
W1  23.5  5  20   2350kN
3525kN
2350kN
1
W2  23.5 15  20   3525kN
20m 2
1962kN All the forces are either vertical or horizontal so there is
no need to resolve into components. The next step is to
DAM’S TOE total the forces in each axes to find the x and y
196.2kPa
components of the resultant.
RX  F  1962kN
Ry  W1  W2  2350  3525  5875kN
Give attention that the convention stated in previous examples were not followed. Downward was still taken as
positive since all forces are downwards. Recall that it was also solved as such during parallel forces problems. It is
necessary to practice this as well as many problems in textbooks, board exam, applications in the field will do it this
way. The important thing to remember that even if Ry was written as positive value, this force is downwards.
FORCES
5m 15m Solution:
RX  1962kN Ry  5875kN
Compute the resultant force by Pythagorean Theorem:
5875kN
R  RX 2  RY 2  19622  58752  6193.95kN
20m Compute the direction of the force

 Ry   5875 
1962kN   tan    tan 1 
1
  71.53
 Rx   1962 
DAM’S TOE
196.2kPa 71.53°
Again as shortcut, remember that if arctan of absolute
values of Ry/Rx is used, the angle will be referred to the
horizontal. Then simply refer to the direction of Ry and
Rx to determine the direction of the resultant diagonally.
FORCES
5m 15m Solution:
Next find the location of the resultant force on the ground
x1 from the toe. To do so, place the resultant components at
x2 an approximate location on the ground
3525kN
2350kN
The original forces will be used again since Varignon’s
Theorem will be performed. Importance of dividing the
20m
1962kN dam into a rectangle and triangle shows here because the
5875kN location of force is easy to compute. Taking clockwise
y1 DAM’S TOE moment as positive about the toe:
 Ry x  Rx  0   Fy1  W1 x1  W2 x2
1962kN
20 5  2 
x 5875 x  1962  2350   15   3525  15 
3 2  3 
x  10.77 m
FORCES
5m 15m
The final answer as drawn in the figure
20m
DAM’S TOE
71.53°
x  10.77 m
COMPONENTSSPATIAL
AND RESULTANT
–CONCURRENT
FORCES
Analysis of concurrent forces in three dimensions is similar to two dimensions

except there is an additional component to be considered. Forces that are not
parallel to any axis must be resolved into components. Next, add components
of forces that are in the same axes. When the axes components of the
resultant force is acquired, it will be added by the square root of the sum of
the forces (derived by Pythagorean Theorem two times). In summary,
procedure is the same but requires much more work.
COMPONENTSSPATIAL
AND RESULTANT
–CONCURRENT
FORCES
75N
80N
42°
36° x
43°
50°
68°
49N
z
COMPONENTSSPATIAL
AND RESULTANT
–CONCURRENT
FORCES
y
3D problems requires a level of imagination and
understanding. Based on the given figure, you should already
be able to understand the direction of the forces. However,
75N for this first example, the other views of the forces will be
80N
shown as aid if it is found difficult to be understood.
y y
80N 75N 80N
42°
75N
36° x x x
z
43°
80N
50° 49N 75N
68° 49N
z 49N
Front View Top View Right Side View

49N
z
COMPONENTSSPATIAL
AND RESULTANT
–CONCURRENT
FORCES
y Before proceeding to the solution, recall how coplanar forces
are drawn. First, notice how each force direction is defined by
a single angle, typically with respect to the horizontal.
Though there are two axes, it is possible to define how much
F1 the force “deviates” from the axes by a single angle since it is
F2 90-θ1
known that the axes are perpendicular to each other.
Meaning, if the “deviation” of the force from one slope is θ,
θ2 θ1 the deviation to the other axis is 90 - θ.
In coplanar forces, Fsinθ was used for Fy, but it may be
x
written as Fcos(90–θ) since sinθ=cos(90–θ) is always true
being cofunctions. Again, note how Fx=Fcosθ while Fy=
Fcos(90–θ), this is why cosine may be looked at as the
direction function. It can be generalized that the component
on the axis is equal to the total force multiplied by the
cosine of the angle referred to that axis.
COMPONENTSSPATIAL
AND RESULTANT
–CONCURRENT
FORCES
y Now for 3D forces, cosine will be preferred over sine as
cosine is used as the direction function. It may still be faster
sometimes to use sine in selected steps, but for beginners, it
will be less confusing to use cosines. The idea is to find the
75N angle of the force with respect to the axes and use cosine.
80N
Generous problems may give the angle of the forces with

42° respect to all axes making things easy. However, some
36° x problems such as this example may give the angle with
43° respect to a plane and the angle of the force projection on
50° that plane to one of the axes. Additional step has to be taken
68° in such cases, for example, F1 (75kN), Fy can be directly
computed. However, component at xz plane has to be
49N computed first (say call it Fxz). Then multiply Fxz by the
cosine of the angle with reference to x axis.
z
COMPONENTSSPATIAL
AND RESULTANT
–CONCURRENT
FORCES
y
Solution:
To make the solution clearer for the first example, take the
forces one at a time.
Find the angle of the force with respect to y
75N 90  36  54
FY1
54° Compute the y component of F1
FY 1  F1 cos  54   75cos  54   44.08N
FX1 Compute the component of F1 at the xz plane
FXZ 1  F1 cos  36   75cos  36   60.68N
36° x
43°
FZ1
Compute the x component
47°
FX 1  FXZ 1 cos  43  60.68cos  43  44.38N
FXZ1
Find the angle of FXZ1 with respect to the z axis
90  43  47
z Compute the z component
FZ 1  FXZ 1 cos  47   60.68cos  47   41.38N
COMPONENTSSPATIAL
AND RESULTANT
–CONCURRENT
FORCES
Example 10. Find the resultant force FY 1  44.08 N FX 1  44.38 N FZ 1  41.38 N
y
Solution:
Next, find the components of the F2.
90  42  48
Compute the y component of F2
80N FY2 FY 2  F2 cos  48   80 cos  48   53.53N
48°
Compute the component of F2 at the xz plane
FX2 42° FXZ 2  F2 cos  42   80 cos  42   59.45N
40° x
Compute the z component
FXZ2
FZ 2  FXZ 2 cos  50   59.45cos  50   38.21N
50°
Find the angle of FXZ2 with respect to the x axis
FZ2 90  50  40
Compute the x component
z FX 2   FXZ 2 cos  40  59.45cos  40   45.54N
COMPONENTSSPATIAL
AND RESULTANT
–CONCURRENT
FORCES
Example 10. Find the resultant force FX 1  44.38 N FY 1  44.08 N FZ 1  41.38 N
y
Solution: FX 2  45.54 N FY 2  53.53 N FZ 2  38.21N
Next, find the components of the F3.

Compute the z component of F3
FZ 3  F3 cos  68   49 cos  68   18.36N
90  68  22
Compute the y component of F3
x FY 3   F3 cos  22   49 cos  22   45.43N
FY3 There is no x component of F3

FZ3 68° FX 3  0 N
22°
49N
z
COMPONENTSSPATIAL
AND RESULTANT
–CONCURRENT
FORCES
y
Before proceeding to computing the total force in each direction,
Ry general expression for the resultant force in 3D will be derived. Say a
Rz system with perpendicular forces Rx, Ry, Rz that are in x, y, and z axes
Ry
R respectively will have their resultant force determined.
Rx x Draw the forces as a 3D “force polygon” (force polyhedron since 3D),
Rz Rx
placing them tail to head in any order then place the resultant force’s
tail at the first tail, and its head at the last head.
z The figure may be difficult to imagine or understand. It may help if it
Rz is thought of as a box or rectangular prism.
Rz
Ry Rxy The resultant R will be the long diagonal of the box. Now it will be
Ry Rxy
R worked out how to compute the long diagonal. First take the back
`
Rx face of the box. The diagonal at this area will be Rxy which is:
Ry
RXY  RX 2  RY 2
Now take the diagonal area between Rz and the far opposite edge. It is highlighted blue to help distinguish it.
Notice how one of its edges is Rxy. The diagonal of this area is R, therefore:
  R
2
R  RXY  RZ 2 2
RX  RY
2 2
Z
2
R  RX 2  RY 2  RZ 2
Notice how it looks similar to the expression for 2D resultant force except Rz is now included.
COMPONENTSSPATIAL
AND RESULTANT
–CONCURRENT
FORCES
Example 10. Find the resultant force FX 1  44.38 N FY 1  44.08 N FZ 1  41.38 N
y
Solution: FX 2  45.54 N
FX 3  0 N
FY 2  53.53 N FZ 2  38.21N
FY 3  45.43 N FZ 3  18.36 N
Next, find the components of the resultant force by totaling

the forces in each axis.
52.18N RX  FX 1  FX 2  FX 3  44.38  45.54  0  1.16N
110.99N
RY  FY 1  FY 2  FY 3  44.08  53.53  45.43  52.18N
RZ  FZ 1  FZ 2  FZ 3  41.38  38.21  18.36  97.95N
1.16N
Then use the expression for the resultant force.
x
R  RX 2  RY 2  RZ 2  1.162  52.182  97.952  110.99N
97.95N
z
COMPONENTSSPATIAL
AND RESULTANT
–CONCURRENT
FORCES
Example 10. Find the resultant force FX 1  44.38 N FY 1  44.08 N FZ 1  41.38 N RX  1.16 N
y
FX 3  0 N
FY 2  53.53 N FZ 2  38.21N
FY 3  45.43 N FZ 3  18.36 N
RY  52.18 N
RZ  97.95 N
Now to take care of the direction, remember that you can

take the component of any force if you use the cosine of the
angle referred to the axis desired. Consequently, this can be
110.99N used to find the angle referred to each axis as well.
61.96° RX  RX  1  1.16 
cos  X   X  cos 1    cos    89.40
89.40°
R  R   110.99 
RY R   52.18   61.96
28.05° x cos Y  Y  cos 1  Y   cos 1  
R  R   110.99 
RZ  RZ  1  97.95 
cos  Z   Z  cos 1    cos    28.05
R  R   110.99 
z
COMPONENTSSPATIAL
AND RESULTANT
–CONCURRENT
FORCES
Example 10. Find the resultant force FX 1  44.38 N FY 1  44.08 N FZ 1  41.38 N RX  1.16 N
y
FX 3  0 N
FY 2  53.53 N FZ 2  38.21N
FY 3  45.43 N FZ 3  18.36 N
RY  52.18 N
RZ  97.95 N
Angle referred to each axis is already acceptable unless stated

otherwise. For example if description of direction similar to
the given is desired, to get the angle with respect to the xz
110.99N plane:
RXZ  RX 2  RZ 2  1.162  97.952  97.96N
R
cos  XZ  XZ
R
28.04° x RXZ 97.96
 XZ  cos 1  cos 1  28.04
89.32° R 110.99
RX
cos  XZ  X 
RXZ
RX 1.16
z  XZ  cos 1  cos 1  89.32
RXZ 97.96
SPATIAL – NON-CONCURRENT
FORCES
Analysis of three dimensional, non-concurrent forces is the general case that
encompasses all systems. It is obviously the most difficult force system to
solve. The concept of concentrated force is not a problem any more since it
was already discussed in the 3D concurrent forces. A focus should be given to
how moment works.
y
y My
Mx
z Mz
x
Mz x
z
FORCES
Look at the figure of a two dimensional system featuring an applied moment
about a point. What was not explained previously was a moment does not
rotate about a point but an axis. In a two dimensional x-y plane, a moment
turns about an axis perpendicular to the plane, in a 3 dimensional plane, it
would be the z axis.
y
y My
Mx
z Mz
x
Mz x
z
FORCES
If analyzed, in the coplanar system, a moment exists on a plane that is defined
by two axes and turns about a third axis that is perpendicular to the plane.
This is the reason that is why there is only one type of moment possible for a
2D system. For a 3D system, there are three possible moments, Mz that turns
about the z axis and exists to a plane parallel to the x-y plane, My turns about
y axis and parallel to x-z plane, and Mx turns about x axis and parallel to y-z
plane. y
y
My
Mx
z Mz
x
Mz x
z
FORCES
Since there are 3 possible moments, Varignon’s Theorem can be performed 3
times, when searching for the resultant force location.
y
y My
Mx
z Mz
x
Mz x
z
FORCES
Example 11. A cellar door is being kept open by two tensile forces FA and FC.
Find the resultant force and its location due to FA and FC.
FORCES
Solution:
The first goal is to resolve the applied forces into
components. To be able to do it, angle of the forces with
respect to the axes must first be determined. Note also how
the x-y-z axes are rotated in comparison to previous discussed
problems. Compute the dimensions near the door:
y1  1.5cos  30   1.299m
0.75m
z1 z1  1.5sin  30   0.75m
30°
1.299m
y1
FORCES
Solution:
FA’s angles are easy since it is in the y-z plane only.
Z
A
θAZ
0.75m
θAY B
Y
0.75m
2.299m
 0.75 
 AY  tan 1    18.07  AZ  90  18.07  71.93
 2.299 
1.299m Since the force in y-z plane, it is perpendicular to the x axis.
Meaning there is no x component.
 AX  90
Note that the angle is 90° if there is no component, not 0°.
Recall: cos  90   0 cos  0   1
Notice how dimensions can be used to find angles of force. Pick two points along the force’s line of action whose
distance between is known (x, y, z and total distance) such as that of A and B. The angles between the perpendicular
distances x, y, z to the “hypotenuse”, is the same as the angle of the force to the axes since the force runs through the
“hypotenuse”/total distance.
FORCES
Solution:
Compute FC ’s angles referred to the axes. Similar to FA,
lengths will be used to find the angles.
2.5  0.5  2m
LCD  2.2992  22  0.752
LCD  3.138m C
0.75m
 2 
CX  cos 1    50.41
0.75m
 3.138  Z
 2.299  2.299m
CY  cos 1    42.89
1.299m
 3.138  2.0m
 0.75   76.17
CZ  cos 1  
 3.138  D
0.5m
Y
X
FORCES
Example 11. Find the resultant force  AX  90 CX  50.41
Solution:  AY  18.07
 AZ  71.93
CY  42.89
CZ  76.17
The forces can now be resolved into components.

FAX  FA cos  AX  300 cos  90   0N
FAY  FA cos  AY  300 cos 18.07   285.20N
FAZ   FA cos  AZ  300 cos  71.93  93.05N
0.75m
FCX  FC cos CX  250 cos  50.41  159.32N
FCY  FC cos CY  250 cos  42.89   183.17N
FCZ  FC cos CZ  250 cos  76.17   59.76N
1.299m
Total the components in each of the axes
RX  FAX  FCX  0  159.32  159.32N
RY  FAY  FCY  285.20  183.17  468.37N
RZ  FAZ  FCZ  93.05  59.76  152.81N
Compute the resultant force
R  RX 2  RY 2  RZ 2  159.322  468.37 2  152.812  517.79N
FORCES
Example 11. Find the resultant force RX  159.32 N
RY  468.37 N
Solution: RZ  152.81N
R  517.79 N
Compute the angle of the resultant force referred to the axes
RX  RX  1  159.32 
cos  X   X  cos 1    cos    72.08
R  R   517.79 
0.75m R  RY  1  468.37 
cos Y  Y Y  cos 1    cos    25.24
R  R   517.79 
RZ  RZ  1  152.81 
cos  Z   Z  cos 1    cos    72.84
1.299m R  R   517.79 
Just to clarify, these angles are not necessarily referred to the

actual axes, instead, a better description is they are referred
to parallels of the axes.
With magnitude and direction found, location must at last be determined. Resolve the forces to be able to apply
Varignon’s Theorem. It will be easiest for this problem if the forces are resolved at their intersection at the x-y plane,
including the guess approximate location for the resultant force. Unlike 2D forces that the resultant force is
guaranteed to pass the two axes (unless it is purely vertical or horizontal), 3D force is only guaranteed to pass a plane.
FORCES
RY  468.37 N
FAX  0 N
FAY  285.20 N
FCX  159.32 N
FCY  183.17 N
R  517.79 N
FAZ  93.05 N FCZ  59.76 N
Resolving the forces at the x-y plane.

Z
59.76N
0.50m
0.75m y
152.81N
93.05N
1.299m
x
X
Y
In a 3 dimensional sense, moment can be take about any “axis” parallel to any major axis, not just at the axes that
pass through the origin. For this solution, Varignon’s Theorem will be applied at the actual axes. Before proceeding, a
convention must be established. The “Right Thumb Rule” can be used as the positive convention.
FORCES
The Right-Thumb Rule is performed by pointing the right

y
thumb towards the positive direction of the axis. Curl the rest
of the hands in a twisting motion. The direction which the
My right hand curled is the positive direction of rotation. Shown
in the figure is how the positive directions of rotation would
be using the Right-Thumb Rule (RTR).
Mx
Mz
z
FORCES
RY  468.37 N
FAX  0 N
FAY  285.20 N
FCX  159.32 N
FCY  183.17 N
R  517.79 N
FAZ  93.05 N FCZ  59.76 N

Z
59.76N
0.50m
0.75m y
152.81N
93.05N
1.299m
x
X
Y
Use Varignon’s Theorem about the x-axis using RTR for positive rotation.
152.81 y  0
y0
Note that during Varignon’ Theorem about the x-axis, there are no other forces that has a perpendicular distance
about the x-axis (crosses the x-axis or parallel to the x-axis). As a result, the z component of the resultant must have
zero distance from the x-axis as well.
FORCES
RY  468.37 N
FAX  0 N
FAY  285.20 N
FCX  159.32 N
FCY  183.17 N
R  517.79 N
FAZ  93.05 N FCZ  59.76 N

Z
59.76N
0.50m
0.75m
152.81N
x
93.05N
1.299m
X
Y
Use Varignon’s Theorem about the y-axis using RTR for positive rotation.
152.81x  59.76  0.50 
x  0.1955m
FORCES
RY  468.37 N
FAX  0 N
FAY  285.20 N
FCX  159.32 N
FCY  183.17 N
R  517.79 N
FAZ  93.05 N FCZ  59.76 N

Z
59.76N
0.50m
0.75m
152.81N
x=0.1955m
93.05N
1.299m
X
Y
Notice how all the unknowns have been determined, yet there is still
one equation. It can be used to check the answer, using the Varignon’s
Theorem about the z-axis.
468.37 x  183.17  0.50 
x  0.1955m Confirmed
FORCES
517.79N  X  72.08
Y  25.24
 Z  72.84
0.1955m

02 Force Systems

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FORCE SYSTEMS

STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

Coplanar (2D) Spatial (3D)

R  86.62  502  100N

20°   180  60  20  100

60° R 2  502  702  2  50  70  cos 100 

100 ° 70N Finally, direction of force can be determined.

the same direction (both given forces were directed to

FX  50 cos  60   70 cos  20   90.78N

RX  150 cos  30   80 cos  70   100 cos 15   199.13N

R  199.132  14.292  199.647N

For simplicity, it may be thought of that a concentrated force causes linear

The resultant force is 60N downwards (same direction as

M  20  0   40  0.15  0.10   2Nm

1.0m 2.0m 0.5m 2.5m

1.0m 2.0m 0.5m 2.5m

1.0m 2.0m 0.5m 2.5m

1.0m 2.0m 0.5m 2.5m

1.0m 2.0m 0.5m 2.5m

x GRID LINES EVERY 1M

x GRID LINES EVERY 1M

RX  F1 X  F2 X  F3  45.315  23.941  20  49.256kN

Notice how the reaction goes way farther from the

Sample image of an actual dam

20m Compute the direction of the force

Analysis of concurrent forces in three dimensions is similar to two dimensions

Front View Top View Right Side View

Generous problems may give the angle of the forces with

Next, find the components of the F3.

FY3 There is no x component of F3

Next, find the components of the resultant force by totaling

Now to take care of the direction, remember that you can

Angle referred to each axis is already acceptable unless stated

The forces can now be resolved into components.

Just to clarify, these angles are not necessarily referred to the

Resolving the forces at the x-y plane.

The Right-Thumb Rule is performed by pointing the right

Resolving the forces at the x-y plane.

Resolving the forces at the x-y plane.

Resolving the forces at the x-y plane.

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