Glossary

absorbance Defined as A=log (I0/I), where I0 is the radiant power (intensity) of light striking the
sample (incident radiation) and I is the radiant power emerging from the opposite
side (transmitted radiation). Also called optical density.
absorption A graph of absorbance of light versus wavelength, frequence or wavenumber.
spectrum
accuracy A measure of how close a measured value is to the true value.
adjusted In chromatography, t'=tr-t0, where tr is the retention time of a solute and t0 is the
(corrected) dead time.
retention time
adsorption It is the oldest and most common type of chromatography. The stationary phase is
chromatography a solid with adsorption power. Mixture components will be adsorbed on the
surface of the stationary phase with different powers and that account for
separation. Silica gel is the most common stationary phase in adsorption
chromatography
affinity A technique in which, for the macromolecule of interest, a biospecific adsorbent is
chromatography prepared by coupling a specific ligand (such as an enzyme or antigen) to a solid
support. This immobilized ligand will interact only with molecules that can
selectively bind to it. Molecules that will not bind elute unretained. The retained
compound can later be released in a purified state.
Ag/AgCl electrode A silver chloride electrode is a type of reference electrode, which functions as a
redox electrode and the reaction is between the silver metal (Ag) and its salt -
silver chloride. The electrode is a silver wire that is coated with a thin layer of
silver chloride. A porous plug on one end allows contact between the field
environment with the silver chloride electrolyte. An insulated lead wire connects
the silver rod with measuring instruments. The reference electrode contains
potassium chloride to stabilize the silver chloride concentration. ,

analyte Substance being analyzed.

anode Electrode at which oxidation occurs. In electrophoresis, it is the positively charged
electrode.
atomic absorption A technique in which unexcited atoms in a flame or furnace absorb characteristic
spectrometry, AAS radiation from a source and attenuate the radiant power of the source.
atomic emission A technique in which the emission of light by atoms thermally excited in a flame or
spectrometry, AES plasma is used to measure the concentration of atoms.
atomic A technique in which electronic transitions of atoms in a flame or furnace are
fluorescence excited by light, and the fluorescence is observed at a right angle to the incident
spectrometry, AFS beam.
atomic Atomic spectroscopy is the study of the electromagnetic radiation absorbed and
spectrometry emitted by atoms. Since unique elements have characteristic spectra, atomic
spectroscopy is applied for determination of elemental compositions.
band spectrum A molecular spectrum in which spectral lines are numerous and close together
owing to rotational and vibrational transitions.
beam chopping A technique using a rotating beam chopper to modulate the signal in a
spectrophotometer at a frequency at which noise is reduced. In atomic
absorption, periodic blocking of the beam allows a distinction to be made between
light from the source and light from the flame.

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beam splitter A device for dividing radiation from a monochromator such that one portion
passes through the sample while the
other passes through the blank.
Beer's law, In absorption spectroscopy, the absorbance of a dilute solution is equal to its
Lambert-Beer law molar absorptivity times the pathlength times the concentration of the absorbing
solute.
blank solution It is a solution containing no analyte of interest. In a blank determination all steps
of an analysis are performed in the absence of sample to detect and compensate
for systematic errors in an analysis.
boundary The resultant of two potentials that develop at the surfaces of a membrane
potential, Eb electrode.
calibration Process of measuring a physical quantity (such as mass, volume, electric current,
etc.) corresponding to an indicated quantity on the scale of an instrument.
calibration A graph showing the value of some property versus concentration of analyte.
diagram (curve)
calibration with Sample peak areas (or peak heights) are compared to peak areas (or heights) of
external standards the external standards. It is called external standard because the standard is
external to the unknown material. External standards do not correct for losses
that may occur during preparation of the sample, such as extraction,
centrifugation, evaporation, etc. Internal standards would correct for this because
those added to the unknown at the beginning of the sample preparation.
calibration with Internal standard is used for calibration by plotting the ratio of the analyte signal
internal standard to the internal standard signal as a function of the analyte concentration of the
standards. This is done to correct for the loss of analyte during sample preparation
or sample inlet.
calomel electrode A reference electrode in which the redox couple comprises elemental mercury and
mercury(I)chloride, and it based on the half-reaction Hg2CI2(s) + 2e- = 2Hg(l) + 2CI-
capillary Method for separation of a mixture into its components by using a high electric
electrophoresis field imposed between the two ends of a narrow capillary tube filled with
electrolyte solution.
cathode Electrode at which reduction occurs. In electrophoresis, it is the negatively
charged electrode.
charge coupled A sensitive solid-state two-dimensional detector array used for spectroscopy and
device (CCD) imaging. In CCD the light creates electrons and holes in a semiconductor material.
detector The electrons are attracted to regions near positive electrodes, where the
electrons are "stored" until they are ready to be counted. The number of electrons
in each pixel (picture element) is proportional to the number of photons striking
the pixel.
chemical species The chemical species are specific forms of an element defined as to isotopic
composition, electronic or oxidation state, and/or complex or molecular structure.
chromatogram A plot of analyte concentration signal as a function of elution time or elution
volume.
chromatography Chromatography is a physical method of separation in which the components to
be separated are distributed between two phases, one of which is stationary while
the other moves in a definite direction. The stationary phase may be a solid, or a
liquid supported on a solid, the mobile phase may be either a gas or a liquid.

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chromophore A chromophore is the part of a molecule responsible for its color. The color arises
when a molecule absorbs certain wavelengths of visible light and transmits or
reflects others. The chromophore is a region in the molecule where the energy
difference between two different molecular orbitals falls within the range of the
visible spectrum. Visible light that hits the chromophore can thus be absorbed by
exciting an electron from its ground state into an excited state.
colorimetry Simple method used to determine the concentration of colored compounds in
solution. In colorimetry, frequently the entire visible spectrum (white light) is
used, and consequently the complementary colour is observed as transmitted
light. If monochromatic light or a narrow band of radiation is used, the instrument
is called a spectrophotometer.
conductivity A measure of how easily an electric current can pass through a material. The
conductivity is the reciprocal of the resistance. The SI unit of conductance is the
siemens
conductometry Determination of the quantity of ions present in a mixture by measurement of its
effect on the electrical conductivity of the mixture.
constructive A phenomenon that occurs when two waves occupy the same space and are in
interference phase with each other. Since the amplitudes of waves are additive, the two waves
will add together to give a resultant wave which is more intense than either of the
individual waves.
continuous A plot of the relative absorbance or intensity of emitted light vs. wavelength or
spectrum frequency that shows a smooth variation, rather than a series of sharp peaks or
bands. Glowing solids provide continuum output in the visible and infrared
regions: deuterium lamps yield continuum spectra in the ultraviolet region.
Daniell-cell The Daniell cell is a galvanic (voltaic) cell, which contains zinc immersed in Zn2+(aq)
solution and copper immersed in Cu2+(aq) solution. The two electrodes are in
galvanic contact by a salt bridge, which prevents Zn2+ and Cu2+ ions to penetrate to
the other compartment causing chemical reaction. Zn(s) │ ZnSO4(aq) ║ CuSO4(aq) │
Cu(s)
dead volume A measure of solvent accessible volume between injector and detector after the
space occupied by the column packing material has been subtracted. The dead
volume can be determined by injecting an inert compound (a compound that does
not interact with the column packing) and measuring its retention volume.
dead time, t0 The time taken for solvent molecules or other non-retained components to move
through the column (chromatographic system)
destructive A phenomenon that occurs when two waves occupy the same space. Since the
interference amplitudes of waves are additive, if the two waves are out of phase with each
other, the resultant wave will be less intense than either of the individual waves.
diffraction The ability of a wave to bend around the edges of obstacles or holes. The effect is
most noticeable when the obstacle or slit is comparable to the size of the
wavelength. Interference of waves from adjacent slits produces a spectrum of
radiation, with each wavelength emerging at a different angle.
direct Direct potentiometric measurements provide a rapid and convenient method to
potentiometry determine the activity of a variety of
cations and anions. A comparison of the potential developed in a cell containing
the indicator electrode in the analyte solution with its potential when immersed in
one or more standard solutions of known analyte concentration.

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dispersion (light) Chromatic dispersion is the change of index of refraction with wavelength.
Generally the index decreases as wavelength increases, blue light traveling more
slowly in the material than red light. Dispersion is the phenomenon which makes
possible the separation of colors in a prism.
displacement It is a chromatography technique in which a sample (as a finite plug) is placed
technique of the onto the head of the column and is then displaced by a solute that is more
chromatography strongly sorbed than the components of the original mixture. The result is that the
components are resolved into consecutive zones of concentrated pure substances
rather than solvent-separated “peaks”. It is primarily a preparative technique;
higher product concentration, higher purity, and increased throughput may be
obtained compared to other modes of chromatography.
dynamic range Range of analyte concentration over which a change in concentration gives a
change in detector response.
electrode A conductor employed either to determine an electrode potential (at zero current,
i.e. for potentiometric experiments), or to determine current during a dynamic
electroanalytical measurement. The electronic conductivity of most electrodes is
metallic.
electrode The energy, expressed as a voltage, of a redox couple at equilibrium. E is the
potential, E potential of the electrode when measured relative to a standard (ultimately the
SHE). E depends on temperature, activity and solvent. By convention, the half cell
must first be written as a reduction, and the potential is then designated as
positive if the reaction proceeds spontaneously with respect to the SHE.
Otherwise, E is negative.
electrode of first A metallic electrode whose potential is proportional to the logarithm of the
kind concentration (activity) of a cation derived from the electrode metal.

electrode of Metal electrode respond to the activities of anions that form hardly soluble
second kind precipitates with cations derived from the electrode metal.
electrolyte A solution of a dissociated salt in a solvent.
electromagnetic A wave that involves perpendicular oscillations in the electric and magnetic fields,
radiation moving at a speed of 3×108 m/s in a vacuum. Gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet light,
visible light, infrared radiation and radio waves are all electromagnetic waves.
electromotive The potential that develops between two electrodes in an electrochemical cell
force, emf (E) when a state of frustrated equilibrium has been reached; the value of the emf is
always defined as positive. In an electroanalytical context, equilibrium is defined
as zero current during a potentiometric measurement.
electroosmotic Uniform, pluglike flow of electrolyte in a capillary tube under the influence of an
flow electric field. The greater the charge on the wall of the capillary, the greater the
number of counterions in the double layer and the stronger the electroosmotic
flow.
electrophoresis Separation method based on migration of ions in solution in an electric field. The
migration of the analytes depend on their charge, size, shape.
eluate What comes out of a chromatography column. Also called effluent.
eluent A mobile phase in chromatography that is used to carry solutes through a
stationary phase. It is pumped into the beginning of a chromatography column.
elution Elution is the process of extracting one material from another by washing with a
solvent (eg. in washing of loaded ion-exchange resins to remove captured ions).

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elution technique A procedure in which the mobile phase is continuously passed through or along
of the the chromatographic bed and the sample is fed into the system as a finite plug.
chromatography
emission spectrum The collection of spectral lines or bands that are observed when species in excited
states relax by giving off their excess energy as electromagnetic radiation.
excited state An atom or molecule which has absorbed energy is getting in an excited state.
Excited states tend to have short lifetimes; they lose energy either through
collisions or by emitting photons to "relax" back down to their ground states.
experimental Any discrepancy between a measured quantity and the true or theoretically
error, bias correct value of that quantity.
external standard A compound present in a standard sample of known concentration and volume
which is analysed separately from the unknown sample under identical conditions.
field effect A semiconductor device in which the electric field between the gate and the base
transistor, FET electrodes governs the flow of current between source and drain.
fluorescence Process in which a molecule emits a photon shortly (10-8 to 10-4 s) after absorbing
a photon. It results from a transition between states of the same spin multiplicity
(e.g., singlet  singlet).
formal electrode Potential of a half-reaction (relative to a standard hydrogen electrode) when the
potential, E0 formal concentrations of reactants and products are unity. Any other conditions
(such as pH, ionic strength, and concentrations of ligands) also must be specified.
(The difference between formal and molar is that the formal concentration
indicates moles of the original chemical formula in solution, without regard for the
species that actually exist in solution.)
frontal technique A procedure in which the sample (liquid or gas) is fed continuously into the
of the chromatographic bed. In frontal chromatography no additional mobile phase is
chromatography used.
galvanic cell An electrochemical cell that produces electricity by means of a spontaneous
chemical reaction. Also called a voltaic cell.
Gaussian Theoretical bell-shaped distribution of measurements when all error is random.
distribution The center of the curve is the mean, , and the width is characterized by the
standard deviation, . A normalized Gaussian distribution is also called as normal
error curve.
gel eletrophoresis A method for separation macromolecules (DNA, RNA and proteins) in agarose or
polyacrylamide gel based on their size, charge and shape.
glass combination The combination pH electrode consists of a glass electrode concentrically
electrode surrounded by the reference electrode. The shaft can be made of glass or plastic.
The pH sensitive part of the electrode is the glass tip or the so-called glass
membrane, at the bottom end of the electrode.
SCE || test solution ([H3O+]=a1) | glass membrane | [H3O+]=a2, Cl- | AgCl(s) | Ag
glass electrode An electrode in which a potential develops across a thin glass membrane, which
provides a measure of the pH of the solution in which the electrode is immersed.
gradient elution Chromatographic conditions in which the strength and composition of the eluent
is increased during the chromatographic run thereby reducing analysis time.
grating Either a reflective or a transmitting surface etched with closely spaced lines; used
to disperse light into its component wavelengths.

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grating equation n= d(sinθ + sinφ), where d is the distance between adjacent grooves. For each
incident angle, θ, there is a series of reflection angles, φ, at which a given
wavelength will produce maximum constructive interference. n can be zero or
positive or negative integers, resulting in diffracted orders on both sides of the
zero order beam.
ground state The lowest energy state for an atom or molecule. When an atom is in its ground
state, its electrons fill the lowest energy orbitals completely before they begin to
occupy higher energy orbitals.
half-cell Part of an electrochemical cell in which half of an electrochemical reaction (either
the oxidation or the reduction reaction) occurs.
half-reaction Any redox reaction can be conceptually broken into two half-reactions, one
involving only oxidation and one involving only reduction.
hollow-cathode A type of lamp used in atomic absorption spectrometers as a spectral line source.
lamp It consists of an anode and a cathode inside of a glass tube. The glass tube is filled
with inert gas. The cathode is constructed of the pure metal of interest or a
mixture of metals containing the metal of interest.
Inductively A method that makes use of an inert gas (usually argon) plasma formed by the
coupled plasma absorption of radio-frequency radiation to atomize and excite a sample for atomic
(ICP) spectroscopy emission spectroscopy.
ICP-MS A type of mass spectrometry which is capable of detecting metals and several non-
spectrometry metals at very low concentrations. This is achieved by ionizing the sample with
inductively coupled plasma and then using a mass spectrometer to separate and
quantify those ions.
indicator electrode It is immersed in a solution of the analyte, develops a potential, Eind, that depends
on the activity of the analyte.
internal standard A known quantity of a compound other than analyte added to a solution
containing an unknown quantity of analyte. The concentration of analyte is then
measured relative to that of the internal standard. In chromatography, internal
standards are used to determine the concentration of other analytes by
calculating response factor. The internal standard selected should be similar to the
analyte and have a similar retention time and similar derivatization. It must be
stable and must not interfere with the sample components.
ion-exchange It is used for separation of ions, charged molecules. The stationary phase is an ion
chromatography exchange resin to which a cationic or anionic groups are covalently bonded. Ions
of opposite charges (counter ions) in the mobile phase are attracted to the resin
and compete with the components of the mixture for the charged group on the
resin.
ion-selective In potentiometry, an electrode having a nernstian response to one ion, ideally to
electrode the exclusion of others.
isocratic elution Chromatographic conditions in which a constant composition eluent is used.
isosbestic point A wavelength at which the absorbance spectra of two species cross each other. At
this wavelength the total absorbance of a sample does not change during a
chemical reaction or a physical change of the sample. The appearance of isosbestic
points in a solution in which a chemical reaction is occurring is evidence that there
are only two components present, with a constant total concentration.

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isotope dilution Radiochemical method of analysis for measuring the quantity of an element in a
method substance. The procedure involves adding to a substance a known quantity of a
radioisotope of the element to be measured and mixing it with the stable isotope
of the element (original sample). A portion of sample is then taken from the
mixture and analyzed. By measuring the amount of radioactive isotope and the
amount of stable isotope present and determining the ratio of these amounts, the
quantity of the element can be calculated.
junction potential, A potential developed across a boundary between electrolytes which differ in
Ej concentration or chemical composition. It is caused by differing rates of ionic
migration across the boundary, thereby leading to a charge separation. This
potential is usually some tens of millivolts, but it may be minimized by the use of a
salt bridge connection containing, e.g. the electrolytes KCI or NH4N03.
laser A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based
on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term "laser"
originated as an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation". The laser is a monochromatic, collimated, polarized and coherent
radiation with high power.
light Light usually refers to visible light, which is electromagnetic radiation that is visible
to the human eye and is responsible for the visual perception.
limit of detection Smallest analyte concentration for which there is a stated probability (usually 95%
or 99%) of detection, that is the smallest quantity of the analyte that is
significantly different from a blank. The detection limit is often taken as the mean
signal for blanks plus 3 times the standard deviation of a low-concentration
sample. In chromatography we use a signal plus adjacent baseline noise, the
detection limit is taken as twice the peak-to-peak noise level.
linear range Linear range is the range where the results are proportional to the concentration
of the analyte present in the sample.
line spectrum A emission or absorption spectrum that contains very sharp peaks, corresponding
to electronic transitions between states in free atoms. For example, the line
spectrum of hydrogen contains 4 sharp lines in the visible part of the spectrum.
longitudinal Diffusion of solute molecules parallel to the direction of travel through a
diffusion chromatography column.
mobility Mobilities are determined by dividing the velocity by the field strength. The
(electrophoretic) mobility is independent of voltage and capillary length but is highly dependent on
the buffer type and pH as well as temperature.
molar absorptivity, Constant of proportionality in Beer's law: A = bc, where A is absorbance, b is
 pathlength, and c is the molarity of the absorbing species. Also called extinction
coefficient.
monochromatic Radiation that has a single wavelength.
light
monochromator A device (usually a prism, grating, or filter) that disperses light into its component
wavelengths and selects a narrow band of wavelengths to pass through the exit
slit.

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Nernst equation It relates the potential of an electrode to the activities of those species in solution
that are responsible for the potential. , where, E0 is the standard
potential, R is the ideal gas constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin, n is the
number of moles of electrons transferred in the cell reaction or half-reaction, F is
the Faraday-constant (96487 Coulomb/mol) and a is the activity of the
electrodactive component (mol/dm3). The Nernst equation is frequently expressed
in terms of base 10 logarithms , that is for a cell at 25 °C:

For redoxi systems the electrode potencial can be written by Nernst-Peters

equation, as

where cox and cred are concentrations of reduced and oxidized species of redox
system (pair).
noise Random fluctuations of an analytical signal that result from a large number of
uncontrolled variables affecting the signal.
number of A characteristic of a chromatographic column used to describe its efficiency. A
theoretical plates, theoretical plate is a hypothetical zone or stage in which two phases, such as the
N liquid and vapor phases of a substance, (or in a separation process the mobile and
the stationary phases) establish an equilibrium with each other. N=L/H, where L is
the length of the chromatographic column, H is the plate height
optical fiber Fiber that carries light by total internal reflection because the transparent core has
a higher refractive index than the surrounding cladding.
partition The stationary phase is a liquid forming a thin film on an inert solid acts as
(absorption) support. The stationary liquid and the mobile liquid must be immiscible with each
chromatography other. In this technique the separation is achieved by (distribution) equilibration
of solute between two phases.
peak broadening The tendency of a chromatographic peak to broaden as it passes through the
column. It is also known as peak spreading or peak dispersion. The peak width or
the number of theoretical plates in the column is a measure of peak broadening.
phosphorescence Emission of light during a transition between states of different spin multiplicity
(e.g., triplet  singlet). Phosphorescence is slower than fluorescence, with
emission occurring ~ 10-4 to 10 2 s after absorption of a photon.
photodiode A (silicon) semiconductor that produces electrons and holes when irradiated by
electromagnetic radiation (light). The resulting current provides a measure of the
number of photons per second striking the device.
photodiode array A linear array of photodiodes that can detect multiple wavelengths
detector simultaneously.
photoelectron An electron ejected from an atom or molecule that has absorbed a photon.
photomultiplier A sensitive detector of electromagnetic radiation; amplification is accomplished by
tube a series of dynodes that produce a cascade of electrons for each photon received
by the tube.
photon Energy packet of electromagnetic radiation.
phototube A transducer consisting of a photoemissive cathode, a wire anode, and a power
supply to maintain a suitable potential between the electrodes.
plate height, H Measure of column efficiency. Length of column relating to the concept of the
number of theoretical plate (see above). Also called as height equivalent to a
theoretical plate (HETP).

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polychromator A device that disperses light into its component wavelengths and directs each
small band of wavelengths to a different region where it is detected by a
photodiode array.
potentiometric cell An electrochemical cell, which consists of two half-cells, each containing an
electrode immersed in a solution of ions whose activities determine the
electrode’s potential. A salt bridge containing an inert electrolyte, such as KCl,
connects the two half-cells. The ends of the salt bridge are fixed with porous frits,
allowing the electrolyte’s ions to move freely between the half-cells and the salt
bridge. This movement of ions in the salt bridge completes the electrical circuit.
potentiometric Measurement of the potential of a suitable indicator electrode as a function of
titration titrant volume. The measurement is base on the titrant volume that causes a rapid
change in potential near the equivalence point.
potentiometry The technique of determining an activity as a function of potential (at zero
current). Activity and concentration can often be interchanged at low ionic
strength.
precision The degree of agreement among independent replicate analyses of a sample,
usually expressed as the standard deviation. A measure of the reproducibility of a
measurement.
quality assurance A protocol designed to demonstrate that a product or a service is meeting criteria
that have been established
for satisfactory performance.
Q test Statistical test used to decide whether to discard a datum that appears discrepant.
It indicates - with a specified level of probability - whether an outlying
measurement in a set of replicate data is a member of a given Gaussian
distribution.
random error The non-systematic deviation experienced in any step of an analytical procedure
that can be estimated by standard statistical techniques. It can be either positive
or negative and cannot be eliminated, based on the ultimate limitations on a
physical measurement.
reference A half-cell with an accurately known electrode potential, Eref, that is independent
electrode of the concentration of the analyte or any other ions in the solution.
reflection The return of radiation from a surface.
refraction Bending of light when it passes between media with different refractive indexes.
refractive index, n The speed of light in any medium is c/n, where c is the speed of light in vacuum
and n is the refractive index of the medium. The refractive index also measures
the angle at which a light ray is bent when it passes from one medium into
another.
relative error The error in a measurement divided by the true value for the measurement; often
expressed as a percentage.
relative retention, In chromatography, the ratio of adjusted retention times for two components. If
 (separation component 1 has an adjusted retention time of t'R1 and component 2 has an
factor) adjusted retention time of t'R2 (> t'R1 ), the relative retention is  = t'R2/t'R1
relative standard The standard deviation divided by the mean value for a set of data; when
deviation expressed as a percentage, the relative standard deviation is referred to as the
coefficient of variation.
resolution A measure of the separation of two adjacent peaks. The higher the resolution
value the greater the separation.

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resonance line A spectral line resulting from a resonance transition, which is a transition to and
from the ground electronic state.
retention factor, k A term used to describe the transport of a species through a chromatographic
column. Its numerical value is given by k = (tR - tM)/tM, where tR is the retention
time for a peak and tM is the dead time; also called the capacity factor.
retention time The elapsed time between sample injection and the appearance of the
chromatographic peak apex.
rotational A change in quantized rotational energy states in a molecule. (Rotational states
transition are quantized states associated with the rotation of a molecule about its center of
mass.)
salt bridge A device employed to minimize the liquid junction potential E,. The bridge
connects two half cells, with one end being immersed in each. The bridge is a glass
U-tube filled with the KCI or NH4NO3, gelled with agar. It allows ions to flow
without allowing immediate diffusion of one electrolyte solution into the other.
Scheibe-Lomakin , where I is the intensity of the emitted light, c is the concentration of
equation the element, k is the constant of proportionality
selectivity The capability of a method or instrument to distinguish analyte from other species
in the sample.
self-absorption In atomic spectroscopy, there is a lower concentration of excited-state atoms in
the cool, outer part of the flame/plasma than in the hot, inner flame/plasma. The
cool atoms can absorb emission from the hot ones and thereby decrease the
observed signal.
sensitivity Response of an instrument or method to a given amount of analyte. Sensitivity of
the detector is a measure of its ability to discriminate between small differences in
analyte concentration. It is the slope of the calibration curve.
signal-to-noise Usually calculated as the ratio of the average signal divided by the standard
(S/N) deviation of the noise, where the signal is flat.
singlet state The state in which all electron spins are paired. 
size-exclusion A chromatographic method in which molecules in solution are separated by their
chromatography size. It is ususally applied to large molecules (proteines, polymers). Also known as
gel permeation, gel filtration or steric exclusion chromatography.
Snell's law It relates angle of refraction, 2 , to angle of incidence, 1 for light passing from a
medium with refractive index n1 to a medium of refractive index n2.
n1 sin1 = n2 sin 2 , angles are measured with respect to the normal to the surface
between the two media.
solid-state ion- An ion-selective electrode that has a solid membrane made of an inorganic salt
selective electrode crystal. Ion-exchange equilibria
between the solution and the surface of the crystal account for the electrode
potential.
speciation analysis Analytical activities of identifying and measuring the quantities of one or more
individual chemical species in a sample.
spectrophotometry Methods based on the absorption, emission, or fluorescence of electromagnetic
spectroscopy radiation that is related to the amount of analyte in the sample. In a broad sense,
any method using light to measure chemical concentrations.

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spectrum A plot that shows how some intensity-related property of a radiation or particles
depends on another property that is related to dispersal of the beam by a prism, a
magnet, or some other device. For example, a plot of light absorbance vs.
wavelength is an absorption spectrum; a plot of ion abundance vs. mass is a mass
spectrum.
standard A solution of precisely known concentration. Standards are generally prepared by
placing a reference material in a matrix.
standard addition A technique in which an analytical signal due to an unknown is first measured.
Then known quantities of analyte are added, and the increase in signals are
recorded. It is typically used to evaluate matrix effects.
standard deviation The standard deviation is a statistical measure of precision. The best estimate of

the standard deviation s for small data sets is calculated using ,

where xi is the measurement from the i-th run, x-bar is the mean of all the
measurements, and N is the number of measurements. For very large data sets,
the standard deviation is the root-mean-square deviation from the true mean, and
is usually written as sigma to distinguish it from the best estimate standard
deviation s used for small data sets.
standard electrode An electrode potential measured at standard temperature and pressure, where all
potential, ° products and reagents are present at unit activity.
standard hydrogen The standard against which redox potentials are measured. The SHE consists of a
electrode, SHE platinum electrode electroplated with Pt black (to catalyse the electrode reaction),
over which hydrogen at a pressure of 1 atm is passed. The electrode is immersed
in a solution containing hydrogen ions at unit activity (e.g. 1.228 mol dm-3 of
aqueous HCl at 20°C). The potential of the SHE half cell is defined as 0.000 V at all
temperatures.
standard solution A solution in which the concentration of a solute is known with high reliability.
systematic A consistent deviation in the results of analysis from the expected or known value.
(determinate) Such error is caused by human and methodological bias. This error can be
error discovered and corrected.
transmittance Transmittance of a sample is defined as T = (I/I0), where I0 is incident radiation and
I is the transmitted radiation. Often applied as %T.
triplet state An electronic state in which there are two unpaired electrons.
t-test Statistical test used to decide whether the results of two experiments are within
experimental uncertainty of each other. The uncertainty must be specified to
within a certain probability.
validation (of a Process of proving that an analytical method is acceptable for its intended
method) purpose.
van Deemter Describes the dependence of chromatographic plate height, H, on linear flow rate,
equation ux: H = A + B/ux + Cux. The constant
A depends on band-broadening processes such as multiple flow paths that are
independent of flow rate. B depends on the rate of diffusion of solute in the
mobile phase. C depends on the rate of mass transfer between the stationary and
mobile phases.
voltammetry The techniques and methodology of measuring current as a function of applied
potential.
wavelength,  Distance between adjacent crests or troughs of a light wave.

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