1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW

In the current scenario, the electrical energy is the most important

form of energy among the available energy sources. Electrical energy is used
in residential, industries, medicines, transportation and commercial
applications. With the increase of population and industries, the consumption
of electrical energy has increased. As a result, there is an increase in the
interconnection of electrical networks and power demand. With the increase
of electrical power demand, increasing the transmission and distribution lines
to which the fault will be increased. This increased fault current can cause
severe damage to the electrical devices in the power system. Recently, Fault
Current Limiter (FCL) has been implemented through FCL based Smart Grid
(SG) system.

A fault is an unintentional short circuit in an electrical system. The

factors such as lightning, crossed power lines, tree branch falling on electrical
lines, birds sitting on line are causes for faults in an electric circuit. During the
occurrence of fault, the excessive current called fault current which flows
through an electric power system. This result in the failure of the power
system components by blowing the fuse or tripping the circuit breaker. Short
circuit fault is the most common and severe kind of fault. Among short circuit
fault, 70% to 80% of the faults that occur in power system are of single line to
ground fault.
 2

In olden days, fuses were used in power system to protect the

electrical equipments during the fault condition. Fuse cannot withstand for
high current and it must be replaced for every occurrence of fault. Mechanical
circuit breakers have arching phenomena and bouncing problem which makes
the system unreliable and inefficient. Nowadays, Fault Current Limiter (FCL)
has become one of the forefront devices for fault current limiting technology
in the world.

A FCL is a device that limits the fault current when a fault occurs
in the power system network without any disconnection of loads. The FCL is
connected in series with the network transmission line to limit the fault
current under fault condition. FCL has very low impedance during normal
operations. If fault occurs in the system the impedance of the FCL is
increased, then the fault current will be reduced. It allows the electrical
system to operate continuous and uninterrupted. It also automatically limits
the fault current without the need of extensive network reinforcement. It
prevents the over-current stress in the distribution network. Also, it protects
the electrical equipments from damage, mechanical forces, overheating and
degradation conditions. FCLs not only reduce the fault current, it also
improves the power quality, system reliability, stability and reduces the
voltage sag during fault condition(Xiaodan et al. 2016), (Ahmed et al. 2002),
(Mirzakhani et al. 2013).

There are many protective devices connected with distribution

network. These devices must be coordinated with FCL to minimize the fault
current effectively. The coordination can be achieved by calculating the fault
current during system design. The FCL is located at the critical point of the
distribution system network, where the occurrence of fault current level is
high. It is placed at the generator and transformer side to avoid their damages.
It is located at the load side to protect the electrical equipments from
 3

overstress. FCL is also placed on the tie position to maintain the line voltage
on the un-faulted bus.

Several research papers and reports had addressed to limit the fault
current in distribution network. Manual monitoring of the current in a
distribution network is a very difficult task and it is also complex to clear the
fault in the network. Coordination between the protective devices and other
equipments connected in the power system network is also a complicated
task.

In spite of these drawbacks, the significant merits of smart grid

have motivated extensive research into implementing the FCL. Fault current
limiting can be achieved by FCL in smart grid via FCL in distribution
network. To identify the fault in a distribution system, the current has to be
monitored continuously through Internet of Things (FCL) in a smart grid. The
user can check the status of the current level in the power system equipment.
The collected data can be stored and analyzed in real time through FCL.

1.2 CONVENTIONAL MEHTODS TO LIMIT FAULT

CURRENT

The conventional protective devices used to limit the fault current

are listed below:

i. Fuse

ii. Multiple circuit breaker upgrades

iii. Power system reconfiguration

iv. Bus bar splitting techniques

v. Sequential breaker tripping

 4

vi. Disconnecting some lines from substation

vii. High impedance transformer

viii. HVDC links

ix. Design of high voltage transmission network

x. Current limiting reactor

xi. FCL

A fuse is a simple, cheap, small in size and reliable to protect the

devices. It can handle the fault current as high as of 200 kA. When fault
occurs, the entire portion of the electrical power system is shut down by the
fuse. It is required to replace after every use manually. So the fuses are
undesirable to protect the power system equipments. The drawback with the
circuit breaker is that it allows the fault current for first few cycles before
operating. This leads to severe damage of the protective equipments. The
reliability and stability of the electrical system are also affected. Therefore,
the conventional protective devices will become lower rated values of
equipment for the increased fault current. Power system reconfiguration can
reduce the fault current to a considerable level. It may improve the transient
stability and voltage stability of the power system.

In the bus bar splitting technique, bus section and bus coupler
circuit breakers are opened. This approach significantly reduces the reliability
of the system. It also affects the integrity of the system, which leads to reduce
the transient and voltage stability. This technique is acceptable only during
the emergency situations. In order to reduce the short circuit current, two ends
of transmission lines are disconnected from the bus bar and then these lines
are reconnected after the fault clearance. This approach is not acceptable,
since it affects the reliability and stability of the substation.
 5

The fault current can be reduced by using high impedance

transformer. This approach also lowers the power system stability and
reliability significantly. High voltage transmission network can be designed
by redesigning the existing network. Practically, this technique is impossible,
since it is costly and complicated. The earth fault current reduces by
connecting reactor in the neutral of the transformers. This approach is an
effective method to reduce the fault current levels including ground. Current
limiting reactor can be used to reduce the fault current levels. It does not
affect the power system reliability. But it degrades the transient stability and
voltage stability of the system. FCLs have ability to limit the fault current and
to improve the power system stability by improving the voltage sag (Chauhan
et al 2012). (Naderi et al 2015)had implemented the Bridge type FCL to
compensate the voltage sag at PCC and makes a safe for inverter as well as
the equipments connected to PCC in the power system.

1.3 FAULT CURRENT LIMITER

FCL is a static device that is used to limit the prospective fault

current to a controllable level during fault condition. FCL is widely used to
limit the fault current in low and medium voltage distribution network. A
FCL is connected between source and load. At normal working condition, the
normal or rated current is flowing through the load during which FCL
provides zero impedance to the line. On the occurrence of fault, FCL provides
high impedance in series with the line and the current is reduced.

1.3.1 Topology

A simple power system model without and with FCL is shown in

Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2. It consists of a source voltage V S, internal
impedance ZS, load impedance Zload and fault impedance ZFCL.
 6

Iline
Circuit Breaker

ZS

Zload
VS
Fault

(Source:Yuvaraj et al. 2004)

Figure 1.1 Power circuit without Fault Current Limiter

Iline ZFCL
Circuit Breaker

ZS

Zload
VS
Fault

(Source:Yuvaraj et al. 2004)

Figure 1.2 Power circuit with Fault Current Limiter

Under normal operating condition, the current flowing through the

circuit is given in Equation (1.1).

I line  Vs
(1.1)
Zs  Z load
 7

When fault occurs in the system and causes short circuiting of the
load. The current in the circuit is given in Equation (1.2).

I line  VS (1.2)
ZS  Z fault

where,

Iline = Line current in Amps

Vs = Supply voltage in volts

Zs = Source impedance in Ohms

Zload = Load impedance in Ohms

Zfault = Fault impedance in Ohms

and Zfault<<Zload

Usually, the internal impedance (source impedance) is smaller than the

load impedance. The current during fault is higher than the normal current. This
high inrush current may damage the electrical equipment in the power system.
Therefore, a proper precaution must be taken to protect the equipments from the
damage during fault condition. The FCL is used to prevent the equipment from
damage by limiting the fault current.When the FCL is connected in the circuit,
the current in the circuit is given in Equation (1.3).

I fault 
VS
S (1.3)
Z  Z FCL  Z fault
 8

The fault current is the function of internal impedance, fault

impedance Zfault and also impedance of the FCL ZFCL. Hence, the fault current
is decreased for the given source voltage.

The effect of FCL on fault current limitation is shown in Figure 1.3.

During the normal operating condition, the operation of FCL is hidden. It
means that the impedance is nearly zero (Z FCL=0). The line current flowing
through the circuit is normal. When fault occurs, the FCL inserts high
impedance into the line and limits the magnitude of fault current. Now, the
circuit goes to the recovery state in which normal current flows through the
electric circuit.

Figure 1.3 Effect of Fault Current Limiter in fault condition

 9

The relationship between the fault current and inductive reactance

is shown in Figure 1.4.

The fault current and inductance are inversely proportional to each

other. When fault occurs, the fault current is high value for zero inductance.
The inductance is increased as the fault current level is decreased. The fault
current is reduced to a normal operating current value and maintains the same
value even though the inductance is increased further.

(Source:Abramovitz et al. 2012)

Figure 1.4 Relationship between fault current and inductive reactance

The location for FCLs in the power grid is shown in Figure 1.5.
FCLs can be installed in the following places in the distribution network to
offer technical and economical benefits.
 10

i. The FCLs are placed in the incoming feeder position to

electrical equipments. Sometimes, it is difficult to replace.

ii. The FCLs are placed in the outgoing feeder position to limit the
fault current flowing through the respective feeder.

iii. The FCLs are placed in the bus-tie position to allow two buses
tied together without increasing the fault current on both the
bus.

G1 G2

Tr Tr2
G3

CB CB CB
Tie line
FCL-4
FCL-1
FCL-1 FCL-3

Bus1 Bus 2

CB FCL-2 CB CB
CB FCL-2

CB CB

Feeder
Feeder

Figure 1.5 Possible location of Fault Current Limiter in power grid

The fault current is higher in the main incoming feeder position as

FCL limits the fault current coming from the main into outgoing feeders. The
 11

bus-tie position FCL will not carry the full load current at all the times as
feeder position FCLs. Therefore, during normal operating condition, the loss
in the bus-tie position is low. Among the various locations of the FCL, the
bus-tie position is more economical as compared to other locations of FCL.
The optimal location of the FCL depends on the power system organization,
location of the generators, generator types and relay protection schemes.

1.3.2 Classification of FCL

FCL is mainly classified into Non-superconducting FCL and

Superconducting FCL as shown in Figure 1.6. Non-superconducting FCL is
classified as saturable core FCL and solid state FCL. In saturable core FCL,
Permanent magnets are added on top and bottom side of the core. Solid state
switches such as Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor (IGBT), Gate Turn Off (GTO) thyristor, etc can be utilized in FCL.
Solid State Fault Current Limiter (SSFCL) is classified based on the location
of the switch.

Superconducting Fault Current Limiter (SFCL) is classified based

on the superconductivity property. It is classified as resistive type, inductive
type and bridge type SFCL. Recently, the Hybrid Fault Current Limiter
(HFCL) comes under the FCL with a special feature than all other types of
FCL. Superconducting material is used along with solid state switch in HFCL.

Table 1.1 shows the comparison between different types of FCLs

based on the different factors such as maximum power rating, requirement of
triggering, activation time after the fault occurrence, reset time, percentage
reduction of fault current, cooling requirement, size, weight and availability in
market.
 12

Figure 1.6 Classification of Fault Current Limiter

 13

Table 1.1 Comparison of different types Fault Current Limiter

Shielded Saturated Electro

FCLs AirCore Resistive Solid State
Is-Limiter iron-core Iron core magnetic HybridFCL
Reactor SFCL FCL
type SFCL Type SFCL DFCL
Max.Rating 36 kV 40.50 kV 138 kV, 11kV/ 13.8 kV, 69 kV, 220 kV, 0.2 12Kv,
2500 A 2.5 kA 0.9 kA 2000A 1.2 kA 3 kA kA 2000 A
Triggering External Internal Internal Internal External External
Not Required External
Activation <1/4
- <0.5ms Immediately Immediately μ s level < 10 ms 100 ms
Time Cycle
Reset Time
Non
tens of ms
automatic < 5ms Immediately Controllable 20ms Controllable
to 2 s
recovery
Current Depend on 30%
< 70% < 80% Low 20% Controllable 85% Controllable
Reduction Reactor used ~ 40%
Need
Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes (Si) No Yes
cooling
Size/ Small
Similar to
Weight Bulky Large & Large & compact but additional
Bulky Small purely
Heavy Heavy components may
resistive.
increase size.
Status Commercially Commercially Designed development Designed and Research
R&D stage R&D Stage
Available Available and tested phase tested Stage
(Source:Yadav et al. 2014)

13
 14

1.3.3 Properties of an Ideal Fault Current Limiter

i. FCL offers zero impedance in the system network during

normal operating condition

ii. It offers high impedance in the system network on the

occurrence of fault

iii. It should return to its normal operation within short period time
after limiting the fault current

iv. It should operate automatically both during normal as well as

fault condition

v. It should operate within the first cycle of fault current

vi. It should coordinate with relay and other protective devices in

the power system network

vii. It should not have power loss during normal and fault condition

viii. It should have the capability of repeated operation

1.3.4 Advantages of Fault Current Limiter

The following advantages of FCL are:

i. Simple in construction

ii. Requires low cost and less maintenance

iii. Reduces the current stress on the electrical equipments during

fault condition in the distribution network

iv. Enhances the transient stability of the power grid

v. Reduces the voltage sags and dips

 15

vi. Enhances the system stability

vii. Effectively limits the fault current

viii. Voltage stability of the system can be achieved

1.4 MOTIVATION FOR RESEARCH

Nowadays electricity demand is increased continuously. It is

necessary to connect more electrical equipments in the distribution network
and causes the fault current is increased. Sometimes, the fault current exceeds
the rating of existing power system equipments and may damage the electrical
components connected with the distribution network. The components must
be replaced. It is very costly and time consuming process.

Continuous monitoring and control of electrical parameters are of

great importance in the network. It is always impossible for continuous
manual monitoring due to unpleasant environment of the network.

Power quality reduces as the fault current in the power system due
to fault occurrence. Shutdown of the network happens by tripping of the
supply due to high fault current. This increases the utilization cost of the
electricity.

There are various types of fault have been occurred in the power
system. On the every occurrence of fault, the conventional protective devices
must be replaced. In order to avoid this replacement of protective devices, to
maintain continuous monitoring of electrical parameters and also to improve
the reliability and stability of power system, the FCL is needed.
 16

1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH

The key objective of this research is to investigate the performance

of SSFCL and HFCL under different fault conditions with FCL based
wireless communication. For the best performance of the proposed research
work, the objectives of the research are

 To design the simulation model with and without Solid State

Fault Current Limiter and Hybrid Fault Current Limiter for
various types of fault conditions using MATLAB simulation.

 To investigate the performance of the SSFCL and HFCL under

different fault conditions and to compare the fault current
limiting ratio for SSFCL device and HFCL device.

 To design the prototype hardware model of SSFCL and HFCL

with three phase load.

 To analyse the performance of proposed model during various

fault conditions.

 To monitor and control the fault currents with different fault

conditions through FCL based wireless communication system.

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT

Chapter 1 details the recent trends in the area of FCL, basic

concepts of FCL and its classification. It is then followed by research
motivation and objectives are explained.

Chapter 2 presents a detailed literature review on the FCL,

SSFCL, HFCL followed by use of FCL based FCLs in power system network.
 17

Chapter 3 presents the concept of SSFCL, its classification,

coordination methodology between the SSFCL and other protective devices.
It is then followed by proposed SSFCL, its controller design and applications
are described.