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Not Enough Bread in the Basket: The Effects of Food Insecurity and Hunger on Americans

Madison L. Duerden

First Colonial High School

Legal Studies Academy

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Abstract

This paper analyzes the amount of hunger and food insecurity in the United States and the

programs that attempt to alleviate them. The paper will begin with statistics about the number of

food-insecure people in the United States and Virginia. The author then analyzes the main

programs put in place by the United States government that are meant to lower the number of

food-insecure people. The paper continues with a description of food banks and food pantries,

their number nationally and locally, and how they operate. The matter of food waste is then

discussed. The author concludes the paper with an analysis of everything that was written

throughout the paper.

Keywords:

Hunger

Food Insecurity

Food Security

SNAP

WIC Program

Food Banks

Food Pantries
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Not Enough Bread in the Basket: The Effects of Food Insecurity and Hunger on Americans

Can you remember the last time you went to work, school, or bed hungry? Was there a

time when you had to worry about when you would get your next meal? If you cannot answer

yes to any of the previous questions, you should consider yourself one of the fortunate ones.

More than 38 million Americans [12 million are children] are food insecure and face hunger

daily. Specifically, more than 799,000 Virginians [214,000 are children] are food insecure and

face hunger daily (Feeding America, 2021). Feeding America estimates that 1 in 11 people in

Virginia is facing hunger. This number is far too high for a wealthy developed nation such as the

United States. Access to food has become even more difficult due to the Coronavirus pandemic

and the resulting economic repercussions. The pandemic resulted in many people losing their

jobs, supply chain issues and a rise in inflation. This has all contributed to the rising food prices

and increasing food shortages. Before the Coronavirus pandemic, some people never had to rely

on the government for assistance. Many people lost their jobs due to the virus and found

themselves now needing programs such as SNAP and WIC to survive. People who lost their jobs

during the pandemic have a 32% increase in facing anxiety and a 27% increase (Fang, 2021).

Americans who are already barely scraping by are finding it more difficult to purchase food for

themselves and their families due to rising food prices. People utilizing food pantries continues

to increase. People across the country who face food insecurity and hunger have to endure

personal, physical and mental health issues, even with the aid of government programs like
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SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program) and WIC (Women, Infants, and Children

Program).

Programs Related to Hunger and Food Insecurity

Food insecurity has become a more prominent issue in the United States as we have

progressed well into the beginning of the twenty-first century. Food insecurity can cause or

exacerbate existing mental health issues. People who face food insecurity have a 257% higher

risk of having anxiety and a 253% higher risk of having depression (Fang, 2021). Although the

United States is a developed country, a large portion of its population is food insecure. For

example, more than 40 million people will face food insecurity in the United States in 2021. In

2019, there were 38 million people who relied on SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance

Program) to provide them with food for themselves and their families (USDA, 2021). In 2018,

6.87 million women, children, and infants relied on WIC (Women, Infants and Children) benefits

each month (USDA, 2021). Millions of Americans across the country rely on a variety of these

programs and other government programs to survive. Each of these programs plays a significant

role in lessening the amount of hunger in the United States.

SNAP / Food Stamps Program

In 1933, President FDR signed the early form of SNAP during the Great Depression. It

was a part of the AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Act), which bought food and allocated it to

relief agencies that provided food to at-risk [of hunger] communities. The first food stamp

program began in Rochester, New York, in 1939 as a part of the New Deal presented by
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President FDR. For every $1 of orange stamps participants bought, they received 50 cents worth

of blue stamps for free. The orange stamps could buy any food in the store, while the blue stamps

could buy surplus foods (Klein, 2019). This food stamp program fed about 20 million Americans

from 1939 to 1943. During WW2, the program ceased operations because of the economic boost

which occurred in the country. Thanks to President Kennedy, the program resumed in 1961.

President Johnson codified the program as the Food Stamps Act of 1964. Throughout the years,

the U.S. government has redrafted, reworked, and renamed the program.

In general, the eligibility requirements to receive SNAP benefits are strict, but some

states are more lenient than others. For example, the Virginia SNAP requirements include being

a United States resident and a resident of Virginia. More extensive provisions of SNAP in

Virginia include that individuals have a current bank balance of less than $2,001 and for people

living with someone over the age of 60 or someone with a disability to have a current bank

balance of less than $3,001. There is also a program that takes the size of a household and lists

the maximum income (pre-tax) per year to be eligible for the food stamp program (Benefits.gov,

n.d.). The downside of this program is that even if an individual is only $50 above the maximum

income level for their household, they still cannot join the program. These eligibility

requirements leave people on the poverty line stuck there and with no help from the government

to provide them with food. SNAP does, however, provide adequate assistance to American

families, but some people on this program still face food insecurity.
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Gunderson (2018), as cited by Coleman-Jensen (2016), explains the notion that eligible

SNAP recipients tend to have a higher rate of food insecurity than their non-recipient

counterparts. As written in the article, “SNAP participants had a food insecurity rate above 50

percent, whereas those with incomes below 130 percent of the poverty line but did not receive

SNAP had a rate of 25.3 percent” (Gunderson, 2018, p. 115). Those statistics may paint SNAP in

a bad light, and it may seem as if the program is not helping people, but that is untrue. This

program finds those most at risk of being food insecure and provides them with food for their

families. The Food and Nutrition Service of the USDA calculated that in 2020 SNAP recipients

received $74,085,000 worth of benefits (USDA, 2021).

The resource gap, in correlation with factors like unemployment, the number of children

in a household, and whether the household has a single parent or a married couple, play an

extensive role in calculating the food insecurity rate. The resource gap is how much additional

money a household would report as needing to reach the level of being food secure (Gunderson,

2018, p. 114). It sounds easy enough to get the correct information to calculate the resource gap,

but some households tend to be untruthful when asked this question on the CPS (Current

Population Survey). Some people may exaggerate or understate their need for help for various

reasons. For example, some households may be embarrassed to admit that they do not have

enough money to provide enough food for their family, so they will be untruthful while filling

out this form.

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The SNAP program is beneficial because it has proven that it reduces food insecurity.

However, the main issue is that most participants of SNAP still face food insecurity and are still

at risk. The most prominent and seemingly successful idea to improve the program would be to

raise the benefit level for participants.

Gunderson (2018) states the following:

Based on their self-assessments, food-insecure SNAP households would require an

additional $41.62 per week in income, on average, to become food secure. This amounts to a 42

percent increase in benefits for a household currently receiving the maximum SNAP benefit

level (that is, a household with zero net income), proportional increases for those with positive

net incomes being larger.

The above number was from the 2014 CPS form that Americans had filled out. This CPS

form was the inspiration for the solution of what the SNAP program would need to add for

households to become food secure. Gunderson calculated that the total cost to increase the

benefits for all SNAP participants would be 27 billion USD (Gunderson, 2018, p. 125). The

number would be significantly different in 2021, as the SNAP Program has grown during the

past seven years. The level of food insecurity has also risen since 2014, and the start of the

Coronavirus pandemic only increased the number of people living with food insecurity. People

rely on SNAP to survive, but the program does not do enough for everyone. The United States

government needs to re-evaluate the strict requirements to join SNAP and increase its budget.
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When an eligible party registers for SNAP and gets approved, they will receive an EBT

(Electronic Benefits Transfer) card. The EBT card reloads monthly with whatever amount of

money the person qualified for under SNAP. Recipients can use this card at any grocery store

that accepts SNAP. An additional incentive to use the card comes with the HIP (Healthy

Incentives Program), where every dollar spent on fresh fruit or vegetables while using the EBT

card gets put back into your account [if the monthly limit has not passed]. The HIP is a great

benefit of SNAP, but some recipients will not use it. On a personal level, there is still a stigma

against people who use food stamps, specifically if the food stamps are used to purchase healthy

food. This stigma can cause food stamp recipients to feel like they do not deserve healthy foods

because they cannot afford them. Embarrassment is a factor that can cause some people not to

use food stamps who would otherwise qualify for them. Some people are too ashamed to apply

for SNAP and there are still others who experience anxiety and depression in regards to using

food stamps. A step in the right direction would be to destigmatize food stamps and the people

that rely on them.

WIC Program

More than half of the infants in the United States participate in the WIC (Women, Infants

and Children) program (USDA, 2019). From the view of someone who has never relied on food

programs to survive, this fact may seem shocking. The WIC program is one of the unsung heroes

in the fight against hunger. WIC is a supplemental nutrition program solely for women, infants,

and children who meet the requirements. WIC helps low-income women [pregnant, postpartum
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and breastfeeding moms], infants and children [up to five years old] who are at nutritional risk.

The WIC program provides participants with nutritious food, health care referrals, and

information about breastfeeding and healthy eating habits.

The idea for WIC began in the 1960s when physicians would give under-nourished

[pregnant] women prescriptions for food vouchers. National acknowledgement of the hunger

plaguing [pregnant] women, infants, and children began in 1969 with President Nixon and the

White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health. The Child Nutrition Act of 1966,

which created the School Breakfast Program, was later amended in 1972 to authorize WIC. WIC

was started as a two-year pilot program and became a permanent program in 1975. In 1973, the

program was renamed the Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and

Children. This name stuck for a few decades until it was changed in 1994 to the Special

Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children. Despite the programs name

changes, the premise behind WIC has remained the same.

Two new food packages were created after experiencing trials and errors during the first

year of the WIC pilot program. The first package was designed specifically for infants, and the

second package was for children and pregnant or breastfeeding women. The first official WIC

site opened in 1974, where the first patrons of the program visited Pineville, Kentucky, to get

their packages. By 1974 WIC was operational in 45 states (WIC Program, 2018). In 1975, WIC

became a permanent program, and the Child Nutrition Act went through its second significant

amendment. This amendment extended the time the program would run for, expanded the
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program requirements to allow more women and children to receive benefits, and increased the

budget by 250 million USD. Called P.L. 94-105, both the House of Representatives and the

Senate ratified this public law. The third installment of new amendments was in 1978, and this

one added national income standards and required supplemental foods to contain nutrients that

WIC participants might be lacking. In 2010 the WIC program adopted the same EBT card

system that participants of SNAP use (History of WIC, 2021).

Participants of WIC are more predisposed to having a poor nutrition status than

non-participants, which leads to poorer health outcomes which is why WIC is so important for

them. For pregnant women, a poor diet can lead to nutrient deficiencies, metabolic disorders and

an increased risk of complications during labor and delivery. A poor diet could negatively impact

fetal development, which may result in many long term health problems. Good nutrition is also

important for breastfeeding women as it helps to ensure that the breast milk their baby is getting

has the essential nutrients for the baby to thrive. Nursing mothers also need to maintain their

calories while they are breastfeeding. If they do not have enough food, they can not do that.

Infants and children who experience food insecurity are at a higher risk of having developmental

issues, chronic illness, nutrient deficiencies and malnutrition. A nutritious diet is a necessary

aspect of good health for women, infants and children. WIC helps to improve and prevent

malnutrition among its recipients.

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Food Banks and Food Pantries

A food bank is a nonprofit, charitable organization that collects perishable and

non-perishable food, organizes the food and distributes it to charitable organizations like food

pantries. Food banks are found all across the United States and around the world. As to the

number of food banks in the United States, it is hard to count and differentiate them. According

to Food Bank News, in 2020, they counted at least 371 food banks. 200 are in Feeding Americas

network, 77 are partner distribution organizations, at least 53 are independent food banks, and 37

are food-rescue organizations (How Many, 2020). Feeding America is the United States largest

nonprofit hunger relief organization that consists of a network of 200 food banks that feed 46

million people annually (Feeding America, 2021). In Virginia, seven food banks service 1,560

organizations (About Us, 2021). These organizations work together like a well-oiled machine, so

they can help feed people when their government benefits run out, or to help those who cannot

qualify for government benefits but are in dire need of a meal.

A food pantry is a physical location where people can go for the food provided by a food

bank. In addition to the food provided by a food bank, a food pantry also takes donations from

the government, grocery stores, individuals, restaurants and other businesses that have food to

donate. For example, the Chapel Pantry, located at the Eastern Shore Chapel [in Virginia Beach],

receives food donations from grocery stores like Food Lion, from food banks such as the Food

Bank of Southeastern Virginia and the Eastern Shore, and from programs like the Food Rescue

Program (K. O'Reilly, personal communication, November 4, 2021). The donations from
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individuals in the community and these organizations and businesses are vital for keeping the

pantry stocked year-round. As to the number of food pantries in the United States, finding the

exact number is difficult. The estimation that most agree on is about 60,000 food pantries across

the country (About Us, 2021).

How Feeding America Distributes Food

Ever wonder how Feeding America effectively decides which food bank gets which

truckload of produce? It was not until 2005 when an innovative group of people created a new

system for Feeding America to distribute food to its partner food banks as efficiently as possible.

These innovators changed the Feeding America system from “a centralized allocation system”

where food banks had to queue to receive food into a system where food banks “bid daily in

auctions for truckloads of food using a ‘fake’ currency that the nonprofit designed” (Prendergast,

2017, p. 146).

Before 2005, food banks had to wait their turn in a queue to get products from Feeding

America. A food bank's spot in the queue depended on the amount of food the bank had already

received compared to the “Goal Factor”. The “Goal Factor” is the number of people in poverty in

a food bank’s area compared to the number of people in poverty nationally (Prendergast, 2017, p.

147). Once the food bank made it to the top of the queue, they had a maximum of six hours to

respond yes or no, as to whether they needed the truckload(s) of food. If the response was a yes,

the food bank would have to personally pick up the food from the donor, and once they received

the food, their spot in the queue would be re-determined with the equation that was described
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previously. If the response was a no, the food load would go to whatever bank was next in the

queue [and wanted whatever food was in the truck]. This system “had been used since the late

1980s” and from the years 2000 to 2004, “it allocated 200-220 million pounds of food each year”

to food banks across the United States (Prendergast, 2017, pg. 147). Feeding America provides

about one-quarter of a food bank's food, and this system worked well until 2004. In 2004

Feeding America realized that the “food rich” food banks had more connections to get surplus

food than the “food poor” food banks. Feeding America realized that it needed to change its

queuing system.

To combat the issues with the queuing system, Feeding America put together a committee

to create a new system. This committee had eight food bank directors, three Feeding America

staff members, and four faculty from the University of Chicago (Prendergast, 2017, pg. 148).

After a year of careful deliberation, the committee introduced the Choice System, “a

market-based mechanism with food banks bidding on truckloads of food” (Prendergast, 2017,

pg.149). With this new system, food banks could bid two times a day [from Monday to Friday]

with the currency called “shares” that could only purchase food in the Feeding America network.

Feeding America decided to create their own currency so that the smaller food banks who

received fewer donations could spend their money on food not provided by Feeding America.

This new system did implement features to ensure that all of the food banks, regardless of size,

would have a fair chance of getting truckloads of food. The Choice System is still used by

Feeding America today.

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Local Food Bank and Food Pantry

The Food Bank of Southeastern Virginia and the Eastern Shore is the regional food bank

that has served Southeastern Virginia and the Eastern Shore since 1981 (About Us, 2021). They

are a member of the Federation of Virginia Food Banks, Feeding America, and have multiple

programs aimed at tackling hunger. They distribute food to the cities and counties in the Eastern

Shore, in Hampton Roads, and Accomack, Virginia and Sussex, Virginia. The food bank

distributes food to various food pantries and other food-related organizations in all of these areas.

The Chapel Pantry is one of the pantries that services the Hampton Roads area. Other pantries in

this area include the ones located at the Good Shepherd Lutheran Church, the Gathering at Scott

Memorial, the New Hope Baptist Church and the Freedom Fellowship. To collect further

research, an interview occurred in person with Kay O’Reilly. O’Reilly is the head of the Chapel

Pantry and has been for twelve and a half years. The Chapel Pantry is a food pantry located in

the Eastern Shore Church that services the Hampton Roads area. The pantry operates like a

grocery store where people can pick and choose their produce, meat, vegetables, canned foods,

dairy and bakery items. As an owner, O’Reilly has been able to experience firsthand how food

insecurity and hunger has worsened in the Hampton Roads community due to the effects of the

Coronavirus pandemic.

To compare the number of patrons from 2019, 2020, and 2021, O’Reilly presented the

official data from the past three years. In 2019 before the Coronavirus pandemic, the pantry

allowed families to come once a month. That year, 6804 households, and an estimated 20,000
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individuals, were served at the pantry. In 2020, the start of the pandemic, the pantry was open

every Saturday and allowed patrons to come each week. That year, 11596 households, and an

estimated 41,698 individuals, collected food at the pantry. In 2021, up to October, the pantry was

open every Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday. Patrons can come on any of those days, but can

only collect food once a week. So far, 12,607 households and an estimated 43,345 individuals

have collected food at the pantry from January to October. Since the pantry returned to how it

was pre-pandemic in September, O’Reilly estimates that an average of 250 families, or 850

individuals, collect food weekly. As the data shows, the number of families and individuals have

both about doubled due to the pandemic (K. O'Reilly, personal communication, November 4,

2021).

Food Waste

About one-third, or 1.3 billion tons, of food produced with the intention of human

consumption, is wasted annually somewhere in the FSC (food supply chain) (Nicastro, 2021,

pg.1). Food waste occurs when food that is meant to be consumed by humans is knowingly

thrown away by consumers or retailers. The FSC has multiple stages. These stages include the

production, processing, distribution and consummation of food. Food can be lost or wasted at

any of the stages because of various factors like environmental issues or pest issues. Rosalinda

Nicastro, the author of the article and a student at the University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli

[Università Degli Studi Della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli], describes the difference between the

stage in which food is wasted in developing and developed countries. “With rudimentary
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post-harvest infrastructure, most food losses occur at the harvest and post-harvest stages,

whereas in countries with more advanced infrastructure, food waste occurs at the retail and

consumption levels” (Nicastro, 2021, pg.2). In developing countries, food waste tends to be

something that happens out of the control of humans. As the country is more developed, food

waste occurs because of the actions of humans.

When calculating the amount of food that is wasted annually, it is important to know

what is considered food and what is not. To determine food waste, what is defined as food is any

product that was made with the intention of human consumption. Food can be anything from

fresh fruits to a bag of potato chips. It is also important to remember that fresh foods like fruits

and vegetables will perish faster than packaged food like pasta. A primary cause of food waste is

food spoilage. Food spoilage makes the food unfit for human consumption and this can occur

anywhere between production and the supply chain. Food can spoil because of how it is

harvested, stored, and transported from one location to another. Consumers also cause food waste

by buying more food than they need, throwing food out or letting food expire. Nicastro presents

a plausible solution to lessening the amount of post-harvest food waste. “These products with

shape or ‘cosmetic’ defects not usable for the fresh market could be canned or frozen or, if

broken, crushed or seriously damaged, diverted to the industry for processing (for juice or puree)

or treatment (fresh-cut)” (Nicastro, 2017, pg. 4). Another solution for lessening the amount of

food waste would be for the managers of grocery stores or food markets to donate their surplus

food to food rescue programs that would distribute that food to food banks or food pantries.
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Some grocery stores have begun to donate their surplus food, but if all grocery stores took part in

these programs, then the amount of food waste would decrease. There would also be an increase

in food at the food banks and pantries.

Food Rescue US is an example of one of the programs that collect surplus food from

partnered food donors and deliver it to local food rescue organizations (Food Rescue US, 2021).

The goal of Food Rescue US is to fight food waste and hunger in America, and since its opening

in 2011, they have kept 106 million pounds of surplus food from going to landfills (Food Rescue

US, 2021). They have 40 locations across the country, and one of these locations is in Virginia

Beach. The Virginia Beach location has 19 food donors and 55 social service agencies (Food

Rescue US, 2021). The donors include local businesses like The Pink Dinghy, regional

businesses like Southern Valley Fruits and Vegetables, and national corporations like Starbucks.

The social service agencies include schools, churches, food pantries and food banks. Food

Rescue US gives 250 tons of food to the Foodbank of Southeastern Virginia and the Eastern

Shore every year (K. O'Reilly, personal communication, November 4, 2021).

What Now?

Hunger is an urgent issue that too many Americans face, and food insecurity, which has

been made worse by the COVID pandemic, continues to grow. Even with the help from

government programs like SNAP and WIC and food pantries, people in America go to bed

hungry regularly. If this was not hard enough, these same people have to endure personal, mental

and physical health issues related to their food insecurity. Food insecurity can lead to feelings of
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shame, embarrassment, and isolation. In children, it can lead to behavioral and cognitive

problems. The stigma surrounding food pantries and programs such as those that utilize food

stamps only adds to the personal toll that food insecurity causes. Food insecurity can also lead to

adverse health outcomes that lead to both short term and long term issues and can affect people

of all ages. The issue of hunger needs to be addressed nationally, and awareness needs to be

raised. We as a developed country should not have malnourished and hungry citizens. The stigma

against using food stamps and WIC benefits also needs to be stopped. If we, as a country, cannot

beat the issue of hunger for our people, how can we call ourselves the greatest country in the

world?
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References

About Us. (2021). Federation of Virginia Food Banks. Retrieved December 10, 2021, from

https://vafoodbanks.org/about-us/

About Us. (2021). Foodbank of Southeastern Virginia and the Eastern Shore.

Retrieved December 19, 2021, from https://foodbankonline.org/about-us/

Benefits.gov. (n.d.). Virginia Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). Benefits.gov. Retrieved

November 16, 2021, from https://www.benefits.gov/benefit/1593

Fang, D., Thomsen, M.R. & Nayga, R.M. The association between food insecurity and mental health during the

COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Public Health 21, 607 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10631-0

Feeding America. (2021). Hunger in America. Feeding America. Retrieved November 29, 2021, from

https://www.feedingamerica.org/hunger-in-america/

Food Rescue US. (2021). How We Help Make A Difference. Food Rescue US. Retrieved

December 19, 2021, from https://foodrescue.us/about/local-food-donors/

Gundersen, C., Kreider, B., & Pepper, J. V. (2018). Reconstructing the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program

to More Effectively Alleviate Food Insecurity in the United States. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation

Journal of the Social Sciences, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2018.4.2.06

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History of WIC. (2021). SNAP to Health! Retrieved December 13, 2021, from

https://www.snaptohealth.org/wic-2/history-of-wic/

How Many Food Banks Are There? (2020, January 8). Food Bank News. Retrieved December 10, 2021, from

https://foodbanknews.org/how-many-food-banks-are-there/

Klein, C. (2019, August 27). How Did Food Stamps Begin? History.com. Retrieved December 9, 2021, from

https://www.history.com/news/food-stamps-great-depression

Nicastro, R. (2021). Food loss and waste prevention strategies from farm to fork. Sustainability, 13(10), 5443.

doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13105443

O'Reilly, K. (2021, November 4). [Personal interview by the author].

Prendergast, C. (2017). How Food Banks Use Markets to Feed the Poor. The Journal of Economic Perspectives,

31(4), 145-162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.4.145

USDA. (2019, February 14). WIC Fact Sheet. USDA Food and Nutrition Service. Retrieved December 3, 2021, from

https://www.fns.usda.gov/wic/wic-fact-sheet

USDA. (2021, October 13). SNAP Data Tables. Food and Nutrition Service. Retrieved November 16, 2021, from

https://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap
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WIC Program Overview and History. (2018). National WIC Association. Retrieved

December 19, 2021, from https://www.nwica.org/overview-and-history