CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND RESEARCH QUESTION

A. Speaking

1. Nature of Speaking

Speaking was one way to communicate and idea through a message or

orally. Tarigan (1981) stated that speaking ability is a skill to communicate a

speech articulation or to speak a talk for expressing and idea and a message. To

make students communicate, we need to apply the language in real

communication. In the current curriculum of basic competence speaking in the

curriculum is to make students able to express meanings in transactional and

interpersonal languages in the daily life context. They are also expected to be able

to express meanings of short functional texts and monologues in various genres of

texts like recounts and narratives, either formally or informally. Speaking was the

essential part in English so that speaking was the active use of language to express

meanings so that other people can make sense of them. From this statement, it was

true that English is an essential part of foreign language learning and teaching. We

know that even though we know that writing, reading and listening were

important skills in English but if we are not able to say the words it was useless.

Thus, speaking is a way to give the clarification by the oral.

2. Function of Speaking

There are many functions in speaking to express the idea, opinion, feeling

or orally. The first was idea, idea used to confirm that someone understand what

talked. Idea was the way to tell the thought by speaking clearly and at the right
volume. The second was opinion, opinion was a think of someone who wants to

speak English that must be able to explore what the feeling about. The third was

feeling, feeling was the emotional of someone is character, so that the feeling

implemented in speaking in daily life. The last was orally, orally was a message

by the oral to other people as communication. On the other hand, other functions

are transactional and interactional which different meaning. Transactional

function was primarily concerned with transfer of information. For while,

interactional function which was primary purpose of speech is the maintenance of

social relationship.

3. The Purpose of Speaking

Harmer (2007) there are many the purposes of speaking, these were:

a. Language processing

Effective speakers need to be able to process language in their own heads

and put it into coherent order so that it comes out in forms that are not only

comprehensible, but also convey the meanings that are intended. Language

processing involves the retrieval of words and phrases from memory and their

assembly into syntactically and propositionally appropriate sequences. One of the

main reasons for including speaking activities in language lessons is to help

students develop habit or rapid language processing in English.

b. Interacting with others

The best people who could interact with the friends and having more of

them can improve their life. For the people who are shy or not too sociable.

However, making friends can seem really hard but with them we can learn
patience. In other hand, making friends in conversation can improve confidence so

that to achieve that we need small group. When we are learning about speaking

individually but we need the friends in helping us when we get the difficulties. In

speaking, most involves interaction with one or more participants. It means that

effective speaking also involves a good deal of listening and understanding of

how the other participants are feeling and the knowledge can be shared.

c. Information processing

Information processing was the change of information in any manner

detectable by and observer. As such it was a process that describes everything that

happens in the universe where latent information into manifest information.

According to Mastrian (2011) information processing may more specifically be

defined in terms used Claude E. Shannon as the conversion of latent information

into manifest information. Generally, information process is needed to be able in

process of information they tell us the moment we get it. The longer it takes for

the penny to drop the less effective we are as instant communicators. However, it

should be remembered that this instants response is very culture-specific, and is

not prized by speakers in many other language communities.

4. Elements of Speaking

Harmer (2001) stated that when discussing the elements of speaking that

are necessary for fluent oral production, distinguishes between two aspects –

knowledge of ‘language features’, and the ability to process information on the

spot. The ability to speak English presupposes the elements necessary for spoken

production as follows:
a) Language features

The elements necessary for spoken production, are the following:

a. Connected speech

In connected speech sounds are modified (assimilation), comitted (elision),

added (linking r), or weakened (through contractions and stress patterning). The

example a sentence ‘I would have gone’ become ‘I’d’ve gone’. Connected speech

will produce a connection of words and new sound from individual phonemes.

Speakers should aware of and give more attention on it. Speakers then can know

the authentic speech and help to pronounce well. It is for this reason that we

should involve students in activities designed specifically to improve their

connected speech.

b. Expressive devices

Native speakers of English change the pitch and stress of particular parts

of utterances, vary volume and speed, and show by other physical and non-verbal

(paralinguistic) means how they are feeling (especially in face t- to – face

interaction). The use of these devices contributes to the ability to convey

meanings.

c. Negotiation language

Effective speaking benefits from the negotiator language we use to seek

clarification and show the structure of what we are saying. When the students’

speak in English unclear pronounce so that the students are really hard to speak in

English. It is caused of the same pronounce in English that makes the students’

are really confused in arranging what they want to say so that the problem comes

to them and when they want to make the interaction each other.
5. Micro and Macro skills of Speaking

a. Micro skill of Speaking

The micro-skills of speaking refer to producing the smaller chunks of

language such as phonemes, morphemes, words, collocations, and phrasal units.

The macro-skill imply the speaker’s focus on the larger elements such as fluency,

discourse, function, style, cohesion, nonverbal communication, and strategic

options. Some micro skills in speaking:

a) Produce chunks of language of different lengths.

b) Orally produces differences among the English phonemes and allophonic

variants.

c) Produce English patterns, words in stressed and unstressed positions

rhythmic structure, and into national contours.

d) Produce reduced forms if words and phrases.

e) Use an adequate number of lexical units (words) in order to accomplish

pragmatic purpose.

f) Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery.

g) Monitor your own oral production and use various strategic devices pauses,

fillers, self-corrections, backtracking- to enhance the clarity of the message.

h) Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), system (e.g. tense,

agreement, and pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.

i) Produce speech in natural constituent in appropriate phrases, pause groups,

breath groups, and sentences.

j) Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.

b. Macro skill of Speaking

a) Appropriately accomplish communicative functions according to situations,

participants, and goals.

b) Use appropriate styles, registers, implicature, redundancies, pragmatic

conventions, conversation rules, floor keeping and yielding, interrupting, and

other sociolinguistic features in face-to-face conversations.

c) Convey links and connections between events and communicate such

relations as focal and peripheral ideas, events and feeling, new information and

given information, generalization and exemplification.

d) Convey facial features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal cues

along with verbal language.

e) Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing key

words, rephrasing, providing a context for interpreting the meaning of words,

appealing for help, and accurately assessing how well your interlocutor is

understanding you.

6. Teaching Speaking

Brown (2001) states that teaching means showing or helping someone how

to do something, giving instruction, guiding in the study of the something,

providing with the knowledge, causing to know or to understand. Actually,

teaching as an activity for guiding and facilitating the learners to learn and setting

the condition of learning and teaching process in the classroom. In the current

curriculum of second grade of basic competence that the teaching speaking must

be understood by the students’ in arranging oral and written and also stating and

responding the expression in needing to pay attention. In teaching the most

important reason for teaching speaking is to develop oral fluency that is the ability
to express oneself intelligibly, reasonably, accurately and without undue

hesitation, Nunan (1998) seen mastering the art of speaking as the most important

aspect of learning a language. According to Hughes (2003), the objective of

teaching spoken language is the development of the ability to interact successfully

in that language, and that this involves comprehension as well as production. It is

also assumed that at the earliest stages of learning formal testing of this ability

will not be called for, informal observation providing any diagnostic information

that is needed. Therefore, some researchers and experts have tried to assign the

notion of teaching speaking like Nunan (2003) who has clarified it as to teach

English language learners to.

a. Produce the English speech sounds and sound patterns;

b. Use words and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the

second language;

c. Select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social

settings situation and subject matter

d. Organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence

e. Use language as a means of expressing values and judgments, and

f. Use the language quickly and confidently.

Teaching speaking, in the researcher's opinion, is the way for students to

express their emotions, communicative needs, interact with other persons in any

situation, and influence the others. For this reason, in teaching speaking skill it is

necessary to have clear understanding involved in speech and also encourage the

potential of the learners to develop their speaking skill naturally. Overall, teaching

speaking skill emphasizes on the activities to make the students active and
 creative. From the basic of teaching English, speaking is one of English skill

which must be taught to the learners. Language is identical with the skill in

communicating with other using spoken form, so teaching speaking becomes very

significant lesson.

B. Strategy

1. Definition of Strategy

Strategy meant a plan to achieve something. In teaching and learning

process strategy is an activity that should be done by both teacher and learner in

order that learning activity become effective and efficient. Of course, the teacher

who has the first obligation to design strategy and it is followed by the students in

learning activities. Hamruni (2009) stated that strategy is a plan, method, or series

of activities designed to achieve a particular educational goal. Then Silver, et al,

(2007, p. 1) stated that “The goal of teaching is to weave together a conversation

that unites these disparate individuals around a common core of learning”.

Strategies were the different types or styles of plans that teachers use to achieve

this goal. Strategies were not new for most educators. Then, Silver, et al, (2007)

stated several reasons of strategies become an important part in education as

followed:

a. Strategies are tools for designing thoughtful lessons and units

b. Strategies make the work of differentiating instruction manageable for

teachers and motivating for students

c. Strategies provide the tools needed to bring thoughtful programs alive in the

classroom

d. Strategies build the skills needed for success on state tests

e. Frequent use of strategies leads to consistent and significant gains in student

achievement

f. Strategies build different kinds of knowledge.

2. Types of Strategy

a. Prepared talks

Prepared talks represent defined and useful speaking genre, and properly

organized, can be extremely interesting for both speaker and listener (Harmer,

1989). Some popular kind of activities the prepared talks where a student or

students make a presentation on a topic of their own choice. Such talks are not

designed for informal spontaneous conversation because they are prepared, and

however if possible, students should speak from notes rather than a script.

b. Role-play

Many students derive great benefit from simulation and role play. Harmer

(1989, p 271) stated that “one way of getting students to speak in different social

contexts and to assume varied social roles is to use role-play activities in the

classroom”. Role play activities are also pertinent way of integrating skills in the

language classroom.

c. Brainstorming

Brainstorming was one of the activities which can be done in pre –

teaching stage. In general, the teachers activated their students' knowledge by

asking questions of related words within text or the title given which were called

brainstorming activities. Crawford (2005, p 29) stated that “brainstorming as one

of very popular tasks in learning activities that can help students to elicit

background knowledge and to activate necessary schemata”. One of the best ways
 to generate a number of ideas in a short amount of time is through the

brainstorming strategy. Brainstorming helps to stretch a student’s imagination,

encourages group cooperation, and leads to creative thinking through spontaneous

contributions by all group members. Key principles of brainstorming include the

following:

1. Select a problem or topic and react to it quickly.

2. Designate one person in the group as the recorder of ideas.

3. Accept and record all ideas or suggestions.

4. Build on other people’s ideas.

5. Do not criticize anyone else’s ideas.

6. Remember that, initially, quantity of ideas is more important than quality.

d. Oral Interview

According to Kayi, (2006) oral interview can be conducted with

individuals or pairs at all levels language proficiency and require no preparation

on the part of the students. In a classroom setting, interview can take the form

discussions or conversations with the teacher and with other students. Students

can conduct interviews on selected topics with various people. It is a good idea

that the teacher provides a rubric to students so that they know what type of

questions they can ask or what path to follow, but students should prepare their

own interview questions. Conducting interviews with people gives students a

chance to practice their speaking ability not only in class but also outside and

helps them becoming socialized. After interviews, each student can present his or

her study to the class. Moreover, students can interview each other and

"introduce" his or her partner to the class.

e. Debate

Debates were the discussion and change the ideas or argumentation

that related to the things by giving the reason to keep the argumentation

each other. Debates are most appropriate for intermediate and advanced

learners who have been guided in how to prepare for them. Debates

require extensive preparation by learners, call for interaction in groups,

and make use of at least the following language functions: describing,

explaining, giving and asking for information, persuading, agreeing, and

disagreeing. In a debate is needed the teams. According to Simon (2005)

there are two teams in every debate. One team is required to argue that the

topic is true. This team is called the ‘affirmative’, or sometimes the

‘proposition’. The other team is required to argue that the topic is not

true. This team is called the ‘negative’, or sometimes the ‘opposition

each team uses two basic types of argument to support for its side of the

topic. First, there are substantive arguments. These are prepared arguments

in favour of a team’s side of the topic. Second, there is rebuttal.

f. Games

According to Wright (2006, p 1) stated that “the word ‘game’ to

mean an activity which is entertaining and engaging, often challenging,

and an activity in which the learners play and usually interact with others”.

Games also help the teacher to create contexts in which the language is

useful and meaningful. The learners want to take part, and in order to do

so must understand what others are saying or have written, and they must

speak or write in order to express their own point of view or give

 information. Games provide one way of helping the learners to experience

language rather than merely study it.

g. Telling Story

We spend a lot of our time telling other people stories and

anecdotes about what happen to us and other people. Students must be

able to tell story in the target language, in this case is English. Teacher can

encourage the students to retell stories which they have read in their books

or found in newspaper or in internet. The best stories of course are those

which the students tell about themselves and their family or friends.

Harmer (2007, p. 129).

h. Discussion

According to Auner (1947, p 287) stated that “In our everyday talk

the term discussion is both widely and loosely used”. We apply it to

chance conversations, where the theme is subsidiary to the desire to get

acquainted, where the talk passes from on topic to another and only by

chance lingers long enough anywhere for the through consideration of a

subject. Discussion should have the following characteristics:

1) General participation. Discussion aims to make it possible for each

individual to speak as well as to listen. Intelligent listening followed by

informed action is participation.

2) Informality. Discussion aims at an organized informality.

3) Purpose. Discussion is talk with a purpose. The members of the group

have come together because they have information or ideas to exchange about
 some specific problem, or because they want to hear what their fellows have

to say about it.

4) Planning, except for the occasional spontaneous discussion that happen and

interested minds meet, discussion requires a leader and a plain. The leader should

direct the progress but not the outcomes of the discussion.

C. Students’ Problems in Speaking

Speaking was one of the important skills in English that should be

mastered by the students. Cameroon (2001) stated that “speaking is active uses of

language that makes on learners of language in term of sharing meaning”. In

addition, speaking English is demanding in certain fields of human endeavor. In

line with Al-Sibai (2004) stated that people have to have ability to speak English

fluently, especially to meet a demand in their fields of human endeavor. Some of

the difficulties can be seen below.

1). Anxiety

Anxiety related to someone’s psychology. Anxiety is a feeling of

sweating, chest pain, palpitations and worry that strike suddenly. Essau (2003)

stated that anxiety is one of the prevalent mental health concerns for children and

adolescents. Anxiety can be extremely impactful for adolescents, given the

importance of well being during times of transition. Thus, when students begin to

speak in English, they are fearful of criticism and simply shy.

2). Inadequate vocabulary knowledge

Lack of vocabulary is the biggest obstacles in speaking. Some students of

EFL have poor vocabulary as their problems in speaking English. Huyen (2003)

said that there are two factors causing students’ lack of vocabulary. First, students

consider that the teacher's explanation is simply for meaning or definition,

pronunciation, spelling and grammatical functions. The students in this context

consider that those things mentioned are nothing to do in vocabulary learning.

Many EFL students have lack of the necessary vocabulary to get their meaning

across.
3). Lack of grammar pattern

Grammar is the set of structural rule of words that put together to form

proper sentences. Grammar will become serious problem in speaking when

students do not notice the rule. Dykes (2007) defined that grammar is a language

to talk about language. Some EFL students would think about the particular

grammar item being involved before producing utterance.

4). Poor pronunciation

Pronunciation is the result of people in producing the sounds of words,

including articulation, stress and intonation. The real difficulty faced by students

in mastering English is pronouncing English words. One of being obstacles in

speaking English is poor of pronunciation. Liu (2007) stated that in many cases,

especially in EFL class most students do not have self-confidence to speak

because they do not know how to pronounce a certain word well. Some students

have trouble in pronouncing some particular vowels, consonants and intonations.

In addition, some students have trouble with words to be pronounced in American

or British pronunciations.

5). Lack of motivation

Many students who cannot speak English and do not want to speak

become the contribution of problem in speaking. Some students have low

motivation in speaking English and they are not aware of being able to speak

English. Littlewood (1987) stated that the need may be immediate or longer term

in skill learning it may be also due to factors related directly to the context

instruction such as short term behavioral objectives.

6). Poor listening facilities

Listening is a receptive skill language skill. Without listening, students

cannot produce language. Thus, listening plays an important role in enrichment of

language, so people’s outputs are varieties. In contrast, some students have poor

of listening facilities as their obstacle in producing speaking. Vandergrift (1999)

stated that listening skills are anything but easy to master for many EFL learners,

listening is the thing they feel frustrated. English speaking is not useful for some

students in schools of Pakistan. Thus, the students are less in receiving English

orally”.

7). Unavailability of the environment to speak English

Gan (2012) revealed that when students finish their classes and their first

language is dominant used in environment. Students’ are unable to speak and

improve their speaking skill, because their environment is first language and make

the students’ get the difficulties in speaking. Some students have poor input of

speak English around them. The first language is dominant in their environment.

In school, some students use their first language to communicate each other.

8). Inappropriate teaching strategy

Teaching strategy acts as an important role in the teaching process.

Appropriate strategy is determining learning goals. Even in speaking, a good

teaching strategy in speaking will affect speaking performance. In contrast,

inappropriate teaching strategy will become obstacle in speaking. As well as, Al

Hosni (2014) claimed that “lack of teaching speaking strategy gives negative

impact in students speaking performance”. In line with Gan (2012) stated that
 style of teaching speaking such as little interaction in small group can be a

difficulty in speaking in EFL students.

9). Inappropriate curriculum

Curriculum is an important role in classroom circumstances. It means that

the entire classroom activities are run by curriculum. A study by Al Hosni (2014)

revealed that curriculum implementation was not appropriate to teach English

speaking skill. The curriculum only focuses on reading and writing skill. It was

noticed by students who are only silent in the speaking class. Thus, it can be

summed up that the applied curriculum does not provide the students with enough

opportunities to use the English language. Additionally, there are actually many

problems in speaking. Brown (2004) stated that speaking is a skill and such as

needs to be developed and practiced independently of the grammar curriculum. It

indicated that all of the problems above are the main speaking problems

encountered by EFL students either from the students itself or from the

environment.

D. Strategies to Overcome Speaking Problems

Speaking is a medium to convey believes. According to Al Hosni (2014)

stated that “speaking is the activity in using a language to express meaning”. Even

though speaking is intermediary to convey the meaning, some students have

problems such as less of vocabulary, anxiety, and lack of pronunciation. On the

other hand, some students have the strategies to overcome those problems,

especially the problems which come from students.

 Strategy can solve the students’ difficulties when they try to express

themselves in speaking English because the students usually find some problems

in speaking activities. Then, the students will frustrate in learning a foreign

language, because they do not understand how to make it easy. The students’

problems in speaking activities are, they have no motivation to express themselves

in speaking activities, they have low participation in doing speaking activities, and

they have mother tongue in classroom. Ur (1996) stated that “teacher should able

to choose an aproppriate strategy in order to make the student’ understand about

the content and the teacher should guide the students to express their ideas in

speaking activities at the classroom”.

1). The use of mother tongue

Ur (1996) stated that the learners share the same mother tongue they may

tend to use it because it is easier, to feels unnatural to speak to one another in a

foreign language, and because they feel less ‘exposed’ if they are speaking their

mother tongue. If they are talking in small groups it can be ‘quite difficult’ to get

some classes particularly the less disciplined or motivated ones to keep to the

target language. Students will aware of their initial learning process in their first

language. Easily, students can adopt their processes and methods in first language

into their second language learning. Finally, students are easier in learning second

language using familiar methods that they have been adopted from the first

language learning to the second language learning.

2) Follow-up activity

Follow-up activity is more like create games in the class. This strategy can

be organized by teachers or by students. Follow-up activity provides many games

which can be developed by teachers or students. One of these activities is a word

game or a sentence game as conducted to be a competition. Rajasekaran (2010)

maintained that “games such as word game and sentence game can be the activity

in helping students to improve their confidence when speaking English”. In

follow-up activity, students are divided into some groups. Each group has given

some sentence in some piece of paper. Students need to arrange it to be a good

sentence patterns related to the topic. After they finish in arranging sentences,

students have to speak and convey related to the sentences that they have

arranged. It provides other groups to give opinions or comments if they have

different sentence patterns. This strategy provides the students to be braver in

expressing their ideas. This strategy has good result in improving their confidence

level.

3). Fun oral activities

Classroom oral activities have various models to encourage students to

speak. Al-Abri (2008) maintained that “some fun oral activities such as songs,

rhymes, pictures and simple story can be strategies to make students more

enjoyable in learning their speaking skill”. All of them provide students to sing a

song in the classroom, to draw a picture and to tell to others, or to tell students’

activities every day. These activities give students a chance to train their speaking

ability and decrease fear.

E. Relevant of the Study

In this part, the researcher present states that the relevant study which
possible to add the students’ ne strategies in teaching speaking. The researcher
uses relevant study relate to the research. The research realizes that relevant study
is able to help present researcher of the study and they will be able to give the
contribution to the study. The first study is related to “students’ strategies in
overcoming speaking problems” which has been investigated by Lukitasari
(2008). Based on this research, the problems are (1) what students’ problems in
speaking at the first semester of English department Muhammadiyah university of
Malang? (2) what are the strategies in overcoming speaking problems at the first
semester of English department Muhammadiyah University of Malang? All the
data were obtained through questionnaire and then analyzed descriptively after
being classified into related aspect. The population of the study at the first
semester of English department of Muhammadiyah university of Malang nine
classes of speaking and two classes of the study as sample of the research and the
results of the study showed that the students get the problems with their speaking
ability particularly in term of inhibition, nothing to say, low or uneven participant
and mother tongue used.
The second study takes from Hanunah (2009). She was investigated about

students’ strategies in overcoming speaking problems in speaking class of second

semester at English Department of Tarbiyah Faculty IAIN Sunan Ampel Surabaya.

There are three problems that going to be discussed in this thesis, those are, (1)

what problems do second semester faced in learning speaking, (2) what are that

caused of the problems faced by second semester in learning speaking, (3) what
 are their strategies in overcoming those problems. The research design of this

study is descriptive qualitative, all the data were obtained through questionnaire

and then analyzed descriptively after being classified into related aspect. The

population is second semester students’ of English department at Tarbiyah faculty

IAIN Sunan Ampel Surabaya and the sample of this study was determined using

quota sampling which take 50% of each class. The result of this study showed that

the students’ had difficulties in their speaking ability particularly in terms

inhibition, nothing to say, low or uneven participation, mother tongue used. It was

because they did not master the three primary elements of speaking namely,

vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. As a result, many students were not

really good in speaking.

Based on the description above, this study is similarities tittles with

mentioned by the researcher on the above. Beside, the difference of that study is

here the conduct the research. Lukintasari (2008) conducted at the first semester of

English department in Muhammadiyah university of Malang and Hanunah (2009)

conducted at second semester of English department at Tarbiyah faculty IAIN

Sunan Ampel Surabaya. For while, this study will conduct at the second grade of

MA Nw Montong Mas in the academic year 2018-2019.

F. Theoretical Framework

Harmer (2001) defined that speaking ability as the ability to speak fluently

presupposed not only knowledge of language features, but also the ability to

process information and language ‘on the spot’. Pinter (2006) stated that speaking

starts with practicing and drilling set phrases and repeating models. It also means

communicating with others in situations where spontaneous contributions are

 required. So, fluent speakers have to learn not only language but also what the

appropriate things are to say in certain situation. Speaking is one of the important

skills used to convey the meaning, feeling or opinion to each other.

There were a lot of difficulties in speaking. The difficulties were dealing

with anxiety, inadequate vocabulary knowledge, lack of grammar pattern, poor

pronunciation, lack of motivation, poor listening facilities, unavailability of the

environment that helps to speak English, inappropriate teaching strategy and

appropriate curriculum. Besides, the speaking students can use many speaking

strategies to overcome those problems. Those strategies were the use of mother

tongue, follow-up activity, and fun oral activities.

G. Research Question

a. What are the dominants of the students’ problems in speaking of the

eleventh grade at MA NW Montong Mas in the academic year 2018-2019?

b. What are the students’ strategies in overcoming their speaking problems of

the eleventh grade at MA NW Montong Mas in the academic year 2018-

2019?